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Eeng50 Lab Manual Laboratory Exercise No.1
Eeng50 Lab Manual Laboratory Exercise No.1
Experiment # 1
Familiarization with Laboratory Equipment and Instruments (Voltage and Resistance Usage)
INTRODUCTION
Electricity -- at least in small, safe quantities -- is insensible by our human bodies. Your most
fundamental "eyes" in the world of electricity and electronics will be a device called a multimeter.
Multimeters indicate the presence of, and measure the quantity of, electrical properties such as
voltage, current, and resistance.
Voltage is the measure of electrical "push" ready to motivate electrons to move through a
conductor. In scientific terms, it is the specific energy per unit charge, mathematically defined as
joules per coulomb. It is analogous to pressure in a fluid system: the force that moves fluid through a
pipe, and is measured in the unit of the Volt (V)
OBJECTIVES
MATERIALS
PROCEDURE
A. Voltmeter Usage
1. Set your multimeter's selector switch to the highest-value "DC volt" position available.
2. Touch the red test probe to the positive (+) side of a battery, and the black test probe to the
negative (-) side of the same battery. The meter should now provide you with some sort of
indication. Reverse the test probe connections to the battery if the meter's indication is
negative (on an analog meter, a negative value is indicated by the pointer deflecting left
instead of right).
Note:
Autoranging multimeters may only have a single position for DC voltage, in which case you
need to set the switch to that one position.
If your meter is a manual-range type, and the selector switch has been set to a high-range
position, the indication will be small. Move the selector switch to the next lower DC voltage
range setting and reconnect to the battery. The indication should be stronger now, as indicated
by a greater deflection of the analog meter pointer (needle), or more active digits on the digital
meter display.
For the best results, move the selector switch to the lowest-range setting that does not "over-
range" the meter. An over-ranged analog meter is said to be "pegged," as the needle will be
forced all the way to the right-hand side of the scale, past the full-range scale value. An over-
ranged digital meter sometimes displays the letters "OL", or a series of dashed lines. This
indication is manufacturer-specific.
Questions
1. What happens if you only touch one meter test probe to one end of a battery?
2. How does the meter have to connect to the battery in order to provide an indication?
3. What does this tell us about voltmeter use and the nature of voltage?
4. Is there such a thing as voltage "at" a single point?
B. Ohmmeter Usage
1. Set your multimeter to the highest resistance range available.
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The resistance function is usually denoted by the unit symbol for resistance: the Greek letter
omega (Ω), or
sometimes by the word "ohms."
3. Use your meter to determine continuity between the holes on a constructor deck.
• An important concept in electricity, closely related to electrical continuity, is that of points
being electrically common to each other. Electrically common points are points of contact on
a device or in a circuit that have negligible (extremely small) resistance between them.
• Continuity describes what is between points of contact, while commonality describes how the
points themselves relate to each other
• Like continuity, commonality is a qualitative assessment, based on a relative comparison of
resistance between other points in a circuit. It is an important concept to grasp, because
there are certain facts regarding voltage in relation to electrically common points that are
valuable in circuit analysis and troubleshooting, the first one being that there will never be
substantial voltage dropped between points that are electrically common to each other.
5. Connect the meter's test probes across the resistor as such, and note its indication on the
resistance scale
• If the needle points very close to zero, you need to select a lower resistance range on the
meter, just as you needed to select an appropriate voltage range when reading the voltage of
a battery
• If you are using a digital multimeter, you should see a numerical on the display
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Questions:
8. You may safely measure the resistance of your own body by holding one probe tip with the
fingers of one hand, and the other probe tip with the fingers of the other hand. You may safely
measure the resistance of your own body by holding one probe tip with the fingers of one hand,
and the other probe tip with the fingers of the other hand.
• be very careful with the probes, as they are often sharpened to a needle-point. Hold the probe
tips along their length, not at the very points! You may need to adjust the meter range again
after measuring the 10 kΩ resistor, as your body resistance tends to be greater than 10,000
ohms hand-to-hand.
9. Try wetting your fingers with water and re-measuring resistance with the meter. What impact
does this have on the indication?
10. Try wetting your fingers with saltwater prepared using the glass of water and table salt, and
remeasuring resistance. What impact does this have on your body's resistance as measured by the
meter?
11. Take a piece of paper and draw a very heavy black mark on it with a pencil (not a pen!).
12. Measure resistance on the black strip with your meter, placing the probe tips at each end of the
mark like this:
13. Move the probe tips closer together on the black mark and note the change in resistance value.
Questions:
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CONCLUSIONS:
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Experiment # 2
Simple Circuit and Ammeter Usage
INTRODUCTION/THEORETICAL INFORMATION:
A simple circuit contains the minimum requirements neede to have a functioning electric
circuit. A simple circuit requires three things:
Current is the measure of the rate of electron flow in a circuit. It is measured in the unit of
ampere (A). The most common way to measure current in a circuit is to break the circuit open and
insert the ammeter in series with the circuit.
OBJECTIVES:
MATERIALS:
Figure 2.2 Simple equivalent complete circuit: a battery and an incandescent lamp
1. Connect the lamp to the battery as shown in the illustration, and the lamp should light,
assuming the battery and lamp are both in good condition and they are matched to one
another in terms of voltage.
Note: If there is a "break" (discontinuity) anywhere in the circuit, the lamp will fail to light. It
does not matter where such a break occurs! Many students assume that because electrons leave the
negative (-) side of the battery and continue through the circuit to the positive (+) side, that the wire
connecting the negative terminal of the battery to the lamp is more important to circuit operation
than the other wire providing a return path for electrons back to the battery. This is not true!
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2. Using your multimeter set to the appropriate "DC volt" range, measure voltage across the battery,
across the lamp, and across each jumper wire. Familiarize yourself with the normal voltages in a
functioning circuit.
3. Now, "break" the circuit at one point and re-measure voltage between the same sets of points,
additionally measuring voltage across the break like this:
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Questions:
4. Re-connect the jumper wire to the lamp, and break the circuit in another place.
5. Measure all voltage "drops" again, familiarizing yourself with the voltages of an "open" circuit.
6. Construct the same circuit on a breadboard/ constructors deck, taking care to place the lamp and
wires into the breadboard/deck in such a way that continuity will be maintained.
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Figure 2.7. No "shorting" wire present on the breadboard, yet there is a short circuit
Question: Based on your understanding of breadboard hole connections, can you determine where
the "short" is in this circuit?
Note: Short circuits are generally to be avoided, as they result in very high rates of electron flow,
causing wires to heat up and battery power sources to deplete. If the power source is substantial
enough, a short circuit may cause heat of explosive proportions to manifest, causing equipment
damage and hazard to nearby personnel. This is what happens when a tree limb "shorts" across
wires on a power line: the limb -- being composed of wet wood -- acts as a lowresistance path to
electric current, resulting in heat and sparks.
B. Ammeter Usage
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THEORETICAL INFORMATION
Current is the measure of the rate of electron "flow" in a circuit. It is measured in the unit of the
Ampere, simply called "Amp," (A).
The most common way to measure current in a circuit is to break the circuit open and insert an
"ammeter" in series (in-line) with the circuit so that all electrons flowing through the circuit also
have to go through the meter. Because measuring current in this manner requires the meter be made
part of the circuit, it is a more difficult type of measurement to make than either voltage or
resistance.
When an ammeter is placed in series with a circuit, it ideally drops no voltage as current goes
through it. In other words, it acts very much like a piece of wire, with very little resistance from one
test probe to the other. Consequently, an ammeter will act as a short circuit if placed in parallel
(across the terminals of) a substantial source of voltage. If this is done, a surge in current will result,
potentially damaging the meter:
Figure 2.10 Ammeter as short circuit if placed in parallel a substantial source of voltage
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Note:
Ammeters are generally protected from excessive current by means of a small fuse located inside the
meter housing. If the ammeter is accidently connected across a substantial voltage source, the
resultant surge in current will "blow" the fuse and render the meter incapable of measuring current
until the fuse is replaced. Be very careful to avoid this scenario!
1. Test the condition of a multimeter's fuse by switching it to the resistance mode and measuring
continuity through the test leads (and through the fuse).
2. On a meter where the same test lead jacks are used for both resistance and current measurement,
simply leave the test lead plugs where they are and touch the two probes together.
3. On a meter where different jacks are used, this is how you insert the test lead plugs to check the
fuse:
Figure 2.11 This is how you insert the test lead plugs to check the fuse
4. Build the one-battery, one-lamp circuit using jumper wires to connect the battery to the lamp, and
verify that the lamp lights up before connecting the meter in series with it.
5. Then, break the circuit open at any point and connect the meter's test probes to the two points of
the break to measure current.
6. As usual, if your meter is manually-ranged, begin by selecting the highest range for current, then
move the selector switch to lower range positions until the strongest indication is obtained on the
meter display without over-ranging it.
7. If the meter indication is "backwards," (left motion on analog needle, or negative reading on a
digital display), then reverse the test probe connections and try again.
8. When the ammeter indicates a normal reading (not "backwards"), electrons are entering the black
test lead and exiting the red.
Notes: This is how you determine direction of current using a meter. For a 6-volt battery and a small
lamp, the circuit current will be in the range of thousandths of an amp, or milliamps. Digital meters
often show a small letter "m" in the right-hand side of the display to indicate this metric prefix.
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9. Try breaking the circuit at some other point and inserting the meter there instead.
Questions:
a. What do you notice about the amount of current measured?
b. Why do you think this is?
10. Students often get confused when connecting an ammeter to a breadboard circuit.
How can the meter be connected so as to intercept all the circuit's current and not create a short
circuit? One easy method that guarantees success is this:
• Identify what wire or component terminal you wish to measure current through.
• Pull that wire or terminal out of the breadboard hole. Leave it hanging in mid-air.
• Insert a spare piece of wire into the hole you just pulled the other wire or terminal out of.
Leave the other end of this wire hanging in mid-air.
• Connect the ammeter between the two unconnected wire ends (the two that were hanging in
mid-air). You are now assured of measuring current through the wire or terminal initially
identified.
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11. Again, measure current through different wires in this circuit, following the same connection
procedure outlined above.
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CONCLUSIONS:
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Experiment # 3
Ohms Law and Nonlinear Resistance
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Ohm's Law
For many conductors of electricity, the electric current which will flow through them is
directly proportional to the voltage applied to them. When a microscopic view of Ohm's law is taken,
it is found to depend upon the fact that the drift velocity of charges through the material is
proportional to the electric field in the conductor. The ratio of voltage to current is called the
resistance, and if the ratio is constant over a wide range of voltages, the material is said to be an
"ohmic" material. If the material can be characterized by such a resistance, then the current can be
predicted from the relationship:
Resistance
The electrical resistance of a circuit component or device is defined as the ratio of the voltage
applied to the electric current which flows through it:
If the resistance is constant over a considerable range of voltage, then Ohm's law, I = V/R, can be
used to predict the behavior of the material. Although the definition above involves DC current and
voltage, the same definition holds for the AC application of resistors.
Whether or not a material obeys Ohm's law, its resistance can be described in terms of its bulk
resistivity. The resistivity, and thus the resistance, is temperature dependent. Over sizable ranges of
temperature, this temperature dependence can be predicted from a temperature coefficient of
resistance.
OBJECTIVES
1. To use voltmeter
2. To use ammeter
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3. To use ohmmeter
4. To use Ohms Law
5. Realization that some resistances are unstable!
6. Scientific method
MATERIALS
• Multimeters ( Analog/ digital)
• Constructor deck ( EEC 470)
• Power Supply ( PS 445)/
• Set of electronics component ( EEC 471-2)
• Connecting wires/ cable
• Calculator (or pencil and paper for doing arithmetic)
• Assortment of 10 resistors between 1 KΩ and 100 kΩ in value
• Low-voltage incandescent lamp
PROCEDURE
A. Ohms Law
Schematic Diagram
1. Select a resistor from the assortment, and measure its resistance with your
multimeter set to the appropriate resistance range.
2. Be sure not to hold the resistor terminals when measuring resistance, or else your
handto-hand body resistance will influence the measurement!
3. Record this resistance value for future use.
4. Build a one-battery, one-resistor circuit.
5. Set your multimeter to the appropriate voltage range and measure voltage across
the resistor as it is being powered by the battery.
6. Record this voltage value along with the resistance value previously measured.
7. Set your multimeter to the highest current range available.
8. Break the circuit and connect the ammeter within that break, so it becomes a part
of the circuit, in series with the battery and resistor.
9. Select the best current range: whichever one gives the strongest meter indication
without over-ranging the meter.
10. If your multimeter is autoranging, of course, you need not bother with setting
ranges.
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11. Record this current value along with the resistance and voltage values previously
recorded.
12. Taking the measured figures for voltage and resistance, use the Ohm's Law
equation to calculate circuit current.
13. Compare this calculated figure with the measured figure for circuit current:
14. Taking the measured figures for voltage and current, use the Ohm's Law equation
to calculate circuit resistance.
15. Compare this calculated figure with the measured figure for circuit resistance:
16. Finally, taking the measured figures for resistance and current, use the Ohm's Law
equation to calculate circuit voltage.
17. Compare this calculated figure with the measured figure for circuit voltage:
18. There should be close agreement between all measured and all calculated figures.
19. Any differences in respective quantities of voltage, current, or resistance are most
likely due to meter inaccuracies.
20. These differences should be rather small, no more than several percent. Some
meters, of course, are more accurate than others!
21. Substitute different resistors in the circuit and re-take all resistance, voltage, and
current measurements.
22. Re-calculate these figures and check for agreement with the experimental data
(measured quantities).
23. Also note the simple mathematical relationship between changes in resistor value
and changes in circuit current.
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24. Voltage should remain approximately the same for any resistor size inserted into
the circuit, because it is the nature of a battery to maintain voltage at a constant
level.
B. Nonlinear resistance
SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM
NOTE: What you should find is a marked difference between measured current and calculated
current: the calculated figure is much greater. Why is this?
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15. To make things more interesting, try measuring the lamp's resistance again, this time using a
different model of meter.
16. You will need to disconnect the lamp from the battery circuit in order to obtain a resistance
reading, because voltages outside of the meter interfere with resistance measurement.
17. This is a general rule that should be remembered: measure resistance only on an
unpowered component!
18. Using a different ohmmeter, the lamp will probably register as a different value of resistance.
19. Usually, analog meters give higher lamp resistance readings than digital meters.
Questions:
a. This behavior is very different from that of the resistors in the last experiment.
Why?
b. What factor(s) might influence the resistance of the lamp filament?
c. How might those factors be different between conditions of lit and unlit, or
between resistance measurements taken with different types of meters?
This problem is a good test case for the application of scientific method. Once you've thought
of a possible reason for the lamp's resistance changing between lit and unlit conditions, try to
duplicate that cause by some other means. For example, if you think the lamp resistance might
change as it is exposed to light (its own light, when lit), and that this accounts for the difference
between the measured and calculated circuit currents, try exposing the lamp to an external source of
light while measuring its resistance. If you measure substantial resistance change as a result of light
exposure, then your hypothesis has some evidential support. If not, then your hypothesis has been
falsified, and another cause must be responsible for the change in circuit current.
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CONCLUSIONS:
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EXPERIMENT No. 4
Resistor Networks
Series Circuit
If different electrical components are connected end to end, it is said to be in series. There is only a
single path for the current to flow, hence, the same currents flows through all the components in
series.
Parallel Circuit
When various components are joined together in such a way that there are only two common
points of connection, they are said to be connected in parallel
OBJECTIVE:
To investigate what happens when resistors are interconnected in a circuit.
MATERIALS:
PROCEDURE:
1. Connect the power supply unit to the mains supply line. Ensure that the variable d.c
control is at minimum. DO NOT switch on yet.
“Investigate the currents and voltages present when several resistors are connected
together to provide a network of resistors.”
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Fig 4.1
3. The circuit for the above connection is given in fig 4.2.
4. First ensure that the variable d.c. control knob is fully counterclockwise, then switch on
the power supply unit. Adjust its output voltage to be 20V.
“Investigate the currents I, and the voltages across, each branch of the network. Let
us first measure the voltages.”
5. Using the 0-10V voltmeter, measure the voltage across R1.Note the polarity of the
voltage. Repeat the measurement for each of the other resistors.
6. Copy the table as shown in Table 1, reproduced at the end of this assignment, and tabulate
your results. Also draw a circuit diagram of the network, as shown in fig 4.4, and mark the
voltages on it, with their polarities.
“Now let us measure the currents in each component, to see if we can find a relationship
for the currents.”
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R1 I1
A I4 R4
1 k0 330R
+ R3
0–20V dc
variable 2k2
R2 I3 R5
B 470R I2 I5 680R
Fig 4.2
Fig 4.3
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Table 2
Table 3
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QUESTIONS:
1. With reference to fig 4.4, can you notice any relationship between the voltages round the loop
ACDB? (Remember the polarities).
2. Does the sum of the voltages around loop CEFD give the same relationship?
5. What can you say about the currents I1 I3 and I4 at node C? ('node' means junction)
9. By what percentage do the actual values differ from the marked values?
10. Do you think that these differences could account for the variation between measured
and calculated values of current and voltage?
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CONCLUSIONS:
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EXPERIMENT No. 5
Resistors in Series and Parallel
THEORETICAL INFORMATION:
The total resistance of the two in series is equal to the sum of the individual resistor values.
ie R = R1 + R2
With series connection of resistors, the same current must flow through each resistance. Let
us call this current I.
From Ohm's Law, the voltage across R1, (VR1), is given by:
But by Kirchhoff's Law of voltage, the sum of the voltages around a circuit is zero, and with
the psu set to 20V: VR1 + VR2 – 20 = 0
IR = 20 (4)
OBJECTIVE:
EQUIPMENT REQUIRED:
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PROCEDURE:
1. Connect the power supply unit to the mains supply line. Ensure that the variable d.c control is
at minimum. DO NOT switch on yet.
“Having found the laws governing currents and voltages in a circuit, we will now use
them, together with Ohm's Law, to formulate expressions for the connection of resistors in
series and in parallel.”
2. Connect up the circuit as shown in fig 4.2 according to the layout of fig 4.1 with the two resistors
in series.
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Figure 5.1
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Figure 5.2
3. Switch on the power supply unit (psu) and set the voltage to 2V.
4. Measure and record the current.
“Although a value of resistance could be obtained with just one reading of V and I, it
is better to take current readings for a selection of different voltages, and obtain an average
resistance value from these. Taking an average value over several readings tends to minimize
any errors of measurement.”
5. Now set the voltage to 4V, and read the current again.
6. Repeat for settings of 6V, 8V and 10V.
7. Enter your results in table 4.a.
8. Calculate the resistance and the average for the five readings.
9. Compare this value with the individual values of R1 and R2.
10. Reset the output voltage to zero, and reconnect the circuit as in fig 5.3 according to the layout
of fig 5.4.
Fig 5.3
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0 – 50mA
A
330R R1
3 K0 R2
0 – 20V R3
100R
680R R4
11. Repeat the recording of current readings for voltage settings of 2V, 4V, 6V, 8V and 10V for
the new circuit.
12. Copy the table as shown in fig 4.3, reproduced at the end of this assignment, and enter your
results.
13. Calculate an average for the resistance.
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CONCLUSIONS:
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OBJECTIVE:
To investigate the effects of more than one voltage source in a network.
EQUIPMENT REQUIRED:
(3) Electricity & Electronics Constructor EEC470
(3) Basic Electricity and Electronics Kit EEC471-2
(5) Power supply unit 0 to 20V variable d.c. regulated (eg. Feedback Power Supply PS445)
(2)Multimeters or (1) Voltmeter 0-10V dc; (1) Milliammeter 0-10mA dc
THEORETICAL INFORMATION:
The sum of the currents due to individual voltage sources is equal to the current resulting
when both sources are present in the network.
similarly
I2 = I2 ' +
I2"
If the voltage sources had any internal resistance, for example the internal resistance of a cell*, this
is usually regarded as being in series with the voltage source, and thus the source would have to be
replaced by its internal resistance to arrive at the correct answer.
*The internal resistance of a typical dry cell may be between 0.5 and 5 ohms and is caused by
contact resistances, the resistance of the electrolyte, any corrosion of the plates, etc.
'In any network containing more than one source of emf, the resultant current in any one branch is
the algebraic sum of the currents that would be produced by each emf, acting alone, all the other
sources of emf being replaced meanwhile by their respective internal resistances.'
PROCEDURE:
1. Connect the layout as shown in fig 6.2 and check with the circuit diagram of fig 6.1.
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Previous experiments have shown what currents and voltages are present in a resistive network with
one source of emf. We now wish to investigate networks which have more than one source, and to try
to formulate some expressions for the resultant currents
This is a similar network to the one used to investigate Kirchhoff's Laws, except that two sources of
emf are used
Fig 6.1
Figure 6.2
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6. Firstly, measure the current in each branch of the network. Do this by disconnecting each of
the links 1–3 in turn, replacing them with the 0-10mA meter. This will give the current in R1
and R2, R3 and R4 and R5 respectively.
7. Note both the magnitude and the polarity of each current, and tabulate them.
8. Now disconnect the 15V source and link the resistors R3 and R5, as shown in the circuit of fig
6.3
9. Measure and tabulate the magnitude and polarity of the currents I1', I2', and I3'.
10. Remove the link between R3 and R5 and replace the +15V source connections as they were
initially.
11. Disconnect the 20V source, and link R2 and R3, giving the circuit shown in fig 6.4.
12. Copy the table as shown in fig 5.6, reproduced at the end of this assignment.
13. Measure the branch currents I1", I2" and I3" as before, and enter all the currents in the table.
Fig 6.3
Fig 6.4
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Table 6.1
I1 = I1' = I1'' =
I2 = I2' = I2'' =
I3 = I3' = I3'' =
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CONCLUSIONS:
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Experiment No. 7
Thévenin’s Theorem
OBJECTIVE:
To find a method of simplifying a network in order to obtain the current flowing in one particular
branch of the network.
EQUIPMENT REQUIRED:
(4) Electricity & Electronics Constructor EEC470
(4) Basic Electricity and Electronics Kit EEC471-2
(6) Power supply unit 0 to 20V variable d.c. regulated (eg. Feedback Power Supply PS445)
(2)Multimeters or (1) Voltmeter 0-10V dc; (1) Milliammeter 0-10mA dc
THEORETICAL INFORMATION:
Thévenin's Theorem, which states: 'The current through a resistance R connected across any two
points X and Y of a network containing one or more sources of emf is obtained by dividing the p.d
between X and Y, with R disconnected, by (R + r), where r is the resistance of the network measured
between points X and Y +10V with R disconnected and the sources of emf replaced by their internal
resistances'.
PRELIMINARY PROCEDURE:
Connect the power supply unit to the mains supply line. Ensure that the variable d.c control is
at minimum. DO NOT switch on yet.
For this investigation we will use the network of fig 7.1.
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Fig 7.1
PROCEDURE:
1. Connect the layout as shown in fig 7.2 and check with the circuit diagram of fig 7.1.
2. Monitor the dc input voltage
3. To get the current I, remove link 1 and replace it with 0-10mA meter.
4. Switch on the power supply and adjust it to 10 volts.
5. Measure and record the current flowing in the 680Ω resistor.
6.
Previous experiments have shown what currents and voltages are present in a resistive network with
one source of emf. We now wish to investigate networks which have more than one source, and to try
to formulate some expressions for the resultant currents
This is a similar network to the one used to investigate Kirchhoff's Laws, except that two sources of
emf are used
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Laboratory Manual in Circuits 1- DC Circuit Analysis
13. Remove the link between R3 and R5 and replace the +15V source connections as they were
initially.
14. Disconnect the 20V source, and link R2 and R3, giving the circuit shown in fig 7.4.
15. Copy the table as shown in fig 5.6, reproduced at the end of this assignment.
16. Measure the branch currents I1", I2" and I3" as before, and enter all the currents in the table.
REFERENCES:
Bird, John, Electrical and Electronic Principles and Technology, Reed Education and Professional
Publishing Ltd., 2nd edition
Basic Electricity and Electronics, Feedback Manual EEC471-2 Ed08 062001
Edminister, Joseph A., Nahvi, Mahmood, Theory and Problems of Electric Circuits, Mc
Graw Hill, 3rd edition
Tan, Jonny C., Electric Circuit Analysis, National Book Store Inc.
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