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 Eng. Res. Express 3 (2021) 025023 https://doi.org/10.1088/2631-8695/abfe1d

PAPER

Influence of In-situ induction heated friction stir welding on tensile,

RECEIVED
27 March 2021
microhardness, corrosion resistance and microstructural properties
REVISED
24 April 2021
of martensitic steel
ACCEPTED FOR PUBLICATION
5 May 2021
PUBLISHED
Dhanesh G Mohan1 and S Gopi2
13 May 2021 1
Institute of Materials Joining, Shandong University, Jinan, People’s Republic of China
2
Government College of Technology, Coimbatore, Tamilnadu, India
E-mail: dhaneshgm@gmail.com

Keywords: induction heating, friction stir welding, stainless steel, microstructure, corrosion

Abstract
Induction Heated Friction Stir Welding (IH-FSW) was conducted using two varying parameters and
two fixed parameters. The microstructure evaluation shows that the nugget zone’s grain size is smaller
while comparing with the parent metal. Due to dynamic recrystallization during the induction heated
friction stir welding, well-equiaxed grains were found in the nugget zone. The microhardness test
reveals that the welded region have improved hardness than the parent metal; the high hardness was
attained in the heat-affected zone. The 3 h and 24 h of weight-loss corrosion test methods were
conducted using the coefficient of 0.5 M H2SO4, showing that the stir zone’s corrosion resistance is
better than the parent material. The given parameter combinations obtain the best results, tool
rotation of 1250 rpm, welding speed of 45 mm min−1, shoulder penetration of 0.50 mm and induction
heat input of 441.8 °C at 50 W.

1. Introduction

The hybrid friction stir welding is a novel method adopted to efficiently and economically weld hard metals and
their alloys. The Induction Heated Friction Stir Welding (IH-FSW) helps achieve a better joint strength for AISI
410 stainless steel [1]. Compared with austenitic and ferritic stainless steels, this martensitic steel is much more
competent in utilities. The AISI 410 SS exhibits high corrosion resistance property and increases strength while
relating to other martensitic steel grades [2, 3]. The limitation of this AISI 410 SS is its difficulty to weld by using
conventional fusion welding methods; these limitations can be overcome by adopting the new IH-FSW method.
The martensitic steels provide a long service life in areas like marine, automobile and oil exploration. In the case
of oil exploration, which endeavours for deeper water about 2300 m and requires higher corrosion resistant
properties, these all things will satisfy by martensitic stainless steels [4]. The relevant tests conducted on AISI 410
SS shows outstanding performances. The AISI 410 SS is widely applicable in aggressive corrosive environments
such as underwater piping, automobiles and marine environments due to its better corrosion resistance
property [5]. The corrosion resistance property and corrosion rate happening to the AISI 410 SS were
determined with the weight loss corrosion-testing method. The solution used for conducting the test was 0.5 M
H2SO4. While performing welding operations on AISI 410 SS, the adverse intermetallic phases were formed, and
it often decreases the mechanical properties of the metal [6, 7].
The study on the conventional friction stir welding on AISI 410 stainless steel shows defects like the
production of flashes [8]. This defect is generated due to the increase in axial force, which cause a volumetric
defect along the stir zone. While friction stir welded joints without root flow can be gained by the correct balance
between the axial force and tool rotation speed, it requires a higher plunge depth and cause a reduction in the
weld thickness and leads to internal defects.
A 2205 duplex stainless steel joint was fabricated by friction stir welding. The tool used for this welding
process was PCBN [8]. The results show that a sound joint was gained at 40 mm min−1. The specimen exhibits a

© 2021 IOP Publishing Ltd

Eng. Res. Express 3 (2021) 025023 D G Mohan and S Gopi

Figure 1. Experiment setup.

Table 1. Compositions range of AISI 410 stainless

steel.

Contents Minimum % Maximum %

Carbon — 0.15
Manganese — 1
Silicon — 1
Phosphorus — 0.04
Sulphur — 0.03
Chromium 11.5 13.5
Nickel 0.75

higher corrosion resistance property. Grain size of 0.96 μm was visible in the stir zone. Using the PCBN tool, the
welding cost will accelerate to eight times higher than Induction Assisted Friction Stir Welding.
Generally, while using steels, it should go through mechanical processes like welding or forging. In the case
of martensitic steels, it exhibits less weldability to the conventional fusion welding processes. The heat generated
while conducting fusion welding will obliterate its favourable Body Centered Tetragonal (BCT) crystal lattice. It
leads to the formation of coarse carbide grains and intergranular brittleness in the heat-affected zone. Due to the
coarse carbide grains formed in the welding region, the joint’s mechanical properties and the corrosion
resistance property were reduced [9]. To avoid these problems, different metal joining methods were adopted
for welding AISI 410 SS. While conducting such experiments, Induction-Assisted Friction Stir Welding provides
comparatively better results. Conventional friction stir welding is quite challenging to weld hard metals like
steels due to the tool damages happening while welding. The remedy is to use high hard tools like PCBN or adopt
an in situ heating method to overcome these problems. A tool like PCBN is expensive, increasing the welding
cost more than sixteen times [10, 11]. While adopting an induction heater as an in situ heating method, the weld
region of the metal can be plasticized before the tool penetration; through this method, tool dame can be
reduced, better welding speed and tool rotation speed can achieve, and good joints can be produced
economically. Consequently, many experiments were conducted on hybrid friction stir welding of high melting
point alloys like steels.
In the current scenario, only a few research studies have investigated the influence of Induction Heated
Friction Stir Welding on microhardness, corrosion properties and microstructure of martensitic steels. The
studies reveal that hybrid friction stir welding significantly impacts the joints’ mechanical properties and
corrosion resistance properties [12]. The studies also divulge that due to the solid-state welding, equiaxed and
fine grains were produced in the stir zone-besides, this help to enhance the weld joint to eliminate weld defects.

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Eng. Res. Express 3 (2021) 025023 D G Mohan and S Gopi

Figure 2. Thermal imager reading.

Figure 3. IH-FSW tungsten carbide tool.

2. Material and experiment

The metal chosen for conducting IH-FSW was AISI 410 SS. The AISI 410 SS alloy can be cold worked with
moderate forming in the annealed condition [13]. The hot forming for AISI 410 SS is typically done in the
750 °C–1150 °C range followed by air-cooling. AISI 410 stainless steel is difficult to weld conventionally because
of its hardenability. The compositional contents of grade AISI 410 stainless steels are displayed in table 1.
These welding-related constraints can be overcome by adopting an induction heater for in situ heating while
operating the Friction Stir Welding process. The Induction Heated Friction Stir Welding was carried out on an
FN2V vertical Numerical Control (NC) milling machine [14–16]. It has eighteen different spindle speeds, range
from 54 rpm to 1800 rpm. It has a bed travelling speed of up to 200 mm min−1. It has the main motor of
7.5/1500 kW rpm−1 and feeds motors of 2.5/1500 kW rpm−1. Figure 1 shows the experiment setup.
A single-phase 220V, 50/60 HZ portable induction-heating unit did the in situ heating process for this work.
To in situ heating the AISI 410 SS, the induction-heating unit uses a maximum input current of 20A. The
induction heater input is given in terms of wattage [17]. With the aid of a thermal imager, the amount of heat
generated by the induction-heating coil concerning the corresponding wattage rate can be found out [18].
Figure 2 shows the sample thermal imager reading.
A non-consumable tool made of tungsten carbide has been used to fabricate the joints. The tungsten carbide
has a high melting point of 3193 °C. Due to this high melting point, the tool does not get damaged by induction
heating or the frictional heat generated while welding [19, 20]. This tungsten carbide tool has a hardness of
3500 HV, and this ability prevents the tool from deformation while plunging and welding process. The other
main property of tungsten carbide is non-magnetic and does not get heated by the induction heating process.

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Eng. Res. Express 3 (2021) 025023 D G Mohan and S Gopi

Figure 4. IH-FSW schematic diagram.

Figure 5. Tensile schematic representation with a sample specimen.

Table 2. Parameters for conducting IH-FSW.

Spindle Welding speed Shoulder penetra- Induction

speed (rpm) (mm/min) tion (mm) power (W)

1250 35 0.50 30
1250 40 0.50 40
1250 45 0.50 50
1250 50 0.50 60
1250 55 0.50 70

For this experiment, a hexagonal pin profile and flat shoulder profiled tool was taken. Due to the hexagonal
profile, the maximum material movement is gained in the stir zone [21]. The tool image is shown in figure 3.
Using the wire cut Electric Discharge Machining (EDM) process, the required tool profile was made.
The induction heating coil was made by using a copper tube. This copper tube has an external diameter of
2 mm and an inner diameter of 1.8 mm. While running the induction heating process, cold water will
continuously circulate through the coil.

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Eng. Res. Express 3 (2021) 025023 D G Mohan and S Gopi

Figure 6. Tensile and percentage of elongation graph.

Table 3. Tensile test results with the percentage of elongation.

Sl. no Tensile strength (MPa) Percentage of elongation (%)

1 437 8.7
2 455 10.0
3 462 13.4
4 429 6.9
5 387 4.2

The Induction Heated Friction Stir Welds have been carried out using an adequately designed clamping
fixture, which allows holding the two plates of AISI 410 stainless steel properly to perform butt welding. In this
work, the IH-FSW tool is followed by an induction heating coil. The induction-heating coil plasticizes the
welding zone, preventing tool damage and enhancing welding speed [22]. Four parameters were adopted for
conducting this experiment. The only varying parameters are welding speed and induction power; while the
spindle speed and shoulder penetration are kept constant, the previous experiments show that spindle speed of
1250 rpm and shoulder penetration of 0.50 mm works well AISI 410 martensitic steel [23]. The parameter
combinations selected are given in table 2. The direction of welding is normal to the rolling direction. The single-
pass welding procedure has been followed to fabricate the joints.
The plates used in the present study were AISI 410 Stainless Steel having dimensions 200 mm ×7 5 mm ×
3 mm each. The plates were undergone well side as well as edge preparations before conducting induction heated
friction stir welding. By using the acetone solution, the metal plates were cleaned and dried before welding. It
was decided to verify the weldability of AISI 410 SS with the IH-FSW method by the best process parameter
combinations [24]. The schematic representation of IH-FSW butt joint generation is shown in figure 4.

3. Results and discussion

3.1. Tensile strength

The tensile test specimen’s schematic representation with dimensions and the prepared tensile testing specimen
was given in figure 5. The initial tool plunging area and tool retrieving area were removed and not used for the
testing—tensile test samples prepared as per ASTM E8M-08 standard. The specimen is carefully cut by using the
wire cut method. Two specimens were cut from each weld line to conduct a tensile test, and the average value is
taken into account.
The tensile strength for the weldments is determined. The maximum tensile strength observed for the joint
was 462 MPa at welding speed 45 mm min−1. The induction power 50 W. Sample two also provided a better
tensile strength of 455 MPa at welding speed 40 mm min−1 and induction power 40 W. The poor welding
strength was noticed for the last specimen, 387 MPa at welding speed 55 and the induction power 70 W. Tensile
test result is presented in table 3. The tensile strength and percentage of the elongation graph are given in figure 6.

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Eng. Res. Express 3 (2021) 025023 D G Mohan and S Gopi

Figure 7. Microhardness profile across the IH-FSW joint.

Table 4. Micro hardness results.

Sl. No. Micro hardness (H.V.)

1 185
2 208
3 209
4 201
5 185

The tensile properties and percentage of elongation of the IH-FSW joints welded at different welding speeds
and different induction power are depicted in figure 6. The results show that the tensile strength and elongation
are varying according to the change in parameter values. The joint’s strength is increased gradually with the
increase of parameter values and decreased with a further increase in the welding speed and induction power
input [25]. The elongation of the 45 mm/min welding speed and 50 W induction power is 13.4%, while the
elongation of 55 mm min−1 welding speed and 70 W induction power is 4.2%. It is proven that the joint’s
strength is related to the grain formation in the nugget zone of the weldment. Initially, the temperature is
insufficient to plasticize the metal and results in poor joint strength; the gradual increase in the welding speed
and induction power plasticizes the metal well, and a good joint is achieved. The further increase in the welding
speed and induction power overheat the metal, and the welding region gets over plasticize or come near to
melting, which results in the dragging of the metal from the weld area and results in tunnel defects and reduces
joint strength as well.

3.2. Microhardness
The microhardness tests were conducted for the IH-FSW specimens, and the test results were given in table 4.
The microhardness test results show that high hardness was observed in the stir zone [26, 27]. Apart from the stir
zone, the hardness of the metal was gradually decreased. The microhardness profile across the IH-FSW joint, as
shown in figure 7.
The difference in microhardness between the stir and thermomechanical affected zone (TMAZ) was about
190 HV to 210 HV. The induction heater gives the in situ heat, and the frictional heat generated by the IH-FSW
tool plasticizes the stir zone well, which helps to gain a fine grain structure in the weld zone. Due to the shoulder
plunging and toot rotation, the TMAZ area is slightly plasticized, and therefore its morphology got changed. The
additional heat energy from the in situ heating and tool shoulder also enhances the TMAZ region’s hardness
compared to the heat-affected zone (HAZ) and base metal (BM). While in the case of HAZ, the coarse-grained
martensitic structure was found, apart from this, no further coarse-grain modification took place. The heat
energy transferred to the HAZ region due to the IH-FSW process slightly enhance the hardness.
To conduct the weight-loss corrosion test for the specimens, 0.5M H2SO4 was adopted. The acid solution of
0.5 M H2SO4 was chosen because it can predict the corrosion rate in a highly corrosive environment. This

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Eng. Res. Express 3 (2021) 025023 D G Mohan and S Gopi

Figure 8. Specimen after the corrosion test.

Figure 9. Micrographs of the AISI 410 SS.

Table 5. Corrosion rates for 3 h and 24 h tests in H2SO4.

Weight C.R. Weight C.R.

loss (g) (mm/Year) loss (g) (mm/Year)
3h 24 h

0.07548 2.82232 0.62680 2.92975

0.07507 2.80703 0.62340 2.91386
0.07482 2.79757 0.62130 2.90405
0.07520 2.81197 0.62450 2.91900
0.07533 2.81694 0.62560 2.92415

method and this solution are enough to predict the corrosion rate to the IH-FSW specimen at an extreme level
[28]. Two different periods are adopted for these two tests: 3 h and 24 h. By comparing the 3-hour test with the
24-hour test, the result will be more accurate.
After completing the weight loss corrosion test for both three-hour test and twenty-four tests in 0.5 M
H2SO4 (4 ml H2SO4+96 ml distilled H2O) solutions. The rate of corrosion that happens to the weld specimen

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Eng. Res. Express 3 (2021) 025023 D G Mohan and S Gopi

Figure 10. Material flow and grain structure of IH-FSW specimen.

Figure 11. Magnified view of nugget zone.

was found out by using the corrosion rate equation.

Corrosion Rate (CR) = ((Weight loss (g) ´ K)) (Alloy Density (g cmˆ3))
´ (Exposed Area (A) ´ Exposure Time (hr))
In this equation, K is a constant known as K-factor or the corrosion rate constant, the value of K is 8.75 ×
104, density of AISI 410 SS is 7.80 g cm−3, exposed area (A) is 100 cm2, exposure time is 3 h and 24 h each.
Table 5 shows the corrosion test results with weight loss in grams and Corrosion Rate (C.R.) in the mm/year.
Figure 8 shows the specimen after the corrosion test.
The experiment results show that the in situ induction heat input power 50 W, that is 441.8 °C, and welding
speed of 45 mm min−1 provide the best corrosion-resistant specimen. These specimens show high corrosion

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Eng. Res. Express 3 (2021) 025023 D G Mohan and S Gopi

Figure 12. Stir zone showing metal movement.

Figure 13. EDX result of the IH-FS Welded AISI 410 SS.

resistance property compare with the base metal. The corrosion resistivity was increased due to the
homogeneous grains formed in the weld zone. The two-layer oxidation film developed was less destructive to the
IH-FSW specimens due to the refined grains with the homogeneous size of grains formed in the weld zone. For
the above specimen, the corrosion rate found for 0.5 M H2SO4 solution for 3 h test was 2.79757 mm year−1 and
for 24 h test was 2.90405 mm year−1, respectively. The 3 h and 24 h test shows a slight variation in the rate of
corrosion, this type of variation was significant and already found in such experiments.
Figure 9 shows the micrographs of the AISI 410 SS along the rolling direction. The elongated grains are
visible in this microstructure [29]. By using an optical microscope, this image was captured at 100× zoom.
The specimen shows high hardness and less corrosion rate was selected to evaluate the IH-FSW experiment’s
microstructure. In figure 10, the material flow and grain structure of the IH-FSW specimen were shown. This
image indicates that the AISI 410 SS was mixed well in the weld region, and a fine grain structure was achieved
there. The refinement shows that the stir zone’s martensitic structure is not coarse-grained; this fine grain
structure results from standard cooling of weldment after welding. This microstructural evaluation is due to
continuous dynamic recrystallization; the same deformation is shown in martensitic steels while conducting
operations like multipass stretching processes and multipass hot rolling [30].

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Eng. Res. Express 3 (2021) 025023 D G Mohan and S Gopi

The martensitic stainless steels have a structure similar to ferritic with a Body Centered Tetragonal (BCT)
crystal lattice. There are two tetragonal bravais lattices, the simple tetragonal (from stretching the simple-cubic
lattice) and the centred tetragonal (from stretching either the face-centred or the body-centred cubic lattice).
BCT is considered more fundamental, and therefore this is the standard terminology. Figure 8 also shows a small
amount of carbide content on its surface [31]. In the welding process of martensitic stainless steels, the
transformation is rapid, and the carbon will be trapped. The remaining material observed while the welding
process is carbide alone; this is already proven in both welding and casting.
Figure 11 indicates the magnified view of the nugget zone; in this figure, tempered martensitic structure and
carbide contents were found. The small granule in this image represents the carbide contents. The IH-FSW
solid-state welding process and the in situ induction heating do not modify the AIS 410 SS’s martensitic
structure. However, during this IH-FSW, the grain in stir zone (SZ) underwent violent plastic deformation, and
the in situ heat and tool’s frictional heat, which leads to a high level of grain refinement due to dynamic
crystallization, this dynamic crystallization in the martensitic steel leads to the trapping of carbide contents in the
weld region. Some small cavities or voids were found in the SZ. This is generally related to the plastic area’s low
metal flow, and the transient cavities were not refilled timely [32].
A higher magnification image of the stir zone showing metal movement is given in figure 12. Figure 12 also
shows the fracture and scatter due to the pin’s rotary motion. In the stir zone, grain modification has seemed.
The refinement of martensitic grains is in fine size due to the slow recrystallization process. This type of
refinement has occurred earlier, and it is familiar at stir zones while welding hard metals or alloys [33, 34].
Figure 13 represents the Energy Dispersive x-ray Analysis (EDX) result of the IH-FS Welded AISI 410
martensitic stainless steel. The EDX result given in this study demonstrates the diffusion of chromium and
nickel and molybdenum. It is possible to endorse the presence of Cr27Ni6C and Fe7Mo6 in the IH-FSW joint.
Overall, this helps the joint enhance its hardness and better corrosion resistance property [35, 36]. A small
amount of ferrite is visible, and it is formed due to the thermal activities and the higher strain rate. The cracks
were propagated in the martensitic and ferritic bonding area. In contrast with the martensite, the ferrite is a little
bit softer. Due to the low stacking fault energy, the cracks proliferate through the ferritic phase at room
temperature.

4. Conclusion

A sound joint was produced by using the Induction Heated Friction Stir Welding method. Using AISI 410
Stainless Steel created five IH-FSW joints. The influence of parameters on microhardness, rate of corrosion and
microstructure of Induction Heated Friction Stir Welded AISI 410 Stainless Steel were investigated.
The summary and findings of this work are as follows:

(a) From the five parameter combinations, the best combination found to be Spindle speed=1250 (rpm),
Welding speed=45 (mm s−1), Shoulder penetration=0.50 (mm) and Induction power=50 W
(produce 441.8 °C). The results gained for these parameter combinations are micro hardness 209 H.V and a
rate of corrosion for the 0.5 M H2SO4 3 h test was 2.79757 mm year−1 and for 24 h 2.90405 mm/year. This
variation for 3 h and 24 h test was acceptable.
(b) The heat-affected zone is low compared to conventional welding methods due to the less generation of heat
in the welding zone. The temperature used for preheating (400 °C to 500 °C) is also less than the heat
produced while conducting fusion welding.
(c) The microhardness results show that the tool’s in situ heating and heat enhance the weld region’s hardness
(209 HV). The test results also prove that the welded area has an improved microhardness while relating to
the base metal.
(d) At low induction heat input and low welding speed, the weld joint’s quality was poor with less
microhardness due to improper plasticizing and mixing in the nugget zone. While increasing the welding
speed and induction heat inputs, the area of heat affected zone increased, and it forms worm defects in the
weldments due to over plasticizing of metal, high metal flow and dragging of materials from the
nugget zone.
(e) The test results show that the IH-FSW method enhances AISI 410 stainless steel joints’ corrosion resistance
property than the parent metal due to the fine grain structure formed in the weld zone due to dynamic
recrystallization.

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Eng. Res. Express 3 (2021) 025023 D G Mohan and S Gopi

(f) Some small carbide is visible in the nugget zone, which does not influence the joint strength or hardness of
the welded region.

Acknowledgments

The author would like to acknowledge the postdoctoral fellowship and supports provided by the Institute of
Materials Joining, Shandong University, Jinan, China.

Data availability statement

All data that support the findings of this study are included within the article (and any supplementary files).

ORCID iDs

Dhanesh G Mohan https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4652-4198

S Gopi https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7966-1853

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