487

Evolution of the factor of safety following

excavation in clay
J.S. L’Heureux, S. Leroueil, and J.F. Laflamme

Abstract: Numerical analyses have been performed to study the evolution of the factor of safety following the excavation
of a cut in clay. The analyses consider variable thickness of the clayey soil deposit under the excavation. The results show
that, for a given clayey soil, there is a relation between the time for full dissipation of excess pore-water pressure from the
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soil mass following the excavation and the geometry of the cut (Htot/Hexc). The analytical results agree reasonably well
with pore pressure measurements made in excavations in clay deposits from eastern Canada. This suggests that time to
reach full pore pressure equilibration following the excavation of a cut in homogenous clayey soil deposits can be pre-
dicted when knowledge of the coefficient of swelling–consolidation is available. Lastly, results obtained in the present
study show that 50% of the difference between the short- and long-term factors of safety may be lost at values as low as
about 8% of the time to reach equilibration of pore pressures. This means that the time during which one can rely on the
short-term strength of the clayey soil following the excavation may be relatively short, especially for soft clays.
Key words: numerical analysis, excavation, clayey soil, consolidation, factor of safety.
Résumé : Une méthode d’analyse numérique est utilisée pour étudier l’évolution du coefficient de sécurité suite à l’exca-
vation d’un talus. Les analyses font varier l’épaisseur de la couche argileuse sous l’excavation. Les résultats montrent qu’il
existe une relation entre la géométrie du talus (Htot / Hexc) et le temps de dissipation des pressions interstitielles suite au
déchargement du talus. Les résultats analytiques concordent bien avec des mesures de pressions interstitielles obtenues
pour des excavations dans les argiles molles de l’est du Canada. Ceci suggère que le temps pour atteindre un équilibre des
For personal use only.

pressions interstitielles à la suite d’une excavation dans un dépôt homogène d’argile peut être prédit lorsque l’on a
connaissance du coefficient de gonflement – consolidation pour un dépôt donné. Finalement, les résultats de cette étude
montrent que 50 % de la différence entre les coefficients de sécurité à court- et long-terme peut se perdre pour des valeurs
aussi faibles que 8 % du temps pour atteindre l’équilibre des pressions interstitielles. Ceci étant dit, le temps sur lequel on
peut se fier sur la résistance à court terme de l’argile suite à une excavation peut être très court, spécialement pour les ar-
giles molles.
Mots-clés : analyse numérique, excavation, sol argileux, consolidation, coefficient de sécurité.

Introduction
Excavation of a cut in clayey material causes a reduction
in mean stress and an increase in shear stresses. This is as-
sociated with the development of negative excess pore pres-
sures in the soil mass as described by Bishop and Bjerrum
(1960). By assuming that the period of excavation is short
enough to prevent pore-water pressure redistribution and
that the soil is linear elastic and fully saturated, the change
in pore pressure in the ground is equal to the change in
mean stress. At an initial stage following the excavation,
Received 16 August 2007. Accepted 22 December 2008.
Published on the NRC Research Press Web site at cgj.nrc.ca on
23 April 2009.
J.S. L’Heureux.1,2 Department of Civil and Transport
Engineering, Norwegian University of Science and Technology,
7491 Trondheim, Norway.
S. Leroueil. Department of Civil Engineering, Université Laval,
Québec City, QC G1K 7P4, Canada.
J. Laflamme. Ministère des Transports du Québec, Québec
City, QC G1S 4X9, Canada.
1Corresponding author (e-mail: jean.lheureux@ngu.no).
2Presentaddress: Geological Survey of Norway, N-7491
Trondheim, Norway.
the engineer can rely on the short-term factor of safety (Fst)
to calculate the stability of the cut. The clay swells and the
negative excess pore pressures tend to dissipate with time
until steady-state conditions are reached. During this proc-
ess, the factor of safety decreases towards its long-term
value (Flt), leading to a less stable cut.
The time necessary to reach pore pressure equilibration
after excavation depends on the swelling properties of the
soil, the hydraulic conductivity of the soil, the stratigraphy
and structure of the deposit, and the geometry of the excava-
tion. Due to these factors, it is difficult to correctly estimate
the time during which one can rely on the short-term
strength of the soil slope.
On the basis of numerical analysis of an excavation in
clayey soil performed up to an impervious substratum, Ei-
genbrod (1975) concluded that steady-state pore pressure
conditions in the slope are obtained for a time factor (T) as
follows:
½1 T ¼ cvs t=H 2 ¼ 0:33
where cvs is the coefficient of swelling–consolidation, t is
the time, and H is the height of the excavation.
Leroueil (2001) indicated that the time for full pore pres-

Can. Geotech. J. 46: 487–493 (2009) doi:10.1139/T08-135 Published by NRC Research Press
 488
Fig. 1. General study model and boundary conditions. Notice that for the case where Htot = Hexc, the lower face of the excavation corre-
sponds to the impervious lower boundary. u, pore pressure.
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sure equilibration can be different from that given by eq. [1]
if the geometry of the problem, in particular the thickness of
the clay deposit and the location of the substratum, differs
from that of the case studied by Eigenbrod (1975). Leroueil
also indicated that the time necessary for pore pressure equi-
libration after an excavation is highly variable from site to
site. It was in the order of a few days at La Bosse-Galin
(Blondeau and Queyroi 1976); about 10 days in Bangkok
clays (referenced by Leroueil 2001); about 2 months at
For personal use only.
Hede, Sweden, for a 5.5 m deep cut (Rankka 1994);
6 months at Saint-Hilaire, Quebec, for an excavation depth
of 8 m (Lafleur et al. 1988a, 1988b); and as much as
50 years for 6–12 m deep cuts in stiff London clay
(Skempton 1977; Chandler 1984).
In this paper, a numerical study is carried out to show
how the thickness of the clay deposit and the location of
the substratum influence the time for full pore pressure equi-
libration after excavation of a cut. The analytical results are
compared with field observations.
Numerical study
The parametric study was carried out using the finite ele-
ment softwares SEEP/W, SIGMA/W, and SLOPE/W Geo-
Slope International (1997a, 1997b, 1997c). SEEP/W is used
to simulate the hydraulic conditions and analyze the excess
pore pressure dissipation following excavation; SIGMA/W
calculates the stresses, pore pressures, and deformations in the
soil before, during, and after unloading; SLOPE/W uses limit
equilibrium theory to calculate the factor of safety on the most
critical slip surface at different times after excavation.
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
½2 Duw ¼ bðDs 1 þ Ds 2 þ Ds 3 Þ=3 þ a ðDs 1  Ds 2 Þ2 þ ðDs 2  Ds 3 Þ2 þ ðDs 3  Ds 1 Þ2
where Duw is the change in pore-water pressure, Dsi repre-
sents the changes in total stresses in the ground, and a and
b are the pore pressure parameters proposed by Henkel
(1960). The values of a and b are related to Skempton’s
pore pressure parameters A and B, which can be assessed
from undrained triaxial tests. The relation between these
pore pressure parameters is given by the following equa-
tions:
Can. Geotech. J. Vol. 46, 2009
Model and boundary conditions
The analyses were performed for a 10 m high excavation
(Hexc) sloping at 2H:1V (Fig. 1). The total thickness of the
soil deposit (Htot) was varied in the analyses from 10 to
40 m. The soil in the model was assumed to be saturated
and under hydrostatic pore pressure conditions far from the
excavation. Boundary conditions are such that the left verti-
cal bound and the lower bound of the model are impervious.
The right boundary is a symmetry axis.
Pore pressure changes due to unloading
To simplify the problem, the clayey soil was assumed to
be composed of homogeneous, isotropic, and linear elastic
material with constant governing in situ soil parameters K0
(coefficient of earth pressure at rest), A (pore pressure pa-
rameter), and cvs (Table 1). For the calculation of stress
change, a Poisson’s ratio (yu) equal to 0.49 was chosen
(ideally 0.5, but for numerical reasons it is fixed at 0.49 as
a maximum value). This value reflects an ideally elastic and
incompressible soil.
The stress changes due to unloading were calculated by
applying the load in a single step and considering a period
of excavation (3 h) short enough to prevent for pore pressure
redistribution. The unloading effect was simulated by calcu-
lating the resultant forces associated with the removal of the
excavated elements. These forces are applied as negative
values at the nodes of the excavation face. As indicated by
Bishop and Bjerrum (1960), associated with the reduction in
the mean stress and the development of shear stresses due to
excavation, there is a decrease in pore pressure in the soil
mass (Duw):
½3 b¼B
 
B 1
½4 a ¼ pffiffiffi A 
2 3
The A value chosen for the analysis is 1/3 (i.e., a = 0,
elastic conditions), since the present study is concerned
Published by NRC Research Press
 L’Heureux et al. 489

Table 1. Values of soil parameters used in the study.

gt (kN/m3) K0 OCR E’ (kPa) Eu (kPa) G (kPa) c’ f0 y’ yu A B cvs (m2/s)

17.5 1 2 10 000 11 920 3355 7.5 28.5 0.25 0.49 1/3 1 810–7
Note: gt, total unit weight of the soil; K0, coefficient of earth pressure at rest; OCR, overconsolidation ratio; E’, effective Young’s modulus; Eu, undrained
Young’s modulus; G, shear modulus; c’, effective cohesion; f0 , effective friction angle; y’, effective Poisson’s ratio; yu, undrained Poisson’s ratio; A and B,
Skempton (1954) pore pressure parameters; cvs, coefficient of swelling–consolidation.

with slightly overconsolidated clayey soil. The value of pa-
rameter B is set to 1 in the saturated soil to obtain a pore
pressure response equal to the change in total stress during
unloading. Therefore, the pore pressure immediately after
the excavation (u0) is given by
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solidated Champlain Sea clays. During the swelling stage,
the boundary conditions specified to the software are as
shown in Fig. 1. A constant boundary condition is specified
along the faces of the excavation (u = 0), and the base and
the left vertical boundaries of the model are impermeable.

Additionally, the bottom boundary nodes are specified as

½5 u0 ¼ ui þ Duw zero-x and zero-y displacement, and the vertical boundary
in which ui is the initial pore pressure before excavation. nodes are specified as zero-x displacement.

Dissipation of excess pore pressures Evolution in the stability of the cut

Due to the excavation and the new slope configuration, the During the consolidation process, the pore pressures tend
pore pressures immediately after the excavation will tend to to equilibrium and the factor of safety decreases progres-
sively towards Flt. The last step in the analysis is to study
equalize until a new equilibrium is reached in the soil slope.
the changes in factor of safety for the new slope configura-
Progressive equalization of excess pore pressures in the slope
tion during the consolidation process. This is done using the
was calculated using a fully coupled consolidation-type anal-
limit equilibrium method (simplified Bishop method) in the
ysis in SIGMA/W and SEEP/W. This coupled analysis re-
SLOPE/W software together with the pore pressures calcu-
quires that both the stress–strain and seepage dissipation
lated at different times during the swelling phase. The effec-
equations be solved simultaneously. The constitutive equa-
tive shear strength parameters (f0 and c’) and the total unit
For personal use only.

tion for the soil skeleton is given by

weight (gt) of the clayey soil are also given in Table 1; they
½6 fDsg ¼ fDgfD3g þ fmgDuw are typical values for Champlain Sea clays (see also Lefeb-
vre 1981).
where Ds is the change in total normal stress, {D} is the
drained constitutive matrix, D3 is the change in normal Results of analyses
strain, and {m} is a unit isotropic tensor.
The process of consolidation, which involves water flow The changes in factor of safety with time after unloading
and compression or swelling of the soil, requires time and were computed for different values of Htot/Hexc (Fig. 1) and
is controlled by the following compression–swelling differ- are presented in Fig. 2, in which t = 0 is the time at which
ential equation: the soil starts swelling after rapid excavation. At t = 0, Fst in
  the slope should be the same for all geometries, given that
@uw 1 @ 2 uw @ 2 uw the stresses and pore pressures in the slope are the same
½7 ¼ kx þ ky (Hexc = 10 m for all considered geometries) and that the
@t mg w @x2 @y2
soil strength parameters (c’ and f0 ) are constant. However,
where t is the time; uw is the pore-water pressure; kx and ky this is not exactly the case due to slight differences in the
are the hydraulic conductivity in the x and y directions, re- position of the critical slip surfaces (Fig. 3a), especially for
spectively; gw is the unit weight of water; and m is the coef- Htot/Hexc = 1 where the critical slip surface is restricted to
ficient of volume change of clay expressed as change in the base of the model. The observed difference in Fst is
porosity per unit change in effective stress (Kenney and small however. Results from Fig. 2 show that the factor of
Lau 1984). In the case of isotropic hydraulic conductivity safety decreases with an increase in time owing to negative
conditions (kx = ky), eq. [7] can be written as excess pore pressure dissipation. It can be seen that an in-
 2   2  crease in Htot/Hexc leads to a higher Flt. Moreover, the time
@uw k @ uw @ 2 uw @ uw @ 2 uw to achieve long-term conditions Flt increases with an in-
½8 ¼ þ ¼ cvs þ
@t mg w @x2 @y2 @x2 @y2 crease in the ratio Htot/Hexc, which reflects both the change
in time for pore pressure equalization that is influenced by
where cvs is the coefficient of swelling–consolidation. In the the total clay layer thickness and the change in long-term
present study, the coefficient of consolidation (cvs) is de- flow net. As indicated in Fig. 3b, this also reflects the
fined in two-dimensional (2-D) conditions according to change in critical failure surface.
Christian and Boehmer (1970):
To obtain a better appreciation of the results, Fig. 4
k E 0 ð1  y0 Þ presents the normalized factor of safety, defined as R = (F –
½9 cvs ¼ Flt)/(Fst – Flt), as a function of the time parameter (T(Hexc)),
g w ð1 þ y0 Þð1  2y0 Þ
defined as T(Hexc) = cvst/(Hexc)2. For the case where the soil
where E’ and y’ are the drained elastic Young’s modulus is excavated to the impervious substratum, i.e., Htot/Hexc = 1,
and Poisson’s ratio, respectively. The values of E’ and y’, T(Hexc) reaches a value close to 0.33 at the end of consolida-
defined in Table 1, are typical of those for lightly overcon- tion, thus respecting the idea introduced by Eigenbrod

Published by NRC Research Press

 490
Fig. 2. Factor of safety as a function of time for different cut geometries (Htot/Hexc).
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Fig. 3. Critical slip surface for the different cut geometries (a) im-
mediately after excavation, and (b) for long-term conditions.
For personal use only.
(1975). However, this is not true for excavation geometries
differing from Htot/Hexc = 1. The results again show that
T(Hexc) at the end of consolidation increases with an increase
in Htot/Hexc.
Taking a closer look at the case where Htot/Hexc = 1, one
observes that T(Hexc) = 0.33 is reached at an R value of
0.015. Recognizing the similarity between the different
curves in Fig. 4, time for full pore pressure dissipation for
all geometries is assumed to be obtained when R = 0.015.
The time factor T(Hexc) for the long term (taken at R =
0.015 for all geometries) can thus be plotted as a function
of the geometry of the cut (Fig. 5a). Figure 5a shows that,
for Htot/Hexc values between 1 and 2, the value of T(Hexc)
increases with an increase in the thickness of the clay de-
posit. Thereafter, for Htot/Hexc equal to or larger than 2,
T(Hexc) increases only slightly. This is because the location
of the long-term critical slip surface varies with the ratio
Htot/Hexc and the relative influence with time of the geome-
try on pore pressures close to the cut decreases when Htot/
3 Note that 278 is roughly equivalent to the 2:1 slope per the geometry utilized in the theoretical analysis in this paper.
Can. Geotech. J. Vol. 46, 2009
Hexc becomes larger than 1.8. The slight increase in T(Hexc)
for values of Htot/Hexc equal to or larger than 1.8 could be
seen as negligible for practical purposes. Moreover, Fig. 5b
presents T(Hexc) for the long term normalized to the case
where Htot/Hexc = 1 in a logarithm–logarithm diagram and
as a function of the geometry. The broken line in Fig. 5b
represents Terzaghi (1925) one-dimensional (1-D) theory of
consolidation, stipulating that the time to achieve full con-
solidation is proportional to the square of the drainage dis-
tance. It is observed that the present results differ from this
theory. The time factor varies more rapidly for Htot/Hexc <
1.8, which is mostly due to the change in location of the
critical failure surface. However, for Htot/Hexc > 1.8, the
time for pore pressure equalization is almost independent of
the clay layer thickness.
Full pore pressure equilibration can be reached if Flt is
larger than 1 and the process is not interrupted by global
failure of the cut. For such cases, Leroueil (2001) indicated
that 50% of the difference between the short- and long-term
factors of safety is lost in about 20% of the time required to
reach full pore pressure equilibrium. In Fig. 6, T(Hexc) is
normalized with respect to the time required to reach full
pore pressure equilibrium. The first observation is that all
the normalized curves are essentially the same for whatever
value of Htot/Hexc. The second observation is that 50% of the
difference between the short- and long-term factors of safety
is lost in about 8% of the time to reach long-term condi-
tions. The time for which one can rely on the short-term fac-
tor of safety can thus be very short, especially in soft clay
deposits (Leroueil 2001).
Comparison with field observations
Test excavation at Saint-Hilaire
The Saint-Hilaire test excavation (Lafleur et al. 1988a,
1988b) was performed in a sensitive clay deposit from east-
ern Canada. The excavation is 8 m deep and 62 m2 in area
with four slopes of 188, 278,3 348, and 458 to the horizontal.
The soil is composed of 0.6 m of sand underlain by 33 m of
Champlain Sea clay. The clay has a vane shear strength that
increases in a regular manner with depth from about 30 kPa
at 4 m to about 77 kPa at 20 m. Several failures were re-
Published by NRC Research Press
 L’Heureux et al.
Fig. 4. Normalized factor of safety (R) as a function of the time factor (T(Hexc)).
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Fig. 5. (a) Time factor (T(Hexc)) for the long term (R = 0.015) as a
function of the geometry of the cut. (b) Time factor (T(Hexc)) for
the long term normalized to the case where Htot/Hexc = 1 as a func-
tion of the geometry. The broken line shows the time variation as a
For personal use only.
function of the square of the height.
ported in the 458 and 348 slopes during or shortly after the
excavation. Only shallow soil movements were observed in
the 278 slope, in particular upon thawing of the soil after
the first winter. Pore pressure observations were reported by
Lafleur et al. (1988a, 1988b). The results show that a period
491
of approximately 6 months is necessary to achieve pore
pressure equilibrium in the 278 and 188 slopes that have not
been affected by failure. In the field, coefficients of
swelling–consolidation can be evaluated on the basis of
small-strain shear modulus (Gmax) and in situ hydraulic per-
meability tests (see Leroueil and Hight (2003) and referen-
ces therein). This method was successfully applied at
different sites in eastern Canada by Laflamme and Leroueil
(1999, 2003). For the clayey deposit at Saint-Hilaire, the co-
efficient of permeability was measured to be relatively con-
stant at 7.0  10–10 m/s (Laflamme and Leroueil 1999).
Gmax, deduced from piezocone tests at great depths, shows a
linear increase from 10 MPa at 2 m depth to 43 MPa at
32 m (Laflamme and Leroueil 1999). Assuming a Poisson’s
ratio of 0.25, the average small-strain modulus of elasticity
can be estimated at 72 MPa. Incorporating this value into
eq. [9], the average coefficient of swelling–consolidation is
estimated to be 4.0  10–6 m2/s for this case study.
With respect to the numerical analyses performed in this
paper, the case of Saint-Hilaire represents a cut geometry of
Htot/Hexc = 4.12. From the results of Fig. 5a, such a cut ge-
ometry in clay leads to a time parameter T(Hexc) at long
term in the order of 2.1 and a back-calculated cvs of
½10 2
cvs ¼ TðHexc ÞHexc =t ¼ 8:64  106 m2 =s
The calculated cvs value is 2.15 times the value deduced
from in situ tests. This is very small when coefficients of
swelling–consolidation are considered.
Excavation at Rivière-Vachon
The Rivière-Vachon cut, situated 600 km east of Québec
city, was performed in 1996 by the Quebec Ministry of
Transport to improve the safety of a curve in Road 138.
This cut slopes at 208 to the horizontal and is 24 m high.
The soil deposit is composed of a low-plasticity clay and
silt, with a preconsolidation pressure (s p0 ) that is nearly con-
stant with depth and equal to about 400 kPa. The total thick-
ness of the deposit (Htot) deduced from Laflamme and
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 492
Fig. 6. Normalized factor of safety (R) as a function of the time parameter (T(Hexc)) normalized to long-term conditions.
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Leroueil (1999) is 55 m. Hydraulic conductivity measured in
the laboratory and in situ with a self-boring permeameter is
equal to about 1.16  10–9 m/s. Elastic parameters for this
clayey soil were deduced from piezocone tests and resulted
in estimated values of 100 MPa for Gmax and 250 MPa of E’
For personal use only.
(Laflamme and Leroueil 1999). Using the latter and assuming
y’ of 0.25, one obtains an approximate coefficient of
swelling–consolidation of 3.5  10–5 m2/s for this clay deposit.
Time to reach steady-state pore-water pressure conditions
in the slope was calculated to be approximately 250 days at
a depth of 30 m below the surface and 350 days at a depth
of 20 m (Laflamme and Leroueil 1999). The Rivière-
Vachon cut represents a geometry of Htot/Hexc = 2.29, and
thus a time parameter (T(Hexc)) to reach long-term condi-
tions of 2 according to Fig. 5a. Assuming that steady-state
conditions were reached in the slope at 350 days and mak-
ing use of eq. [10], one obtains a back-calculated coefficient
of swelling–consolidation of 3.8  10–5 m2/s. This gives a
value of 1.09 for the ratio of in situ to calculated cvs, which
is very small.
Even if limited, these two cases indicate that the approach
developed in this paper seems reasonable.
Practical implications and limitations of the
method
Results from the two case histories indicate that the time
parameter to reach long-term conditions may be directly es-
timated from Fig. 5a when the geometry of the excavation is
known. Reliable knowledge of the coefficient of swelling–
consolidation is critical, however, to estimate the time to
reach full pore pressure equilibration in the slope. In the
present case histories, the values of cvs were deduced based
on small-strain shear modulus and hydraulic conductivity
tests reliably measured on site. On the other hand, the re-
sults from numerical simulations presented herein assume
soil properties typical of those for eastern Canada clays,
and the results could be different in other clay deposits. It
is thought, however, that the trends obtained are applicable
to other clays.
Can. Geotech. J. Vol. 46, 2009
The two case histories presented herein show that the time
parameter T(Hexc) to reach long-term conditions following
the cut in a clayey deposit may be different from 0.33 for
different values of Htot/Hexc. As a comparison, the time to
reach pore pressure equilibrium would have been estimated
as 1 month and 2 months for the Saint-Hilaire and Rivière-
Vachon cases, respectively, if the idea considered by Eigen-
brod (1975) had been followed.
All the analyses presented in this paper consider the case
where the lower boundary is impervious. In many cases in
reality, however, the lower bound is free-draining; an aqui-
fer is often present below the base of a clay stratum.
Although it is beyond this paper to analyze this in detail,
we anticipate the results of Fig. 5 to be applicable. In this
case, the geometrical term Htot/Hexc should be divided by 2
(i.e., two free-draining boundaries).
Conclusion
Numerical analyses have been performed to study the
evolution of the factor of safety following the excavation of
a cut in a clayey soil. The results show that there is a rela-
tion between the time for full pore pressure equalization and
the geometry (i.e., Htot/Hexc) of the cut for a given set of
clayey soil properties. Consequently, the time during which
one can rely on the short-term factor of safety depends on
the geometry of the cut. In the case of a cut geometry differ-
ing from Htot = Hexc, the time parameter T(Hexc) at steady-
state pore pressure conditions will differ from the case con-
sidered by Eigenbrod (1975).
Furthermore, it is shown that T(Hexc) increases with an in-
crease in the thickness of the clayey deposit until it reaches
a value of 1.9 at a geometry of Htot/Hexc of about 1.8. Then,
the value of T(Hexc) only slightly increases with Htot/Hexc
equal to or larger than 1.8. This slight increase could be
seen as constant for practical reasons.
Results obtained in the present study show that 50% of
the difference between the short- and long-term factors of
safety is lost in about 8% of the time to reach equilibration
of pore pressures. For a geotechnical engineer, this means
Published by NRC Research Press
 L’Heureux et al.
that the time during which one can rely on the short-term
strength of the clayey soil following excavation may be rel-
atively short.
Lastly, a comparison between the analytical results and
field observations shows that the time parameter to reach
long-term conditions could be approximated for a given
slope configuration. Reliable knowledge of the coefficient
of swelling–consolidation is critical, however, to estimate
the time to reach full pore pressure equilibration following
the excavation of a cut in clayey soil.
Acknowledgements
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This research was supported by the Quebec Ministry of
Transportation.
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Chandler, R.J. 1984. Recent European experience of landslides in
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