FACULTY OF MANAGEMENT SCIENCES

DEPARTMENT OF MARKETING
UNIVERSITY OF JOS.
COURSE CODE: MKT 326
COURSE TITLE: BUSINESS COMMUNICATION
UNITS OF CREDIT: 3 CREDIT UNITS
COURSE LECTURER: OTOR M. I.

INTRODUCTION
Course Aim: The aim of this course is to acquaint students with the use and
importance of communication in an organization or in businesses.
Course Objective: At the end of this course, students are expected to;
- Know the role of Communication in Business, Organization, and
Marketing.
- Understand the basis and methods of Communication.
- Be able to Communicate effectively in an Organization as a Marketer
- Learn how to write Business Correspondences or Business Letters and
Reports.
- Learn how to choose their words in Business Communication.
- Know how to respond to the Telephone, Telegrams, Radio messages etc.
Course Outline
- Introduction
- Definition of Communication
- Historical Development of Communication
- Elements of the Communication Process
- Functions of Communication
- Classification of Communication
 Interpersonal Communication
 Advantages and Disadvantages of Interpersonal Communication
 Mass Communication
 Features of Mass Communication
 Advantages and Disadvantages of Mass Communication
- Basis and Objectives of Communication
- Types and Methods of Communication
- Ways of Making Communication Effective
 - Organizational Communication
- Types of Organizations
- Types of Organizational Communication
 Upward Communication
 Downward Communication
 Horizontal or Lateral Communication
- Barriers to Business Communication
- Principles of Business Communication
 Choice of Words
 Sentence Structure
 Paragraphs Construction
- Principles of Business Writing
 Business Correspondences or Business Letters
 Non-verbal Dimension of Communication
- Visual Communication
- Telephone Techniques
- Speeches on Special Occasions
- Radio and Television Speaking
- Handling Telegrams
- Cables and Radio Messages
- Report Writing
- Social Media
Conclusion
Students are encouraged to take their studies seriously and note the following;
- 75% attendance is required for you to pass this course.
- Evaluation of students which may consist of assignments, tests, class
exercises etc. and attendance carries 40% while final exams score 60%.
- Students are encouraged to be free ask their lecturer any question that will
help them have a better understanding of this course and other related
issues in the class or in the office. Mondays and Thursdays, 10am-12noon
is open for students to see me in my office. Phone calls and SMS after
office hours is not allowed except for the class reps.
- Because of the limited space in lecture halls, the class reps should always
let me know where the students are seated for this lecture.
DEFINITION OF COMMUNICATION
So many definitions and interpretations have been put across by different
writers, scholars or academics. One basic characteristic of such definitions is
that they appear to over simplify the concept of communication. For instance,
Transin (1980) defined communication as the exchange of information and the
transmission of meaning from one party to another. Chester I Bernard, in his
book “Communication Structure, Theories and Models” defined communication
as the means by which people are linked up together in an organization towards
achieving a common purpose or goal.
In the same vein, Tortoriello (1978) also defined communication as an
interactional process in which meaning is stimulated through the sending and
the receiving of both verbal and non-verbal messages.
Note however, that the above definitions of communication appear rather
too narrow-minded for an academic environment especially in view of the on-
going rapid revolution and socialization processes within the social strata.
According to the American Society for Training and Development
(ASTD), Communication has been defined as the interchange of thoughts that
bring about mutual understanding and confidence or good human relations. It is
therefore the transmission and receipt of messages from one person to another,
and the means for unifying organizational activities. On the other hand, Leon
defines communication as the international transmission of information by
means of some established signaling system.
Daniel Katz and Robert Kahn defined communication as the transfer of
information from sender to the receiver with the information being understood
by the receiver. This implies the exchange of information and the transmission
of meaning which is the very essence of a social system or organization.
To this effect therefore, we shall evolve our own definition, hence
communication can be defined as the verbal or non-verbal, personal or non-
personal, goal-oriented interchange of information, feelings, opinions, ideas
etc., between two or more parties towards the accomplishment of organizational
goals. In other words, all messages are purposeful which of course is the very
essence of any social system or organization.
Thus, we can deduct from all the above definitions that:
a) Communication generally is a process which can be viewed in relation to the
entire social system in which it occurs and the particular function it performs
and not just merely looking at it as a social process occurring between the
sender of messages and the potential recipient.
b) Communication is an irreversible and repeated process. This is simply
because in as much as people are linked up together in various organizations
 in one way or the other, there is that need for mutual understanding. To this
effect, communication becomes an inevitable act so far as there is life.
c) Communication is reciprocal – this is because it must involve two or more
parties. It must also be two dimensional through the process of feedback or
response by the recipient of the message; for this is the only yardstick of
measuring communication effectiveness.
d) Meaning must be present and inevitable. This is simply because the very
essence of communicating. For every given message there must be a
corresponding meaning attached. This, no doubt is always subject to the
level of ease (both the encoding and decoding). Therefore, without meaning,
a message is likely not to have been communicated. This means that
communication is only clear when it is expressed in a language and
transmitted in a way that can be understood by the recipient.

HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT
The word “communication” is a Latin word derived from the term
communist (i.e., common) is as old as man himself. Communication according
to its origin should therefore involve a common point of focus.
For the purpose of the reasons mentioned above and for convenience, the
historical review of communication developments shall be divided into periods.
The Ancient – what existed at this time in terms of communication was only
accidental communication.
The Medieval (Primitive) Period:
The important methods of communication include;
- Sound/Calls.
- Gestures and Drawing.
- Evolvement of language.
- Use of picture writing.
- Development of alphabets.
(15th -19th Centuries):
The important methods of communication then were;
- Introduction of printing.
- Literacy education as a result of printed materials.
- Organized postal system.
- Posting of letters became a widespread practice.
- Improved transport/increase volume of services especially at the post
office.
(1840 – 1959):
During this period, the important methods of communication were;
- Introduction of electric telegraph in U.S.A only.
- Daily information from very far distances.
- Laying Atlantic cable in 1866 led to linking together all countries of the
world.
- Telephone invention in 1870.
- Invention of wireless telegraphs in 1901 (the earliest form of radio then).
- Invention of the typewriter revolutionalised business communication.
- Dictating and duplicating machines.
- Introduction of colour-added entertainment to millions (through colour
television).
(1960s Era):
The important methods of communication include;
- Emergence of electronic computers to transmit data (data transmission).
- Widespread use of facsimile machines by which letters, drawings and
photographs were transmitted to distant locations in exact form.
- Long-range space communication achieved in 1962.
(1970s Era):
The important methods of communication during this era were;
- A big boost in television supply.
- Development of video tapes and disc systems.
- Introduction of World Processing System in business offices.
- Increased efficiency, speedy communication.
- Use of automatic highspeed typewriters, optical readers and data
transmission devices.
(1980s – Date)
The important methods of communication adopted were;
- Further development in data processing and computer software.
- Further development in computer and its peripherals.
- More efficiency/effectiveness.
- Scientific decisions became predominant (facsimile).
In a nutshell, the above is just a brief run-down of the history of
communication from mere art works to a sophisticated scientific method of
communicating. From mere use of foot, horseback, relay runs and even birds
 (like pigeons used by Romans) into the use of electricity through highly
sophisticated automation; this has been a tremendous development indeed.
ELEMENTS OF THE COMMUNICATION PROCESS
One person sends a message which reflects his view of reality. In turn,
this message is received and is understood by the intended recipient in terms of
his view of reality. Sending, like receiving, centers on listening, reading and
observing. The sender may use words, numbers, pictures or actions to effect
communication. Thus, raw data, orders and processed information must be
translated to the receiver. If the communication is effective, the sender and
receiver will perceive the same reality.
(1) Source, sender or encoder
(2) Message
(3) Channel
(4) Receiver or decoder
(5) Feedback

SOUR MESSAG CHANNE RECEIVE

CE E L R FEEDBAC
K
Since language is the major factor that influences communication, there is
the need for meaningful messages, using simple, straight-forward words and
short sentences.

FUNCTIONS OF COMMUNICATION
Why is communication a critical or a crucial factor in human existence.
Communication generally is a very important tool because it is the only process,
opportunity or avenue through which we can know about things happening in
the whole world. In other words, the whole world is altered through the
communication process.
Communication is very important because it provides us information which
is very fundamental in the decision-making process of every organization and
individual. Indeed, group activity is practically impossible without
communication because co-ordination and change cannot be affected.
Therefore, communication provides vital information which in essence,
constitutes the heart of every organization. Information is the heart of every
organization because it is the life-wire or life-blood without which no
organization can survive. Information is considered as the input of an
organization and communication, being the container of the information
constitutes a vital resource as far as business transaction is concerned.
Information changes people and organizations as well as the entire world
through decision-making processes. The effectiveness of any organization
depends to a large extent on the effectiveness of the communication system
being adopted. In essence, if the communication method is faulty, then the
entire organization stands affected.
Summarily, effective communication results in the following;
a) It helps participants understand each other better.
b) It minimizes conflicts in organizational set-ups.
c) It makes the achievement of objectives less cumbersome.
d) It makes easy the realization of integrative action or team work.
e) It simplifies the management process because it improves the quality of
decisions through vital information systems.

CLASSIFICATION OF COMMUNICATION
Duerr (1973) once viewed management as communication or
communication as management (synonymous terms). He further talked of
communication as the heart and soul of management. The secret of business
does not lie in the series of techniques – techniques of so-called management
science. It is on the basis of this that he classified communication into two
major forms:
- Inter-personal Communication
- Mass Communication
Of recent, researches have also shown that there is the intra-personal
communication which refers to the internalized, pre-conceived ideas by only an
individual communicator. The inter-personal communication on the other hand
is the face-to-face communication or eyeball to eyeball and it involves two
parties. It is a function of the intra-personal communication which means that it
depends purely on the intra-personal communication for her level of
effectiveness. Mass communication on the contrary is one geared towards a
large audience through the help of a technical means.
Features Of Mass Communication
- Mass communication is a mass message directed towards a mass
audience.
- It is a mass message demanding a mass media.
- The messages are conveyed or passed simultaneously to the audience.
- For mass communication to be effective, it requires some technical
means, for instance, radios, television, newspaper, textbooks, magazines,
etc.
Advantages Of Inter-Personal Communication
a) Inter-personal communication ensures immediate feedback or response.
b) It is highly flexible – This is because it enables the sender to alter or modify
the content and style of the message easily.
c) Inter-personal communication has the ability to undertake on the spot
modifications and assessments.
d) Inter-personal communication also has greater advantage of the capacity of
building goodwill and rapport.
Disadvantages Of Inter-Personal Communication
a) Inter-personal communication is less accurate when it compares to mass
communication. In essence, there is every tendency for inter-personal
communication to change easily.
b) Compared to mass communication, inter-personal communication has a
limited scope or area of coverage.
c) Inter-personal communication has the demerit of slow speed. For example,
in a situation where you want to communicate to large audience situation.
d) Inter-personal communication has high unit-cost compared to mass
communication.
Note: Inter-personal communication is best suited when dealing with a very
small audience whereas mass communication is appropriate when handling a
large audience.
Advantages Of Mass Communication
a) Compared to inter-personal communication, mass communication has high
speed coverage. By this, we are simply referring to the time period through
which the message is passed.
b) Mass communication has the merit of wider coverage. This simply implies
that in mass communication, the message can easily be sent over a very wide
geographical area.
c) Mass communication messages are routine, accurate and more standardized
compared to the inter-personal communication.
We consider mass communication approach as the best because the piece of
message you are sending is basically the same message all over. And it is also
considered the best because all the people you are communicating to get the
same information from the message and of course about the same time.
Therefore, mass communication is believed to be more accurate because of its
standardized nature.
Disadvantages Of Mass Communication
a) Mass communication has limited influence over the content, style and of
course the structure of the messages. Here we are saying that the sender of
the message has limited influence over the content, style and structure of that
particular message because you are dealing with a very large audience.
b) Mass communication has delayed response or feedback. This means that the
reply in mass communication takes a longer time than when talking to only
an individual who will provide you with immediate feedback.
c) Mass communication has less flexibility compared to interpersonal
communication because of its standardized nature. Since you are delivering
the message to a very large audience, they are not likely to be satisfied with
the message like in the case of inter-personal communication approach
where it is a matter of control and monitoring.
d) Mass communication lacks the human touch or at least the intimate
interaction since you are sending the same message to millions of people, for
example, telling all the people you love them.

BASIS/OBJECTIVES OF COMMUNICATION
Generally speaking, the central idea of communication is to transmit
meaning from one party to another which is usually backed through the
understanding of the message. But organizational communication in its broad
sense is the idea of affecting and of course influencing actions towards the
welfare of the enterprise in question. Communication provides very vital
information about the financial position of a company, competition, market
prices, technology, governmental policies etc. communication senses as the
organizational compass shifts and its essential for the internal functioning of
enterprises because it integrates the managerial functions. The objectives of
communication are four dimensional:
- To Inform
- To Stimulate
- To Persuade and
- To Remind

a) To Inform: it is always very important for an organization to inform the

general public about her operations or goods and services. Business
organizations normally inform her employees, government, customers,
society and owners. Most enterprises inform these public groups about their
existence and products and services to be offered. Information is best passed
through the use of promotional tools such as advertising, sales promotion,
 publicity, packaging, personal selling, etc. organizations inform the
government about their activities, for instance, how much profit or loss is
incurred in a particular year. The business informs to gain patronage or
support, to create a goodwill or desired friendliness.
b) To Stimulate: the whole idea of stimulation is to stir up or rather awaken
one’s interest or desires. Stimulation in essence is the act of selling the
organizational products to the general public through the application of
promotional tools, for such information awakens the public interests
sufficiently. Business communication therefore enables organizations to
stimulate adequately.
c) To Persuade: persuasion here means inducement or total conviction of an
individual towards accepting a particular decision. In persuasion, the style of
the presentation is of prime importance if really you want the recipient of the
message to act in a way you expect him to. Inducements here could include;
giving of discounts to customers, emphasizing the benefits that are
associated with buying a particular product. The persuasion process
generally, could be rational or emotional. The rational persuasion aims at
emphasizing the benefits, uses or functions whereas the emotional
persuasion appeals to the people’s subconscious or emotions. Therefore, in
any business communication, there is need to apply both the rational and
emotional persuasion towards effective presentation of messages.
d) To Remind: this simply means calling to mind of an individual and its
equally very important because there may be the tendency of forgetfulness.
People forget because of lack of interest, non-involvement, pressure of work
and non-usage. The general public needs to be reminded constantly about the
existence of an organization, her activities or services etc.

TYPES /METHODS OF COMMUNICATION

There are basically five types of business communication;
- Oral Communication / Verbal Communication
- Non-verbal Communication
- Written Communication
- Visual Communication
- Audio-visual Communication

a) Oral / Verbal Communication: oral communication involves interviews,

staff meetings, conferences, counselling, radio commercials, training
sessions, formal addresses and discussions, symposia, debates, lectures, etc.
it is certain that a great deal of information is communicated orally and it is
on record that about 75% of organizational assignments are oral. Oral
communication can be a face-to-face meeting of two or more people, for
 example, where the Chief Accountant is addressing a large audience, say
employees. Oral communication can be formal or informal, planned or
accidental, depending on the situation. The advantage associated with oral
communication is that it ensures speedy interchange of information with
immediate feedback. Questions can be thrown for clarification purposes
especially when there are doubts. However, the problem with oral
communication is that it does not always save time (i.e., it may be costly in
terms of time and energy).
b) Non-Verbal Communication
Every move one makes or whatever one does is a form of communication
since it has a communicative effect. You can communicate non-verbally
through various ways. For instance, the way one speaks, eats or sees. In short
even death communicates meaning. We communicate non-verbally either
consciously or unconsciously. The non-verbal communication can either
support one or be against him and of course, it is a very good example of
meta communication. Though non-verbal communication is not spoken nor
verbalized it is at times felt, heard, seen, smelt, etc. e.g., ringing of a bell.
Silence: Silence is a very good means of communication and it can be defined
as the absence of sound. Day Hanmarks defines it as unspoken dialogue.
Silence is considered as a very clear tool for communication since it sometimes
emphasizes the message more clearly than spoken words. Thus “silence is
golden”, for instance, a picture says more than a thousand words that people
cannot express. Silence can nourish a relationship or destroy it. It can isolate or
foster a very close friendship and it has both negative and positive influence. In
addition, silence can also show contempt, displeasure, hostility, disrespect,
dislikes etc. it can also display kindness, content, respect and of course it
suggests guilt, secrecy, mystery, dissent, etc. Silence is usually reinforced by
such non-verbal behavior as shrugging of shoulders, nodding of the head, biting
of the finger, ditching of the feet, frown, stares etc. it is therefore necessary for
one to exercise restraint in the use of silence in communication. This is because
it can be a very dangerous weapon in communication.
Body Language: Body language is essentially a form of non-verbal
communication and it uses non-verbal cues such as facial expressions, frowns,
smiles, nodding of the head while talking, signs, break-down etc. all these to
communicate meanings as far as communication is concerned. etc. Body
language is a good example of kinesic communication. For instance;
 When one sees a disorganized crowd wailing, shouting, and crying, it
indicates either danger, confusion, agony, fear etc.
 A man coming out of his office with a swollen or sad face.
 A student jumping on receiving his result slip.
 A lady walking stylishly in the midst of boys.
 Body language is a very important tool of communication hence it speaks
even louder than words. And to communicate non-verbally through the use of
body language or movement, the following are necessary;
 You must be an excellent observer.
 You must have a very high perception.
Space: Space being a means of communication is defined as an area or distance
between objects, lines or points hence it is considered a very important tool of
non-verbal communication. Space could indicate love, hatred, enmity,
friendship, messenger or boss. Eg. through the positions of parties, you can
dictate who is the boss and the messenger. etc.
There are two kinds of space; Physical space and Personal space
Physical space: This is considered as exclusive territory. For instance, someone
stepping into your room and beating up your wife or sitting on your daddy’s
seat.
Touch: This is a means of non-verbal communication which is prevalent,
showing some form of closeness or intimacy. This is usually practiced by blind
people in form of feeling. Touch could also be used when secrecy is the desire
and it is one of the earliest forms of communication. This is because during a
child’s formative years, he uses touch e.g., if a child is crying and you touch
him, he stops. And if he is hungry, he touches the mother’s breast. This
decreases as the individual moves from childhood to adulthood because of the
development of his organs. Touch is used mostly when one wants to show
sympathy, condolence or show one’s degree of anger or dissatisfaction or
intimate relationship in which there is desire to show a level of affection e.g., in
children. You can also use touch as a means of calling to attention, for instance,
pinching, tapping, etc. Therefore, touch should be used with great care because
it could be very irritating, disgusting and repulsive. And it will even be more
repulsive if used on strangers or friends indiscriminately. The types of touch
which communicate meaning include embrace, handshake, pinches, kisses,
tapping, rubbing, tackling, etc.
Dressing/Physical Appearance: This is a good form of non-verbal
communication. For instance, the way one dresses is an indication of one’s
reality and self-concept. Self-concept here means what one feels of himself and
what he expects the general public to see him as.
- Dressing has a lot of communications e.g.;
- One’s head or hair style has communicative implications.
- One’s body (physique) build up.
- The colour of one’s skin, eyes, finger nails, physical deformity etc. all
communicate meaning.
 Non-verbal communication therefore, should not be interpreted in isolation
of the spoken word or else it could be deceptive. Through the positions of
parties, you can dictate who is the boss and the messenger.
Facial expression: for instance, weeping, smiling or frowning after seeing a
man’s face. Eyes attraction, etc., all communicate meaning.
Time: this is also a non-verbal technique of communication. Most organizations
talk of short, medium and long-term which tell us their specific ranges. The
time enables us determine mornings, afternoons, evenings, rainy and cloudy
period etc. time therefore communicates meanings.
Odour: for instance, when one perceives an offensive odour or a sweet odour,
he then becomes informed immediately. Non-verbal communication may be
indicated by gestures of super-correctness by facial expressions such as frowns
and disappointed look, by placing hands on hips and pointing fingers of
accusation. It may be through very attentive eye contact, active listening, or
raising of hand to ask for permission to speak at a meeting. Non-verbal
communication is mostly geared towards supporting the verbal communication.
But in some few instances, non-verbal communication, giving rise to the saying
that actions often speak louder than words.
c) Written: written communication are statements we put in written form and
these include reports, newsletters, letters, manuals, booklets, bulletins and
magazines, newspapers, postal, etc. written communication therefore has the
advantage of providing records, references and legal defenses. The message
can be carefully prepared and read by a large audience through the
distribution of mass mailings and promotion of uniformity in organizational
policies and procedures.
The disadvantages of written communication are poor grammar,
ineffective sentence structure and incorrect spelling especially by poor
writers. Also, it does not provide for immediate feedback compared to oral
communication.
d) Visual: by visual communication we mean communication through the use
of sight, for example, colours, paintings, drawings, illustrations, dress,
photographs or pictures, symbols, organizational trademarks, road signs, etc.
Visual Communication: Jerome Bruner once said that an individual learns
through three ways;

Enactive learning – this is simply learning through experience.

Iconic learning – this is learning through pictorial life, learning through
pictorial materials which are exposed through sight. In essence, it is learning
which is achieved by viewing.
 Symbolic learning – here you communicate through abstract experiences.
This means something that is imaginary or exists only in the mind.
Examples here include; beliefs, attitude, values, religion etc.
Ernest Combrich says “Our world is essentially a visual world”. Having
conducted research on visual communication. And by this he simply means that
everything done through communication in this world is thorough. Ernest’s
observation was supported by Rosenblatt, Cheatham and Watt where they say
we are almost continuously exposed to visual expressions from the moment we
wake up in the morning until we finally close our eyes to sleep at night. They
added that most of these signs, signals and symbols are profit or commercial
oriented.
The Chinese philosopher ‘Confucius’ said that “a picture is worth 10,000
words”. This still emphasizes the importance attached to visual communication
as the non-verbal communication aspect. Nevertheless, it is not every message
at our disposal that can be reduced to visual communication. For instance, love,
ecstasy (trance), euphoria (joy), sentiments etc.
Visual communication aspect supports or helps in simplifying the whole
communication process. There are times that words on their own cannot tell the
whole story, pictures and charts are therefore used to augment the story and
vice-versa. This goes to say that pictures at times have more lasting impact than
a thousand words. Visual aids therefore are very necessary when a lot of
information is to be presented in a relatively small space.
Signs, Symbols and Images: These are also considered non-verbal
communication forms. A sign is defined as either a movement, a gesture, a mark
or design which conveys a message and it is termed a subset of a symbol. A
symbol on the other hand is defined as a sign, number, alphabet, or word which
represents an idea, belief or even organization. A symbol becomes part of a
culture when a group of symbols have been accepted by members of the society
concerned and of course put under constant usage over a long period of time as
a language. Therefore, once such symbols are used the people within that
society know what they are implying or communicating. Symbols in this
situation can be termed as conventional means of communication (established
behavior).
Certainly, different cultures have different symbols in which they
communicate to one another, but some cultures or symbols are related in nature.
Some good examples of symbols include;
Victory
Children
Female
 Male
NOTE: There are also examples of mathematical symbols.
An image is best defined as that collective view one has about either a
company, her product and services, personal or general reputation etc. signs and
symbols play very important roles in the creation of images because they settle
some kind of belief in one’s mind. This is considered as the fundamental basis
for organizational productivity. Thus, Thomas Watson says an organization
with a positive image is likely to attract customers more regularly. There are
two kinds of images:
Physical image i.e., the external or outer appearance. This is the real, concrete
part which can be seen.
Mental image i.e., the internal. The physical image solidifies into the mental
i.e., the physical comes before the mental image.
Colour: This is a very good means of communication and it is described as a
form of pictorial communication. It is considered pictorial because you can see
it by means of vision. Colour has the advantage of high speed of interpretation
and of course devoid of linguistics boundaries.
Colour therefore, can be used to arouse symbolic and psychologically based
images. Colour has a very strong communicative effect and for any colour to
communicate very effectively, it should be dark for sadness, white for peace,
red for danger etc.
Photography: This is also a good means of non-verbal communication and it is
defined as the act of taking photographs through the involvement of skills. It is
generally believed that a picture is worth more than a thousand words, hence,
the following are the advantages associated with pictures;
 It instills the believability of objects i.e., the ability to believe something
when seen.
 It conveys information immediately because once one sees something, he
interprets it immediately.
 It is versatile i.e.; it communicates messages in a variety of ways.
 It attracts attention.
Advantages of Visual Communication
 Effective over long distances
 Can be used while moving
 Fast -- speed of light
 Effective in all directions (independent of wind)
 Passive signals require no expenditure of energy
Disadvantage of Visual Communication
 The cost of going visual communication is very high.
 There should be a high consumption of time and needs experts to be
appointed.
 Preparation of visual communication objects takes lot of hard work and
dedication.
 Visual media alone is inefficient. It is done with the help of other media
such as audio, computer-based media etc.
 The visual media lacks the content. It gives the idea but does not tell the
whole story.
 If the sender wants something to add other media support is necessary.
 Designing a good visual communication is very difficult.
 Sometimes it may lead to failure. So, most organizations prefer audio-
visual communication.

e) Audio-visual: audio-visual communication is the communication through

the use of sound and vision. Audio-visual communication may or may not be
accompanied with sound for instance, films, televisions, slides, video films
etc.

WAYS OF MAKING COMMUNICATION EFFECTIVE

There are several approaches that can be used to improve communication
in any organizational set-up:
a) Learn to combine both verbal and non-verbal communication technique.
b) Learn to show empathy always – “Empathy” here means imaginative
understanding of others. In other words, it is the idea of putting yourself in
the position of others/receiver.
c) Always use simple words and phrases, i.e., avoid unnecessary or ambiguous
words and repetition.
d) Express thoughts or ideas logically and in a direct way and be objective.
e) Use short sentences and paragraphs.
f) Where possible, give examples and illustrations through the use of charts.

COMMUNICATION FLOW IN ORGANISATIONS

Basically, in a formal organization, communication flows in various
directions, upward, downward and crosswise. Originally, downward
communication has been emphasized, but there is every evidence that it tends to
ignore the receiver of the message. Indeed, communication has to be both ways
for it to be effective. Which means, downward and upward communication.
Communication also flows horizontally, i.e., between people on the same or
similar organizational levels and diagonally, involving employees from
different levels who are not in direct reporting relationships with each other.
However, organization communication in its broadest sense is to effect
change and influence action towards the welfare of the enterprise in question.
Communication provides very vital information about the financial position of a
company, competition, market prices, technology, governmental policies, etc. it
therefore serves as the organization’s compass, essentially for the internal
functioning of the organization and integration of the managerial functions.
The significance and importance of communication lies in the fact that
the whole of humanity is altered through communication. It is the tool or avenue
through which we can talk about the world around us and it provides
information which is very fundamental in the decision-making process of an
organizations and individuals. In essence, group activity is impracticable
without communication.
The life-wire of every organization is information. It brings about
changes in people, organizations or the world as a whole. Therefore, the
effectiveness of any organization depends to a large extent on the effectiveness
of the organizational communication, if it is faulty, the whole organizations will
be affected.

TYPES / KINDS OF ORGANISATIONS

There are basically two types of organizations viz:
- Formal Organization
- Informal Organization
How does communication take place in an organization? In a formal
organization, communication takes place vertically and it follows closely the
lines of authority within such an organization. In the formal organization
structure, the classification of functions and their relationships are all clearly
spelt out. There is room for authority delegation hence the whole structure is
regarded as a decision communication network. In theory, horizontal
communication does not exist in formal organizations, but in practice, it is
allowed.
In formal organizations, the downward and upward communications are
predominant whereas in informal organizations, the horizontal and diagonal
communication types are common.
 The communication that takes place in the informal organization is
considered as social and not official because it has no structure and of course
takes place during leisure which has no official authority to it.

TYPES OF ORGANIZATIONAL COMMUNICATION

(1) Upward Communication
This only operates in an ideal situation. This passes from subordinate to
supervisors and continues up to the organizational hierarchy. More often than
not, this flow is hindered by top officials in the communication link who filter
the message by not transmitting all the information to their bosses, especially
unfavorable information for fear of victimization. Objective transmission of
information is however very necessary for control purposes. Top management
needs to know the financial records of the company, production performance,
marketing information, needs and expectations of lower-level employees, etc.
Again, employees who are concerned try to make suggestions, appeals and
complaint system for a peaceful working atmosphere. For this communication
to be effective, there must be an atmosphere of freedom of communication
between subordinates and superiors.
(2) Downward Communication
This is an operation by it encourages. This approach flows from people at
higher levels to those of lower levels in the organizational hierarchy. It is
peculiar to organizations that operate authoritarian leadership. Downward oral
communication includes verbal instructions, meetings, use of telephones,
speeches, etc. Downward written communication includes handbooks,
pamphlets, letters, bulletin boards, periodicals and company newspapers.
Usually downward communication provides the following:
- Directive for handling tasks.
- Information for understanding the nature and relationship of tasks.
- Procedures and enterprise practice information.
- Feedback about the performance and subordinates.
- Information about organizational goals.

(3) Horizontal / Crosswise Communication

Here there is balance of communication. This includes horizontal flow of
information with people on the same or similar organizational level and
diagonal flow – with people at different levels who have no direct reporting
relationship with the organization. The crosswise is used to speed up the
information flow, improve understanding and co-ordinate efforts towards the
achievement of organizational objectives. It does not follow the organizational
hierarchy but cuts across the chain of command. The organizational
environment ensures occasion for crosswise communication, and this avenue
range from informal meetings of the company team, lunch hours spent together
to the mere formal conference, committees and board meetings. This form of
communication also occurs when individual members of different departments
are grouped into task teams or project organizations.
Crosswise communication may create potential difficulties but it is a
necessity in most organizations in order to respond to the needs of the complex
and dynamic organizational environment.
4) Grapevine Communication (Informal Communication or Rumour
Network)
Grapevine is an informal channel of business communication. It is called so
because it stretches throughout the organization in all directions irrespective of
the authority levels. Man, as we know is a social animal. Despite existence of
formal channels in an organization, the informal channels tend to develop when
he interacts with other people in organization. It exists more at lower levels of
organization. Grapevine generally develops due to various reasons. One of them
is that when an organization is facing recession, the employees sense
uncertainty. Also, at times employees do not have self-confidence which made
them form unions. Sometimes the managers show preferential treatment and
favour some employees giving a segregated feeling to other employees. Thus,
when employees sense a need to exchange their views, they go for grapevine
network as they cannot use the formal channel of communication in that case.
Generally during breaks in cafeteria, the subordinates talk about their superior’s
attitude and behaviour and exchange views with their peers. They discuss
rumours about promotion and transfer of other employees. Thus, grapevine
spreads like fire and it is not easy to trace the cause of such communication at
times. Example of Grapevine Network of Communication
Suppose the profit amount of a company is known. Rumour is spread that
this much profit is there and, on that basis, bonus is declared. CEO may be in
relation to the Production Manager. They may have friendly relations with each
other.
Advantages of Grapevine Communication.
i. Grapevine channels carry information rapidly. As soon as an
employee gets to know some confidential information, he becomes
inquisitive and passes the details to his closest friend who in turn
passes it too to others. Thus, it spreads hastily.
ii. The managers get to know the reactions of their subordinates on their
policies. Thus, the feedback obtained is quick compared to formal
channel of communication.
 iii. The grapevine creates a sense of unity among the employees who
share and discuss their views with each other. Thus, grapevine helps in
developing group cohesiveness.
iv. The grapevine serves as an emotional supportive value.
v. The grapevine is a supplement in those cases where formal
communication does not work.
Disadvantages of Grapevine Communication
i. The grapevine carries partial information at times as it is more based
on rumours. Thus, it does not clearly represent the complete state of
affairs.
ii. The grapevine is not trustworthy always as it does not follow official
path of communication and is spread more by gossips and
unconfirmed report.
iii. The productivity of employees may be hampered as they spend more
time talking rather than working.
iv. The grapevine leads to making hostility against the executives.
v. The grapevine may hamper the goodwill of the organization as it may
carry false negative information about the high-level people of the
organization.
A smart manager should take care of all the disadvantages of the
grapevine and try to minimize them. At the same time, he should make best
possible use of advantages of grapevine.

BARRIERS TO COMMUNCATION
Communication break-down arises in the communication network of an
organization when we claim or assume that we understand a message whereas
in reality it is beyond or outside our recognition vocabulary.
The following are considered the major barriers to communication:
i. Semantic barriers – barriers that arise out of the use of words. In
other words, language barrier.
ii. Lack of effective listening.
iii. Selective attention – paying attention only to matters of personal
interest.
iv. Lack of proper planning by the communicator.
v. Authoritative attitude of management or the “obey before complain
syndrome”. e.g., what I say is law in this organization.
vi. Too many intermediaries.
vii. Poor health.
viii. Fear.
 ix. Hunger and anger.
x. Hatred.
xi. Moving and anxiety.
xii. Carelessness or indifference.
xiii. Frustration.
xiv. Emotional barriers. Etc.

COMMUNICATION MODELS
A model is defined as a prototype or rather a representative of something
else. Communication models therefore are the major processes involved in a
particular message in the communication process, we always have both the
sender and receiver of such a message and in between them, we have the
encoding and decoding processes as well as the medium.
Sender: He is the source of the message and this can be an individual or a
group. Communication begins with the sender who has a thought or an idea
which is then encoded in a way that can be understood by the receiver. The
sender decides on the content of the message and to whom it is to be sent. He is
the source because he is the originator of the message. The sender also
communicates non-verbally through facial expression or gestures.
Encoding: Encoding is simply the process of selecting and organizing bits of
information and the process of developing a message. For instance, the choice
of words, style and content to which is done by the sender of the message. The
encoding process may be done by the sender himself which in personal
encoding or can be done by somebody else (impersonal encodings).
Channel or Medium: This is the medium through which the message is sent.
The information is transmitted over a channel that links the sender with the
receiver. The media used may be in oral or written form, and may be
transmitted through written memorandum, telephone, telegraph or television
which facilitates the transmission of gestures and visual ones. At times, two or
more channels are used. The proper selection of the media is of vital importance
for effective communication.
Decoding: This is simply the interpretation of the message which is done by
the receiver of the message. Decoding can be faulty because the wrong meaning
may be attached to words and other symbols.
Noise/Feedback: Feedback is known as “communication in reverse”. It is the
response from the receiver. In communication in reverse, the receiver becomes
the source and the sender is the pseudo source. Feedback in communication
could either be positive or negative. Unfortunately, communication is affected
by what has been called ‘noise’.
 Noise refers to all forms of physical and psychological interference of
message. It is anything whether in the sender, the transmission or receiver that
hinders effective communication. For example, a noisy or confused
environment may hinder the development of clear though. Encoding may be
faulty because if the use of ambiguous symbols. Understanding can be caused
by inattention. Noise therefore may lead to partial or complete breakdown of a
message.
Therefore, to check the effectiveness of communication, feedback is very
essential. One cannot be sure whether or not a message has been effectively
encoded, transmitted, decoded and understood unless it is confirmed by
feedback. Similarly, feedback indicates whether individual or organizational
change has taken place as a result of communication. Also, the state of mind of
an individual is very important in business communication hence it is always
good to observe or read the mind of an individual before communicating,
especially when you think he will receive the message best as anticipated.
Basically, noise can be divided into the following;
 Physical – This includes all physical distractions and obstructions e.g.,
laughter, applauds, hisses, shuffling of feet, etc.
 Semantic – The interferences of a message through words or rather
language differentiation e.g., wrong spellers, wrong pronunciation or the
use of technical jargons etc.
 Attitudinal – Messages being interpreted on the basis of certain beliefs. In
essence, messages are sometimes wrongly interpreted either in cultural or
religious beliefs, values, perceptions, feelings etc.
 Technical – Problems associated with the use of machines or mass
communication media such as the telephone or radio messages etc.

LISTENING SKILLS
A good listener will listen not only to what is being said, but also to what
is left unsaid or only partially said. Effective listening involves observing body
language and noticing inconsistencies between verbal and non-verbal messages.
For example, if someone tells you that they are happy with their life but through
gritted teeth or with tears filling their eyes, you should consider that the verbal
and non-verbal messages are in conflict, they maybe don't mean what they say.
Listening is the ability to accurately receive and interpret messages in the
communication process. Listening is key to all effective communication,
without the ability to listen effectively messages are easily misunderstood –
communication breaks down and the sender of the message can easily become
frustrated or irritated. Listening is so important that many top employers
provide listening skills training for their employees. This is not surprising when
you consider that good listening skills can lead to: better customer satisfaction,
greater productivity with fewer mistakes, increased sharing of information that
in turn can lead to more creative and innovative work. Many successful leaders
and entrepreneurs credit their success to effective listening skills. Richard
Branson frequently quotes listening as one of the main factors behind the
success of Virgin. Effective listening is a skill that underpins all positive human
relationships, spend some time thinking about and developing your listening
skills – they are the building blocks of success.
Listening is Not the Same as Hearing. Hearing refers to the sounds that
you hear, whereas listening requires more than that: it requires focus. Listening
means paying attention not only to the story, but how it is told, the use of
language and voice, and how the other person uses his or her body. In other
words, it means being aware of both verbal and non-verbal messages. Your
ability to listen effectively depends on the degree to which you perceive and
understand these messages.
Types of Listening: Communication cannot take place unless the message is
received and understood by the listener. The types of listening are: marginal,
evaluative and projective, active and passive
 In marginal listening: the listener picks up bits and pieces of what is
being said. This type of listening can lead to misunderstanding of what
is being said.
 Evaluative listening: on the other hand, requires the receiver to devote
full attention to the sender. As the listener can receive and understand the
information faster than the speaker, extra time is devoted to evaluating
and judging the nature of the remarks heard. The real impact of the
message may be lost if the listener devotes too much time to approving
and disapproving the communication message.
 Projective listening: holds great potential for effective communication,
the receiver first listens without any evaluation and once he feels the
message has been communicated, he enters the evaluative process.
Summarily, marginal listening has to do with eaves-dropping. Evaluative
anticipates the material before the message arrives, pre-empting and assuming.
Projective has to do with careful listening, without talking and asking of
questions when in doubt.
 Active Listening: Active listening is a skill that can be acquired and
developed with practice. However, active listening can be difficult to
master and will, therefore, take time and patience. 'Active listening'
means, as its name suggests, actively listening. That is fully concentrating
on what is being said rather than just passively ‘hearing’ the message of
 the speaker. Active listening involves listening with all senses. As well as
giving full attention to the speaker, it is important that the ‘active listener’
is also ‘seen’ to be listening - otherwise the speaker may conclude that
what they are talking about is uninteresting to the listener. Interest can be
conveyed to the speaker by using both verbal and non-verbal messages
such as maintaining eye contact, nodding your head and smiling, agreeing
by saying ‘Yes’ or simply ‘Mmm hmm’ to encourage them to continue.
By providing this 'feedback' the person speaking will usually feel more at
ease and therefore communicate more easily, openly and honestly.
Listening is the most fundamental component of interpersonal
communication skills. Listening is not something that just happens (that is
hearing), listening is an active process in which a conscious decision is made to
listen to and understand the messages of the speaker. Listeners should remain
neutral and non-judgmental, this means trying not to take sides or form
opinions, especially early in the conversation. Active listening is also about
patience - pauses and short periods of silence should be accepted. Listeners
should not be tempted to jump in with questions or comments every time there
are a few seconds of silence. Active listening involves giving the other person
time to explore their thoughts and feelings, they should, therefore, be given
adequate time for that.
Active listening not only means focusing fully on the speaker but also
actively showing verbal and non-verbal signs of listening. Generally, speakers
want listeners to demonstrate ‘active listening’ by responding appropriately to
what they are saying. Appropriate responses to listening can be both verbal and
non-verbal:
 Passive Listening; Passive Listening occurs when a listener does not
verbally respond to the speaker. The listener may deliberately or
unintentionally send non-verbal messages through eye contact, smiles,
yawns or nods. Sometimes passive listening is appropriate. If the speaker
wants to vent frustration or express an opinion he may listen passively.
Passive listening is mechanical and effortless. It does not require any
special effort. You hear what your teacher says and you might be able to
tell the difference between major and minor points of the lecture, but that
is about it. Lack of enthusiasm and a "careless" attitude during class
characterize student who is a passive listener. Active listeners on the
other hand really concentrate on the content of the lecture and not on the
lecturer or any random distractions in the room or their mind. They do
more than focus on facts, figures, and ideas and actively associate the
material presented with their own experiences. The content heard at every
lecture is converted to something useful and meaningful for the student.
You must pay special attention in class because, unlike when reading a
 textbook, you only get one chance to hear and understand the information
presented to you.

BARRIERS TO LISTENING
There are many things that get in the way of listening and you should be aware
of these barriers, many of which are bad habits, in order to become a more
effective listener. Barriers and bad habits to effective listening can include:
I. Excessive Talking: Good conversational skills are an asset, and a
person with this skill is more likely to achieve professional success.
However, talking more than is necessary is a barrier to effective
communication. People hesitate to interact with a person who talks
excessively without listening to them. They may also get bored, and
excessive talking may be perceived as aggression.
II. Prejudice: Prejudice is a preconceived opinion of feeling, which is
usually irrational Prejudice is very dangerous and has the potential to
bring animosity into the team and to break team spirit. The reason for
a prejudice may be the speaker's race, religion, age or appearance. A
prejudiced person will not make any effort to listen and understand.

III. Distractions: The four main types of distractions are physical, mental,
auditory and visual. Here's how to avoid this common barrier: It is fine
to have personal beliefs and values, but an excessive attachment to
them will have a negative impact on your ability to communicate
effectively with others. Learn to appreciate the fact that each and
every person has his or her own set of beliefs and values.

IV. Misunderstanding: Inability to hear correctly is one of the many

reasons for misunderstanding of what the speaker is trying to
communicate. This inability to hear is often the result of prejudice. To
avoid misunderstanding, always clarify with the speaker to ensure that
you have understood correctly.

V. Interrupting: Interrupting a conversation with improper body

language or inappropriate words will have a negative impact in
effective communication.

VI. Bringing in Emotions: Emotions erect barriers to effective

communication. A listener's senses are not likely to be functioning at
their optimum level when he or she is angry. Likewise, it is not
possible to understand or appreciate what the speaker is saying if the
listener is excessively sad.
 VII. Noise: Noise is "any unwanted sound. It is a great impediment to clear
communication. It is impossible to listen in a noisy environment. It
becomes a frustrating experience for both the speaker and the listener.

VIII. Previous experiences: We are all influenced by previous experiences

in life. We respond to people based on personal appearances, how
initial introductions or welcomes were received and/or previous
interpersonal encounters. If we stereotype a person, we become less
objective and therefore less likely to listen effectively.

IX. Having a Closed Mind: We all have ideals and values that we believe
to be correct and it can be difficult to listen to the views of others that
contradict our own opinions. The key to effective listening and
interpersonal skills more generally is the ability to have a truly open
mind - to understand why others think about things differently to you
and use this information to gain a better understanding of the speaker.

TRAITS OR ATTRIBUTES OF A GOOD LISTENER

The following attributes of good listening are suggestive of the skills
needed.
a. Concentration: Good listening is normally hard work. At every
moment we are receiving literally millions of sensory messages. Our
ears are hearing the buzzing of the computer fan, street sounds, music
in the background and dozens of other sounds and thousands more
signals are knocking at the doors of our senses. We have to repress
almost all of these and concentrate on the verbal sounds (and visual
clues) from one source - the speaker. And this concentration, if
something that most of us have not been thoroughly trained in how to
do. You should focus your attention on the words, ideas and feeling
related to the subject. Concentrate on the main ideas or points. Don't
let examples or fringe comments detract you. All of this takes a
conscious effort.

b. Attention: Attention may be defined as the visual portion of

concentration on the speaker. Through eye contact and other body
language, we communicate to the speaker that we are paying close
attention to his/her messages. All the time we are reading the verbal
and nonverbal cues from the speaker, the speaker is reading ours.
What messages are we sending out? If we lean forward a little and
 focus our eyes on the person, the message is we are paying close
attention.

c. Eye contact: Good eye contact is essential for several reasons: First,
by maintaining eye contact, some of the competing visual inputs are
eliminated. You are not as likely to be distracted from the person
talking to you. Second, most of us have learned to read lips, often
unconsciously, and the lip reading helps us to understand verbal
messages. Third, much of many messages are in non-verbal form and
by watching the eyes and face of a person we pick up clues as to the
content. A squinting of the eyes may indicate close attention. A slight
nod indicates understanding or agreement. Most English language
messages can have several meanings depending upon voice inflection,
voice modulation, facial expression, etc. Finally, our eye contact with
the speaker is feedback concerning the message.

d. Receptive Body Language: Certain body postures and movements

are culturally interpreted with specific meanings. The crossing of arms
and legs is perceived to mean a closing of the mind and attention. The
nodding of the head vertically is interpreted as agreement or assent. If
seated, the leaning forward with the upper body communicates
attention. Standing or seated, the maintenance of an appropriate
distance is important. Too close and we appear to be pushy or
aggressive and too far and we are seen as cold.

e. Objective: We should be open to the message the other person is

sending. It is very difficult to be completely open because each of us
is strongly biased by the weight of our past experiences. We give
meaning to the messages based upon what we have been taught the
words and symbols mean by our parents, our peers and our teachers.
Talk to someone from a different culture and watch how they give
meaning to words. Or another listening challenge is to listen open and
objectively to a person with very different political or religious beliefs.
Relatively a few people can listen, understand and appreciate such
messages which are very different from their own.

f. Questioning/Clarifying: Questions can serve the same purpose as

restating the message. If you are unclear about the intent of the
message, ask for more information after allowing sufficient time for
explanations. Don't ask questions that will hurt, embarrass or show up
the other person. Only part of the responsibility is with the speaker.
You have an important and active role to play also. If the message
 does not get through, two people have failed the speaker and you as an
active listener.

g. Leave the Channel Open: A good listener always leaves open the
possibility of additional messages. A brief question or a nod will often
encourage additional communications

TRANSMISSION OF INFORMATION
The transmission of messages can be done through the use of words or
without words. This is to say that some messages are implied in their
presentation, but generally messages can be transmitted through:
i. Kinesics Communication
Kinesics communication is defined as a message that is transmitted through
actions. Although words are sometimes used in audible form, the actions not
words are interpreted. The elements here include; winks, smiles, frowns, attires,
sighs, body movements etc. Sometimes a wink can be both kinesics and meta
communication.
ii. Meta Communication
This is simply a message not expressed in words but which accompanies one
that is expressed in words. For instance, ‘you are good’, ‘don’t be late today’,
‘learn to be courteous and respectful’, etc. This type of communication is a
good example of non-verbal communication though it could be harmful at times
because of its implied nature.

RETAINING NEW INFORMATION AND IDEAS

It has been explained that most of the information we receive come
through our eyes and that the ears are less important channels. As regards the
capacity to retain and assimilate new information and ideas, all researches show
that the channels by which we receive new materials strongly influence how
much we remember.
Below is a table indicating a rough average percentage of retention after a
given period of time:
(1) Ears only – 20% retained
(2) Eyes only – 30% retained
(3) Ears + Eyes + Discussion + Reproduction + Use – 90% retained
 Researchers agree that we learn least permanently what we have taken in
through our ears only. Our retention is slightly better if we have taken the
information in through our eyes only, by reading books or looking at pictures. A
combination of the two will definitely increase the permanence of our retention.
Discussing the information received tends to fix it more firmly in our minds
because as we discuss, we clarify a particular point, correct others and
reconsider the issues from several different angles. This method is conducive to
consolidation or reinforcement of knowledge and nearly three-quarters of what
has been communicated may be retained.
Finally, even less is forgotten if learning through eyes and ears is combined
with well planned discussions, practical work exercises. This is the best one can
hope to achieve, for all human beings forget to some extent.

GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF BUSINESS COMMUNICATION

Basically, there are three principles of business communication:
- Choice of words
- Sentence structure
- Paragraph construction
Choice of Words:
(1) Use very simple and familiar words while communicating i.e., use
everyday language to make the communication process easy to
understand. Bombastic words should be used with great care. For
example;
i. I was flabbergasted (astonished or surprised) by his pusillanimity
(fear, timidity or nervousness) and imbecility. Meaning: I was
greatly surprised by his cowardice and stupidity or weak
mindedness.
ii. It is seditious to encourage exogamous matrimonial affiliations.
Meaning: intermarriage should be discouraged.
iii. We shall invigorate the struggles, the modus operandi shall be
provata justice quid pro quo until we reach Eldorado. Meaning: we
are going to fight and fight until we reach the golden land or until
we succeed.
(2) Prefer short to long words. Short words are easier to read and to
understand unlike long words which at times confuse the receiver and at
the same time may be very boring.
(3) Use sincere words while communicating, this gives a lot of confidence
and trust to the receiver. If there is no confidence nor trust in the mind of
the receiver, the message becomes very irritating.
 (4) You should exercise caution with the use of technical words i.e.,
whatever one’s status or educational qualifications, he should always
learn to use words that are common.
(5) Avoid overused expressions – in business communication certain words
are used over and over that they change their meanings. Overused words
are today considered as rubber-stamps. For instance, Dear Sir, thank you
in advance, permit me to say, yours faithfully, etc. The constant usage of
these makes them become stale and almost meaningless.
(6) You should make your message lively – messages can be made lively
through the use of words that will attract his attention for a long time.
Some words are strong and active whereas others are weak and passive.
The strong and active words provide more lasting impressions on the
sender or reader, examples:
i. Business Tycoon – Successful Businessman
ii. Gigantic Sales – Big Sales
iii. Period of Boom – Prosperous Period
Concrete words, therefore, are active and vigorous while abstract words
are weak in nature. Active verbs are described as the strongest part of the
sentence hence they are termed as action words. Nouns are also believed to be
effective and so are called the doers of the action. Voltaire once said that the
adjective is the enemy of the noun.
Sentence Structure:
Having chosen the right words to be used, you then decide also on the
types of sentences to be used during the communication process. Short
sentences are less confusing than long ones, but the use of long sentences
should not be totally ignored. A positive sentence is one that emphasizes those
aspects of the message that are appealing, good, pleasant and favorable.
Because they are positive sentences, they provide positive meanings to the
receiver and of course persuade him better. The negative sentences on the other
hand are the exact opposite for they are sentences which are poor, unpleasant
and unfavorable, etc. It is important to minimize the use or negative sentences
but not to avoid them completely. The following therefore are some few
examples of negative and positive sentences.
a) Your reporter addressed me wrongly. Sorry, but my correct title is Rev.
Dr. John Egwe. (Negative).
b) I cannot come before 4pm. I shall come by 4pm. (Positive)
Whereas simple sentences present their message in ordinary, plain and
straight mannered, devoid of intricates (having a lot of different parts and small
details that fit together). Complex sentences on the other hand are intricate in
nature and should be avoided for instance, you have initiated a persistent
preposterous(unbelievable or outrageous) and obnoxious (horrible or
intolerable) campaign of vilification (criticism or abuse) and calumny (slander
or defamation) and villainy (wickedness or evil) against my person, making me
look goofy (foolish or ridiculous) and diabolical (demonic) and loathsome
(hateful or detestable), but get this clear, your insidious (crafty or deceptive)
machinations (maneuver) and criminal manipulation of facts is going to propel
and escalate a chain reaction the end of which no man can tell.
Paragraph Construction:
Paragraphs are used to achieve two main objectives in business writing.
- They are used to achieve unity.
- They are used for the smooth flow of ideas just like the choice of
words and sentence structure.
The following are the three major considerations in paragraph
construction:
- The length of paragraphs.
- Unity of paragraphs.
- Sequence of ideas or flow of paragraphs.
- The nature or types of paragraphs

(1) Length of Paragraphs:

This simply means deciding how long it should be. This is usually done
by finding out precisely the number of ideas to be passed and then allocating
each idea to each paragraph. The length of the paragraph will be determined by
the importance of each idea and the number of information contained.
Generally speaking, paragraphs should be short to make the message easy
to understand. A paragraph could just be one sentence. In business writings, it is
usually believed that the first and last paragraphs of the message should always
be short.
(2) Unity of Paragraphs:
The concept is built to the adage that birds of the same feather flock
together. This is simply the inter-relationship or similarity between paragraphs.
It should be a single topic introducing the central idea of a message. Each
paragraph should have different linking ideas or points to give a spirit of unity.
Despite the fact that communication is built on one idea, you could still build
paragraphs from this single idea using the sentence involved.
(3) Sequence of Ideas:
Here each paragraph should take the reader a step ahead of the preceding
one i.e., each paragraph should move a step forward in accomplishing the
objectives of the sender of such a message. The presentation of ideas should be
orderly. The following therefore are considered as the necessary guidelines for
smooth paragraph construction:
a) Always relate and present events or ideas in the sequence in which
they occur.
b) The most important ideas should be presented first followed by the
less important ideas. Similarly, the most pressing points should be
communicated before the less pressing points.

(4) Nature /Types of Paragraphs

Usually, there are four types of paragraph construction in business
communication:
Deductive: Here, you first of all present the message before supporting it with
explanation. The deductive system is used because it saves management time
Inductive: here, you first of all explain the major reason necessitating the
message. This then is followed by the real message. This form is very
applicable in persuasive letters or in a need demanding persuasion.
Indented: Here each paragraph is slightly started to right i.e., you move away
from the margin and at the end of the message you sign by the right-hand side.
Block: Here, all the paragraphs are blocked to one side, i.e., they all start from
one side and it allows space. Normally, after the message you then sign by the
left-hand side.

PRINCIPLE OF BUSINESS WRITING (WRITING BUSINESS

LETTERS)
Correspondences:
Correspondence consists of memos, letters, and electronic mail. In
engineering and science, correspondence is an effective way to make requests,
submit changes to a job, and deliver specific information. Unlike telephone
conversations, correspondence presents the audience with a legal contract that is
dated and can support a claim in court. This section presents formats for memos
and letters. Because electronic mail usually has a built-in format, no format is
assigned here for it. In correspondence, you should concentrate on being clear
and precise. Because audiences tend to read letters and memos quickly, choose
shorter sentences and paragraphs than you would use in a formal report or
journal article. Also, in correspondence, you should consider carefully the tone.
Tone is difficult to control in correspondence. For instance, in a job application
letter, how do you talk about your accomplishments without sounding boastful?
Or in a letter complaining about faulty workmanship, how do you motivate the
reader to repair the damage without alienating the reader? The answers are not
simple. Often, engineers and scientists lose control of tone by avoiding simple
straightforward wording. When some people sit down to write a business letter
or memo, they change their entire personality. Instead of using plain English,
they use complex phrases such as "per your request" or "enclosed please find."
Because these phrases are not natural or straightforward, they inject an
undesired attitude, usually arrogance, into the writing.
Memos
Typically, you write memos to people within your place of work, and you
write letters to people outside your place of work. One major difference
between memos and letters is the title line found in memos. Because readers
often decide whether to read the memo solely on the basis of this title line, the
line is important. Another difference between letters and memos is that you
sometimes write memos that serve as short reports. In such cases, the format for
the memo changes somewhat. For instance, in a memo serving as a progress
report for a project, you might include subheadings and sub-subheadings.
Notice that people who are mentioned in a memo or are directly affected by the
memo should receive a copy.
Letters
A letter can be defined as a written message with a specific format or
standard which is sent from one person to another. What then is a note? A note
can be defined as a short piece of writing which is sent to somebody requesting
him to comment about something or to act as a reminder or to inform him about
something. The difference is that unlike the letters, a note has no format or
standard and it is mostly short in nature. Also, the letter is much more
comprehensive and detailed. A report on the other hand is a glossary which
contains certain technical jargons to qualify it as a report. Formats for letters
vary from company to company. For instance, some formats call for paragraph
indents; others don't. In a letter, notice how the writer gets to the point in the
first sentence of the first paragraph. Notice also the simple and straightforward
salutation ("Sincerely"). As with a memo, people who are mentioned or directly
affected by the letter should receive a copy.

Style of Business Letter Writing

Usually, we have four styles of business letters and these are:
- Full-Block Style
- Semi-Block Style
- Simplified Style
- Indented Style
Full-Block: In the full-block style, every line in the letter begins at the left-hand
margin. You can easily identify paragraphs in this kind of letter using horizontal
spacing techniques.
Semi-Block: Here, date is either placed in the centre of the page or at the right-
hand corner. The names and title of the addresser are written on the left-hand
margin of the page far below the address which is followed by general
salutation. The body of the letter follows the full-block style very closely except
for the absence of the subject topic line. Complimentary remarks or goodwill
ending comes up at the right-hand of the page but below. This goodwill ending
includes the writer’s name and title.
Simplified: Here, you don’t have the salutation nor the goodwill ending. It is a
very bad style since you don’t complement or honour the reader with good
remarks. The name, title and address of the addressee are written together e.g.,
Prof Adams S. – Chief Consultant, etc. Instead of salutation, it has the subject
line followed by the paragraph.
Indented: this is called the indented style because you use indention to indicate
your paragraphs clearly.

Structure of Formal Letter Writing.

As summary of writing rules including outlines for cover letters and
letters of enquiry, and abbreviations used in writing a formal letter. Rules for
Writing Formal Letters in English. In English there are a number of conventions
that should be used when writing a formal or business letter. Furthermore, you
try to write as simply and as clearly as possible, and not to make the letter
longer than necessary. Remember not to use informal language like
contractions.
Addresses:
• Your Address
The return address should be written in the top right-hand corner of the
letter.
• The Address of the person you are writing to. The inside address should
be written on the left, starting below your address. Date: Different people
put the date on different sides of the page. You can write this on the right
or the left on the line after the address you are writing to. Write the month
as a word.
Salutation or greeting:
• Dear Sir or Madam, if you do not know the name of the person you are
writing to, use this. It is always advisable to try to find out a name.
• Dear Mr. Peters, if you know the name, use the title (Mr., Mrs., Miss or
Ms., Dr, etc.) and the surname only. If you are writing to a woman and do not
know if she uses Mrs. or Miss, you can use Ms., which is for married and single
women.
Ending a letter:
• Yours Faithfully
If you do not know the name of the person, end the letter this way.
• Yours Sincerely. If you know the name of the person, end the letter this
way.
• Your Signature Sign your name, then print it underneath the signature. If
you think the person you are writing to might not know whether you are
a male or female, put your title in brackets after your name.
Outline of a Formal Letter: In business communication, we write business
letters because of the following: to remind, to inform, to persuade, to stimulate,
to request, to acknowledge, to recommend, to supply information or even to
threaten. For instance, “if you don’t pay your light bill, your line would be
disconnected”. All businesses and organizations have the responsibility of
keeping their customers, government, general public etc. informed for purposes
of creating desired goodwill and patronage. It may also be the idea of correcting
an impression.
The following are very good determinants of any business letter:
• First determine the objective.
• Determine the format, style of delivery and of course, the nature of the
letter or how it will look like.
• Determine the basis, foundation and what will form the salient point.
• Then go ahead to prepare the draft or sketch of the letter i.e., a rough
sketch of what to be presented. The sketch will give you a clear picture of what
precisely to write and will also provide you with a very smooth flow of
information while writing.
Techniques of Business Letters
iii. Adapt to your reader – use the style which your reader can understand
best in order to achieve your desired goal. Never use the language that is either
above or below his level and always show empathy by putting yourself in his
position.
iv. Use conversational style – this means you should write as if you’re
talking face-to-face with the reader. For instance, “Mr. Jude, you know what?”
or “Joy, I hope you are hearing me”. This removes the mechanical elements of
the communication which makes the message look formal. Therefore, from time
to time always learn to use the reader’s name. However, it should not be over
used as it may be offensive. You use his name purposely to show that the letter
is addressed to him and not the audience.
v. Adapt a “you” view point – this means the act of presenting the message
from the point of view of the reader.
vi. Avoid antagonistic style – messages can be antagonistic if they are
preachy in nature. And when a message is delivered in a lecture form, it
becomes belittling and of course boring. Also, the idea of too much superiority
between you and your reader should be minimized or bridged. Avoid being
angry while writing or communicating because it will certainly destroy
friendliness and goodwill thereby causing a lot of conflicts which cannot help
the organization
Type of Business Letters
- The Goodnews letter.
- The bad news letters.
- The persuasive letter.
(1) Goodnews Letters:
A Goodnews letter is one that contains favorable, pleasant and positive
elements. Such Goodnews should be directly presented to enable the message
stand out to the reader. Alternatively, the reader should be introduced to the
topic in form of subject line.

Dear Dr. Paul

RE: EMPLOYMENT REQUEST.
Here you should always use Goodnews beginning for such letters. This is
because it creates a very favorable attitude which will make the person read it
with great care and meaning e.g.
Dear Dr. Paul
RE: OFFER OF EMPLOYMENT REQUEST
I have been directed to inform you that your employment in our company
has been approved by the management. Your designation shall be Director
(Accounts). We request you to report to the Managing Director’s office here on
9th September, 1992.
Accept our congratulations in advance (Goodwill ending).
(2) Bad news Letters:
In presenting bad news letters, you use an indirect approach for purposes of
heartbreak.
• First, present the Goodnews elements.
• Substitute the Bad news elements.
• Emphasize the Goodnews.
• Give reasons to support the unpleasant news if necessary.
• End the letter with a very friendly comment as goodwill ending.
With the indirect approach, the level of shock will be lessened even though both
direct and indirect approaches result to negative reaction.
The following are important to note while presenting bad news messages:
• Start with a neutral statement especially one in which you and the reader
have some level of agreement.
• Explain logically why the decision has to be taken i.e., provide the reader
with supportive materials.
• Thereafter you present the bad news aspect.
• Provide him options or alternatives which are open to him.
Note:
• You should be logical and convincing in your reasons.
• Resist the temptation of talking about things that are not relevant to your
message.
• Always avoid sentences that are loaded with negatives.
• Never apologize for having such a stand because apologies could destroy
any positive decision you intend thinking.
• Present the negative part of the message quickly, very clearly and
positively but do not emphasize the bad news or reasons for refusal.
The following are few examples of negative phrases we should be mindful of
using.
- I regret any inconvenience it may cause you.
- I am sorry I cannot do otherwise or help you.
- It is a pity; I cannot honor your request.
- It is unfortunate, there is no vacancy for you.
(3) Persuasive Letters:
A persuasive letter in business communication is one that is designed to induce
the reader or rather a letter that can cause an attitude change in the receiver.
Persuasive letters are unsolicited because the reader does not request for the
message you are about passing. Rather, it is the writer that is requesting for the
attention of the reader.
The following are some of the situations that may cause persuasion while
communicating:
i. When you are demanding for favour.
ii. When you are requesting for general assistance or requesting the reader’s
co-operation.
iii. When you are advertising or introducing your product and services to
customers.
N.B: The receiver may still be unwilling through persuasive letter if the topic is
one of his interests. For instance, a drunkard or perpetual smoker may find it
very difficult to change. Also, where there are doubts in the mind of the receiver
he may be unwilling to admit.
Therefore, in writing any persuasive letter, you should be very familiar
with the subject matter and know fully well the reader of the message. You
should also be orderly and logical in your presentation by ensuring that the
reader knows exactly what you expect from him instead of using flowery or
flamboyant language. In essence, you should be very objective in your
presentation by avoiding artificial phrases and exaggerations.

Electronic Mail
Electronic mail is a less formal version of memos and letters. Electronic mail is
relatively new and is changing in terms of sophistication in format and
expectation by audience. The principal advantages of electronic mail over other
types of correspondence are its speed and ease of use. For instance, in minutes,
you can send out information to many recipients around the world. One
disadvantage of electronic mail is the crudeness of the format. Many electronic
mail systems do not allow such things as tabs or italics. For that reason, the look
of the message is not as attractive as a memo or letter that has been printed on
letterhead paper. Because the message does not look formal, many people
mistakenly adopt a style that lacks the "appropriate formality" [Markel, 1996].
For instance, these people include needless abbreviations (such as "BTW" rather
than "by the way").
Another disadvantage of electronic mail is also one of its advantages: its
ease of use. With letters and memos, you must print out the correspondence
before you send it. That printing out allows you to view the writing on paper--a
step that makes it easier for you to proof read for mechanical mistakes in
spelling, usage, and punctuation. With electronic mail, though, you are not
forced to print out on paper before you send. For that reason, electronic
messages often are not as well proofed as regular correspondence. Remember:
because most networks archive electronic mail, you should take the same care
with electronic mail as you do with printed correspondence. That means using
the appropriate formality in style and carefully proofing your message before
you hit

TRANSMISSION OF MESSAGES THROUGH TELEPHONE

A telephone is an electrical instrument which transmits or conveys
messages over long distances through the use of telegraphic equipment and
methods.
Telephone communication has greater advantage over the other forms of
communication. Telephone communication is inter-personal as opposed to mass
communication or intra-personal communication.
Apparently, the right way to speak on the phone is to give the caller an
impression of courteousness and efficiency instantly, and this can be done by
announcing the number or the name of the firm, department, or organization as
soon as one lifts up the telephone e.g., “Department of English, how can I help
you?”.
Many people are under the impression that it is necessary to show when
speaking on the telephone. This is wrong; in fact, it is better to speak more
quietly than normal provided that we speak distinctly and directly into the
receiver. It is more important to associate carefully as shouting distorts the
voice and makes it even more difficult to understand what is being said.
If the person the caller wishes to speak to is available, then say, “just one
moment, please”, and see that the telephone is switched through to the person
concerned or that he is called to answer it. If the person required is not
available, the obvious answer is, “I am sorry, Mr. X is not available at the
moment. Can I take your number and ask him to call you back?”. You should
not leave the caller hanging on the other end of the line.

TELEPHONE TECHNIQUES (METHODS)

General Requirements of Good Telephone Communication
 Brevity of speech – You should avoid the use of unnecessary
words by being precise and concise in your communication.
Choose words very carefully. That will convey what you mean
(word economy). Do not sacrifice clarity for brevity.
 The complete message should be conveyed.
 Clarity and simplicity of speech – You should avoid the use of
technical jargons i.e., minimizing those terms that the receiver
will not understand.
 Control the speed of speech – While using the telephone, do not
be too fast or too slow to the point of irritation; for this may affect
the rate of understanding of the receiver.
 Listen before you speak – This is very important because you do
not have any physical contact neither can you see face-to-face.
 Never engage in two discussions at the same time.
 Save time – Always save the listener’s time as well as your own
time by avoiding all social digressions.
 Do not hesitate to request the other party to either slow-down,
spell names, addresses, of any such information that is unclear.
Names, numbers, figures, difficult wordings should be cross
checked to make sure that they are properly understood by
reading them back for confirmation or connection.
Techniques of Handling the Telephone
 Making the telephone calls – In doing this, you should always plan
ahead by being sure about what you want to communicate, whom you
would like to speak to and of course jotting down the main points to
be communicated especially if such discussions are lengthy.
 Always know the purpose of the call before you go ahead to achieve
the said goal.
  Timing of the telephone call i.e., find out the time you are more
receptive, in a good mood and less busy.
 Visualize yourself in some form of physical exchange with the
receiver i.e., you assume here that you are seeing him face-to-face to
ensure effective communication.
 Always end your telephone discussions with some pleasant comments,
for instance, thanks, bye, have a pleasant day or joyful weekend,
cheers, etc.
Receiving Telephone Calls
 Pick up the telephone once you want to speak.
 Answer promptly by announcing your identity or that of your
organization. This can be “Hello, good morning. This is Jen and
Company Limited” etc.
 Establish the identity of the caller if he has not identified himself
already.
 Find out the mission of the caller.
 Provide verbal indications of feedback from time to time during the
period of the conversation; for this hint to show that you are still with
him listening.

Ancient Telegram: The ancient telegram is a telegraph message sent by an

electrical telegraph operator or telegrapher using Morse code (or a printing
telegraph operator using plain text). It worked by employing an electromagnet
and transmitting electrical signals over a network of wire relays laid between
stations using the key and sounder.
It was invented in 1844 by Samuel F.B. Morse who also created the
Morse Code, an alphabet of electronic dashes and dots, to be used to transmit
telegraph messages. This creation revolutionized long distance communication
in the 1840s and was vital during the American Civil War.
Telegram: This is a cloud-based messaging app that works across any device
smart phones, tablets and computer. It is fast, secure and free, it allows users to
send text messages, share photos, videos, stickers and files. It’s focused on
speed and security. Groups and channels can be created to improve interaction
with the customers. The channels are created for broadcasting messages to large
audience. It has no limit to the number of people that can be reached at once.
Steps to using Telegram
 Set your goals
 Create Telegram account
 Promote your Telegram account
 Radio and Television speaking

Cables and Radio messages

Social Media

HANDLING PUBLIC SPEECHES

In special occasions speeches, the following points are necessary
considerations:
Good planning – This has been described as a key factor to successful
speaking. This gives the speaker some self-confidence and eliminates
nervousness, hence a sound background of the topic is produced. In doing that,
the following questions should be asked;
 What is the nature of the occasion?
 What type of audience am I going to address?
 What is their level of knowledge of understanding on that
particular topic?

GENERAL PRINCIPLES WHILE GIVING PUBLIC SPEECHES

Physical Appearance – There is need to be properly dressed because it
will certainly project your image or personality. Such a dress should suit
the occasion and not only be befitting in nature.
Brevity of Speech – Here you should be very precise and never you
sacrifice brevity over clarity. This also means that you should always go
straight to the point by making the message short and interesting. Be time
conscious by avoiding all excess words.
Adjust your speed of delivery to run in line with the expectations or
desires of the audience. Do not be too fast or too slow so that the people
may understand you.
Always make your speech lively: by attracting the attention of the
audience. This means the idea of putting life into the speech to attract the
audience instead of sleeping while the message is going on.
Let there be adequate volume; You should make sure you are audible
enough to the hearing of the audience. Avoid shouting and avoid
murmuring.
 Prefer the use of pauses between sentences to pauses between words,
especially for avoidance of irritation.
Know the gender, religious affiliation and educational background of
your audience. In order words, determine your audience.
Be careful and quick to read indicators and signals from the audience
such as yawning, hisses, sighs etc. These indicate that the majority of
your audience is tired, dissatisfied, saturated, uninterested etc.
Always summarize the main points of your speech before concluding
your message, but always resist the temptation of repeating the speech.

Styles of Delivery
 Manuscript delivery – These are recorded or written on papers for
reference purposes. This becomes very smooth while delivering
because all the points are already arranged.
 Memorized delivery – These are speeches committed to memory and
can easily be recalled to be communicated to the audience.
 Extemporaneous (unrehearsed or impromptu) delivery – These are
speeches which are delivered without notification.
 Jotting delivery – Here all the major points to guide the speaker are
jotted down.
Overcoming Nervousness
 Before you start and while on the stage, take a deep breath, then a
second one unknown to the audience: after which you greet eminent
personalities seated as well as the audience.
 If still nervous, you may decide to digress.
 Begin by speaking very slowly and clearly though these are not fast
rules. Nervousness could be due to lack of exposure to big audiences,
shyness, inferiority complex and in some it should be natural.

REPORT WRITING
Objective of Report Writing
 A report is written for a clear purpose and to a particular audience.
Specific information and evidence are presented, analyzed and applied
to a particular problem or issue.
  The information is presented in a clearly structured format making use
of sections and headings so that the information is easy to locate and
follow.
 The report brief may outline the purpose, audience and problem or
issue that your report must address, together with any specific
requirements for format or structure.
Types of Reports
 Informational reports: These reports present facts about certain
given activity in detail without any note or suggestions. Whatever is
gathered is reported without giving any thing by way of either
explanation or any suggestion. A vice-chancellor asking about the
number of candidates appearing at a particular examination naturally
seeks only information of the fact (candidates taking up the
examination) of course without any comment. Usually, such reports
are of routine nature. Sometimes they may fall under statutory routine
category. A company registrar asking for allotment return within the
stipulate period is nothing but
informational routine, falling under statutory but routine report.

 Analytical reports: These reports contain facts along with analytical

explanations offered by the reporter himself or may be asked for by
the one who is seeking the report. Such reports contain the narration of
facts, collected data and information, classified and tabulated data and
also explanatory note followed by the conclusions arrived at or
interpretations. A company chairman may ask for a report on falling
trends in sale in a particular area. He will in this case be naturally
interested in knowing all the details including that of opinion of any
of the investigator.
 Research reports: These reports are based on some research work
conducted by either an individual or a group of individuals on a given
problem. Indian oil company might have asked its research division to
find some substitute for petrol, and if such a study is conducted then a
report shall be submitted by the research division detailing its findings
and then offering their own suggestions, including the conclusions at
which the division has arrived at as to whether such a substitute is
these and if it is there can the same be put to use with advantage and
effectively. All details shall naturally be asked and has to be given. In
facts such a report is the result of a research.
 Statutory reports: These are presented according to the requirements
of a particular law or a rule or a custom now has become a rule. The
 auditor reports to company registrar have to be submitted as per the
requirements of country legal requirement. A return on compensation
paid to factory workers during a period by a factory has to be
submitted to competent authorities periodically. These reports are
generally prepared in the prescribed form as the rules have prescribed.
 Non-Statutory reports: These are reports that does not follow the
nature of legal requirements or rules wants, therefore, the reports are
to be prepared and submitted. These reports are required to be
prepared and submitted:
- For the administrative and other conveniences.
- For taking decision in a matter.
- For policy formulations.
- For projecting the future.
- For anything alike so that efficient and smooth functioning maybe
assured and proper and necessary decision may be taken with a
view to see that everything goes well and the objectives of the
organization are achieved with assured success.
 Routine reports: These reports are required to be prepared and
submitted periodically on matters required by the organization so as to
help the management of the organization to take decisions in the
matters relating to day-to-day affairs. The main objectives of routine
reports are:
- To let the management, know what is happening in the
organization, and its progress where the deviation is, what
measures have been taken in solving the problems and what to do
so that the organization may run smoothly and efficiently.

Routine reports are generally brief. They only give the facts. No
comments or explanations are usually presented in such reports.
Usually, forms are prescribed for preparation and submission of such
reports.
 Special reports: Such a type of report is specially required to be
prepared and submitted on matters of special nature. Due to an
accident a death of the foreman has occurred in a factory.
The factory manager may ask for a detail report from the head
foreman. Such a report is classified as special reports. These reports
contain not only facts and details but they may contain suggestion,
comments and explanations as well.
Format of a Report
 Memo Format, when it is written within your department or company.
 Letter Format, when it is written for outside your company.
Short Reports are usually one page (two pages maximum).
Parts of a Report
 1. Summary
 2. Background (which is optional and not always necessary)
 3. Body (main contents) The content may even include a simple, small
chart or diagram (if it contains lots of information, is complex or
several pages, then include it in the “attachments” section).
 Recommendation or Conclusion (use either one, depending on the
subject/purpose of your report).

Sample Memo Report

TO: Peter Okoh, Marketing Executive
FROM: Raji Musa, Market Research Assistant
DATE: January 14, 2023
SUBJECT: Fall Clothes Line Promotion
Market research and analysis show that the proposed advertising media for the
new fall lines need to be reprioritized and changed. Findings from focus groups
and surveys have made it apparent that we need to update our advertising efforts
to align them with the styles and trends of young adults today. No longer are
young adults interested in sitcoms as they watch reality televisions show. Also,
it is has become increasingly important to use the internet as a tool to
communicate with our target audience to show our dominance in the clothing
industry. Internet Advertising ABC Company needs to focus advertising on
internet sites that appeal to young people. According to surveys, 80% of our
target market uses the internet for five hours or more per week. The following
list shows in order of popularity the most frequented sites:
 Google
 Facebook
 Myspace
 EBay
Shifting our efforts from our other media sources such as radio and magazine to
these popular internet sites will more effectively promote our product sales.
Young adults are spending more and more time on the internet downloading
music, communicating and researching for homework and less and less time
reading paper magazines and listening to the radio. As the trend for cultural
icons to go digital, so must our marketing plans. Television Advertising. It used
to be common to advertise for our products on shows like DND (Dance Nigeria
Dance) for our target audience, but even the face of television is changing.
Young adults are tuning into reality television shows for their entertainment.
Results from the focus group show that our target audience is most interested in
shows like Nigeria Idol at Blue Incorporated, we need to focus our advertising
budget on reality television shows and reduce the amount of advertising spent
on other programs. By refocusing our advertising efforts of the new line of
clothing we will be able to maximize the exposure of our product to our target
market and therefore increase our sales. Tapping into the trends of young adults
will help us gain market share and sales through effective advertising.

Sample Report 2:
 Report of Committee on Declining Sales
 A Committee comprising three members was constituted in
accordance with the Board
Resolution passed at the Board meeting held on April 30. 2023 to
study the causes of declining sales of our refrigerators and to suggest
measures for the promotion of their sales.
The three members of the committee were:
Mr. James John, Senior Marketing Manager
Mr. Bola Tolu, Marketing Officer
Mr. Sani Amed, Marketing Officer

 Work done:
The committee personally interviewed the dealers, retailers and actual
users, to know the causes of declining sales. The committee reviewed
the literature on refrigerator sales in magazines and newspapers to
know the general trends of the market region-wise. The committee
studied the sales record of the last three years.
 Findings:
The data revealed by magazines and newspapers show a negative
growth around 6% in 165 litre refrigerators whereas 190 to 230 litre
categories has registered an astounding growth of 128%. The dealers
attribute these trends to the exchange offers which has spread to 2-3
million units’ refrigerators all over Nigeria. The direct purchasing
which used to command significant position is losing ground. The
present market share of various major companies in Nigeria is as
follows:
- Whirlpool 27%
- Videocon 18%
 - Godrej 15%
- BPL 12%
- Kelvinator 10%
- Voltas 7%
- Allwyn 6%
- Others 5%
The committee studied the distribution network, which is of
critical importance, and finds that distributors and dealers pay less
attention to promotion of sales of our refrigerators. The reasons for
lack of their interest are higher discounts and credit period allowed by
other companies. Other companies usually allow them 5% to 7%
discount whereas our company allows only 4%. They are given
45days to 90 days credit by other companies, whereas our credit
period is limited is up to 30 days. As far as advertisement is
concerned, other companies spend a lot of money on advertising on
television network. Our company’s advertisement campaigns have not
been as aggressive as theirs, during the last 3-4 years. It has been
carried out through newspapers only. The committee found that users
of the refrigerators also reported against the quality of compressors.
Other companies have improved their technology due to
collaborations with foreign enterprises, like Videocon with Toshiba.
The committee collected the data regarding prices of different
refrigerators in different cities and found that prices of our
refrigerators are slightly higher.
 Recommendations:
- There is no need to reduce or increase the prices of refrigerators
under present conditions.
- The dealer’s margin should be increased from the present 4% to
6% to induce them for promotion of sales. Besides, the credit
period be increased up to 60 days, considering the policy of other
competitors.
- As early as possible, an exchange scheme should be introduced by
which customers can purchase new model refrigerators by
surrendering an old one and paying some cash.
- Budget should be made for TV advertising.
Mr. James John, Senior Marketing Manager

Sample Report 3:
As the secretary of a youth club, prepare a report on the literacy drive
undertaken by your club. The\ report will be submitted to the secretary, Dept of
Mass Education, Unijos.
To: The Secretary, Dept of Mass Education, Unijos
From: Mr. S. Jude, Secretary, Friends Club, Jos North LGA
Date: 7 January 2023
Sub: Literacy drive in the University of Jos.
The Friends club organized a literacy drive in three villages of Jos
North in plateau State for two weeks with effect from 7. 12. 2023 to
21. 12. 2023. The villages selected are Anaguta, Maza and Angwa
Rukuba, the President of the club was the leader of the drive and 24
members of the club worked as active campaigners and participants.
Each village was entrusted to eight members. The chairman of the
LGA. Hon. Pam Dung supported and helped in this program. The
targeted-group in each village consisted of 10 illiterate boys and girls
and 10 illiterate adults. The club provided out of its own financial
resource’s black boards, chalk, slates, paper and pencils. The children
were taught for three hours from 10 am and the adult for two hours
from 7 pm every day. The club members devoted One hour daily to
motivating and educating the people on the aims and objectives of the
campaign.
Thanks to the hard work put in by the members of the club and
active cooperation of the village the target was reached in just 14 days.
A test was conducted on the last day. It showed that all the children as
well as adults were able to learn how to write their signatures, read and
simple words and sentences in English and a little practical arithmetic.
It is heartwarming to mention that the initiative was, by and large, a
success
S. Jude
Secretary

Structure of a Report
 Introduction
 Background Information
 Development
 Discussion
 Conclusion

 Introduction
 In the introduction you can introduce the aim and subject of the report
by telling the reader what to expect, what issue is being explored or
appraised, and if necessary, why. It is often helpful to summarize very
briefly the main finding of the report at this point, as this can stimulate the
interest of the reader. Grab the attention of the reader and encourage them to
read on.
 Background Information/Context
In this area you would present an overview of the historic, economic,
political or social influences and/or the micro factors that enable the reader
to put the report discussion issues into context or perspective.
 Development
In this broad area of the report, you would outline key issues, ideas,
and practices that are the main focus of the report. You might also present
relevant data or information to illustrate or explain what has happened. You
might also include the ways a particular model is currently applied, or the
way a particular scheme developed.
 Discussion
The discussion section is the heart of the report – and usually is the
most important in terms of the mark you receive! This is where you present
your analysis of the issues presented earlier in the report. This is where you
interpret, explain and discuss the issues you out lined earlier in the report. In
an academic report this is often done by reference to relevant theories,
models and practices.
 Conclusions or Summary or Recommendations
This section should bring the report to a close by pulling together the
main points emerging from the report and by giving a relatively brief resume
of the main or overall conclusions or recommendations reached. The reader
will be left in no doubt what your position is on the topic discussed in the
report.

Editing and Proofreading

Check through your work for style and correctness. The checklist below is a
guide to correct and improve your report. Editing Checklist
 Have you:
•clarified the purpose and audience?
•selected the most appropriate text type (memo report, long report, etc)?
 •used the correct format?
•explained the purpose of the report?
•defined the problem?
•included all the information needed?
•deleted unnecessary information?
•presented factual and objective information?
•organized the information logically and clearly?
•formatted appropriate headings and subheadings?
•written language appropriate to the purpose and audience?
•used ‘spell check’ and ‘grammar check’?
•written paragraphs with clear subjects and purposes?
•summarized the contents and findings?
•made recommendations that offer solutions to any problems mentioned?

BUSINESS PROPOSALS
Definition and Purpose of Business proposal
A business proposal is a written document sent to a prospective client in order
to obtain a specific job. A business proposal is a written proposal presented
from a vendor that is intended to elicit business from a prospective buyer. It
differs from a business plan, which is primarily constructed to obtain start-up
capital by detailing the organization and operational aspects of the business to
demonstrate its profit potential. A business proposal is also unique because it
contains much more than figures and statistics represented by pie charts and
graphs. In fact, the former involves proposal writing, which is designed to
identify and target a specific market and solidly demonstrate how the bidder can
deliver custom solutions to the needs of buyers within that market.

Types of Business Proposal

A solicited business proposal is quite different and much more detailed. A
company or government agency may publish a request for bid proposals on a
certain project, also known as a Request for Proposal (RFP) or an Invitation for
Bid (IFB). Since the project is usually offered to multiple candidates
simultaneously, the business proposal submitted by the winning bidder will
generally meet the specific requirements of the proposal. An unsolicited
business proposal can be thought of as collateral marketing material, such as a
brochure. They are largely broad spectrum in that they don’t address a particular
company by name or attempt to close a sale. Instead, this kind of informal
business proposal is created to introduce a product or service to potential
customers through direct mail distribution, by leaving the material behind after
a “cold” sale call, or making printed information available at trade shows.
The difference between these two proposals can be identified through their
names. Solicited proposals are presented as an answer to a need. Unsolicited
proposals are used to initiate the sales process, they usually show the customers
why they would need this product. Solicited proposals are often welcomed;
however due to the increasing number of unsolicited proposals today, customers
don’t pay attention to them. Solicited proposals are presented because they are
wanted by the customer; but an unsolicited proposal is like telling the person
how you can help even if they do not require you to help. Solicited proposals
are submitted because they are needed, on the other hand, unsolicited proposals
are submitted even if they are not needed. It is the proposal that usually tells the
person that they should need the product they are proposing.

Characteristics of a Business Proposal

The key elements which are required to make the business proposal successful
are:
 Solutions: After you have written a lead paragraph on the company's
needs and problems, follow up with a solid presentation of how your
business can provide solutions. The key here is to promise solutions
you can deliver.
 Benefits: All winning business proposals, clearly outline for the
company the benefits to be gained from doing business with you. If
your small business can offer complete confidentiality and meet tight
deadlines state it in your benefits section.
 Credibility: This is often the overlooked portion of a business
proposal but all winning proposals glow with credibility. If you have
worked with clients in the same field or have an award-winning
business, then third-party endorsements will build credibility.
 Samples: A business proposal with samples and evidence of your
ability to deliver is vital to gaining the winning bid. A small sample of
your work can show your ability to do the job.
 Targeted: A winning business proposal is all about communication.
Speak in a language spoken by your intended audience. If the proposal
evaluators are from an engineering background or financial
department use the appropriate jargon.
Ultimately, the best business proposal is one. When your company is well-
positioned and unique in the marketplace then it is only you who can meet the
needs of the company requesting the bids. If a retail craft chain is looking for a
web design firm and your company specializes in web creation for the crafts
industry you might be able to circumvent the proposal process. In the end, you
may not win all bids, but will win business that best matches your company to
the prospective business. A win-win for all parties involved.

Sample Business Proposal

MEMORANDUM
To: Amity T., Senior Vice President, Human Resources
From: Tina Uga, Intern, Purchasing Department
Subject: Proposal to Add a Wellness Program
Date: April 24, XXXX
Health care costs are rising. In the long run, implementing a wellness
program in our corporate culture will decrease the company’s health care
costs. Research indicates that nearly 70% of health care costs are from
common illnesses related to high blood pressure, overweight, lack of
exercise, high cholesterol, stress, poor nutrition, and other preventable
health issues. Health care costs are a major expense for most businesses,
and they do not reflect costs due to the loss of productivity or
absenteeism. A wellness program would address most, if not all, of these
health care issues and related costs. Benefits of Healthier Employees. Not
only would a wellness program substantially reduce costs associated with
employee health care, but our company would prosper through many
other benefits. Businesses that have wellness programs show a lower cost
in production, fewer sick days, and healthier employees. Our healthier
employees will help to cut not only our production and absenteeism costs
but also potential costs such as higher turnover because of low employee
morale. Implementing a good wellness program means making small
changes to the work environment, starting with a series of information
sessions. Simple changes to our work environment should include
improvement for selections in vending machines and in the employee
cafeteria. A smoke-free environment, inside and outside the building,
could be a new company policy. An important step is to educate our
employees through information seminars and provide health care guides
and pamphlets for work and home. In addition, the human resources
department could expand the current employee assistance programme by
developing online materials that help employees and their families to
 assess their individual health goals. Each health programme is different in
its own way, and there are a variety of programs that can be designed to
meet the needs of our individual employees. Some programs that are
becoming increasingly popular in the workplace are the following:
•Health promotion programs
•Subsidized health club membership
•Return-to-work programs
•Health-risk appraisals and screenings

Obstacles: Individual and Financial

The largest barrier in a wellness programme is changing the habits and
behaviors of our employees. Various incentives such as monetary
bonuses, vacation days, merchandise rewards, recognition, and
appreciation help to instill new habits and attitudes. Providing a
healthy environment and including family in certain programmes also
help to encourage healthier choices and behaviors. The costs of
incorporating a wellness programme will be far less than rising costs
associated with health care in the long run. An employee’s sense of
recognition, appreciation, or accomplishment is an incentive that has
relatively low or no costs. It is important that our company be healthy
in every way possible. Research shows that 41% of businesses already
have some type of wellness programme in progress and that 32% will
incorporate programmes within the next year. Our company should
always be ahead of our competitors. I want to thank you for your time
and I look forward to discussing this proposal with you further next
week

COMMUNICATION ETHICS AND SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITIES.

Ethics – Simply refer to morally or rather socially accepted ways of doing
things within business environment. Some people view ethics as the philosophy
which deals with the question of right or wrong, but in business generally, we
believe that ethics refer to morally and socially accepted ways of getting things
accomplished. It is also a way of business thinking or initiation. Some of the
followings are unethical in business;
 Deceptive advertising which makes most businesses responsible
for the corrupt practices in today’s society.
  Selling of defective products to customers.
 Selling of second-hand products in the name of new products.
 Profiteering.
 Hoarding especially during periods of acute scarcity.
 Production of dangerous products which may be hazardous to
human lives.
 Making customers believe that they have a fair bargain (reduced
price or discount) whereas in actual sense he is paying a higher
price.
 Coercing or forcing a customer to buy a product he does not want
in order to forgo one that he really likes.
 Exploitation of child labour i.e., poor treatment of house-nanny or
house-boy who may be paid only a meagre amount monthly. Often
times, they are addressed carelessly as slaves. The society therefore
considers such treatment as unethical and of course inhuman,
hence should be discouraged.
Social responsibility – On the other hand, is that demand on organizations to
always consider the interest of the society in which they operate or carry out
their business transactions. Social responsibility under the communication
concept expects the following standards as modern business transaction are
concerned;
 The product or service in question should strive to improve the
general wellbeing of every individual and the entire society.
 It should aim at satisfying the needs and aspirations of society
generally.
 It should also improve the needs and aspirations of society
generally.
 It should also improve the health of that business environment.
And for morality’s sake, all businesses especially advertising agencies should
have consumers versus customers form of orientation and consciousness.

SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY MODELS

By model here, we are simply referring to either practices or steps taken
by business enterprises concerning the above arguments or orientations.
Four models therefore have been evolved by organizations under the
communication concept;
 The Regulatory Model
 The Defensive Model
  The Deceptive Model
 The Accommodating Model
The Regulatory Model: This concept or model postulates that businesses
should comply strictly to fair business by observing the rules and regulations
governing their existence. In addition, the concept says that organizations
should operate without defection and their operation should be in conformity
with the social aspirations.
The Defensive Model: This communication concept suggests that social
responsibilities should be strongly encouraged if profitable. This includes
compliance with the societal laws, provision of high-quality goods and services
for members of the society in question. It also includes provision of
employment opportunities at least for members of such immediate society.
The Deceptive Model: The concept or model is believed to be deceptive in
nature. These are organizations which are considered to be socially
irresponsible since they use all sorts of effort to realize profits. They therefore
practice social irresponsibility in attempt for social responsibility.
The Accommodating Model: According to the communicative concept, the
Accommodating model ought to be the best practice by business organizations.
The model has some similarities with the Regulative model. Under this, the
following questions are usually asked;
- What is the position of my company in the society?
- In what ways or areas can it assist the society in question?
- What contributions will help in building good-will for the company?
The communication concept therefore sees social responsibilities as being
obligatory functions in all business transactions.
To buttress this, Adam Smith in the 17th century once postulates that
every business exists in society for the society. The survival of any business
enterprise therefore depends not only on the survival of the society buy also on
how its operations preserve and promote the social fabric upon which the
society exists. Refusal to operate within this framework, he added, is not only
suicidal but also an act of social irresponsibility (Parsons: 1960)

WRITING MINUTES
(1) Heading, Venue, Date and Time: For instance, Minutes of the 2nd meeting
of the Parents Teachers Association, held on Tuesday, 27th February, 1990,
in the Assembly Hall at 10:00a.m.
(2) Attendance: Keep record of all present if people are not many, but where
there are many people, only take down the number of persons present.
(3) Opening: Prayer/Chairman’s opening remarks. He will then call for reading
and adoption of previous minutes. If the minutes is adopted, it may be put
this way by anybody present: In view of the fact that there are no further
corrections, I move that the minutes be adopted. There is supposed to be a
seconder, and their names must reflect in the minutes.
(4) Corrigendum: It does not reflect in all minutes. It comes in only where
there are omissions. For instance, if there were corrections in a previous
meeting, the corrigendum will be created in the next minutes for such
corrections to be reflected.
(5) Matters Arising: This is normally from the previous minutes. For instance,
if certain topics were discussed in a previous meeting under matters arising,
they will be re-emphasized.
(6) Agenda: This is supposed to be passed round to all present. This will get
everybody informed, especially on issues to be discussed.
(7) General: The Chairman can call for people’s observation. For instance,
problems affecting the organization could be discussed.
(8) Vote of Thanks: This could be given by the Chairman or anybody appointed
by the Chairman.
(9) Closing: After everything has been said and noted, the meeting will come to
a close. The chairman or anybody present can move for this. There must be a
seconder and the time of closing must be indicated.