Diploma in Counselling - Introduction - Counselling (Autosaved)

Diploma in Counseling
2022
Introduction to counseling
• History and Trends in Counseling
• Definition of Counseling, Counselor, Counselee
• Role of Counselor
• Personal Growth and Counselor Qualities
• Counseling and Psychotherapy – An Overview
• Differentiating Formal from In formal Helping
• Personal Qualities of Effective Helpers
• The Helping Profession
History of and Trends in
Counseling
History and Background
• Jesse B. Davis - introduced “vocational
and moral guidance” as a curriculum into
an English course
• This was the first systematic guidance
program in public schools
History
• Frank Parsons - the “Father of Guidance”
• His work had significant impact on the
vocational guidance movement
• 1909 - Wrote the book, Choosing a Vocation,
which offered a method to match a person’s
personal characteristics with an occupation
(Trait and Factor Approach)
History
• The work of Jesse Davis, Eli Weaver, and Frank
Parsons and a host of other pioneers created
momentum for the development of a school
counseling profession.
• During the 1920s-1940s, many events
occurred that gave clarity and direction to this
emerging profession.
History
• World War I - gave more reason for
testing individuals
• The term “counselor” rarely heard prior
to the depression, was now a part of the
vocabulary (e.g. Freud). Prior to this
time, the term “guidance” was used
History
• World War II - and it’s aftermath created
a greater emphasis on “psychological
testing” that directly influenced school
guidance
• World War II - government requested
assistance from counselors for screening,
selecting military and industrial specialist
History
• 1930s - the first theory of guidance was
introduced. E. G. Williamson’s Trait and
Factor theory.
• This was known as directive or
counselor-centered
History
• 1946 - George Barden Act - legislation that
provided funds to develop and support
guidance and counseling activities in schools
and other settings
• This was the first time school counselors and
state and local supervisors received resources,
leadership and financial support from the
government
History
• 1957 - Sputnik - first earth satellite that was
launched by the Soviet Union
• Sputnik was the “lift-off” and “orbit” for
counseling & guidance in the US
• 1958 - Nat’l Defense Ed. Act (NDEA)- provided
funding to United States education
institutions at all levels. The act authorized
funding for four years, increasing funding per
year
History
• Part of the NDEA focused on:
• 1. Providing funds to help states establish and
maintain school counseling, testing and
guidance activities.
• 2. Authorized the establishment of counseling
institutions and training programs in colleges
and universities.
History
• 1962 - Wrenn’s book, The Counselor in a
Changing World -solidified the goals of
school counseling.
History
• 1965 - Elem & Secondary Education Act -
provided funding to improve educational
opportunities of low-income families.
• 1960-70s - Collaboration with teachers
• 1974 - PL 94-142 (Education of All
Handicapped Children Act; IDEA)
History
• 1997 - National Standards for School
Counseling Programs was published.
• Late 1990s-00s – There was a
transformation of school counseling.
School Guidance
• (1900 - 1920) - Occupational Selection
and Placement was emphasized.
• (1930 -1960) – School guidance
Adjustment.
• (1960- present) - Personal Development
Exercises
• Review the ASCA role statement (see
Appendix A in Cobia & Henderson) and
identify any aspects that are different from
the previous perceptions of a school
counselor’s role. Reflecting on these
differences, speculate about how you came to
hold these beliefs. How might your awareness
of these preconceptions influence your
training experiences?
Definition of Counseling, Counselor,
Counselee
Definition of counseling
• Cormier and Hackney (1993: 2) says,
”Professional counseling involves an
interpersonal relationship between someone
actively seeking help and someone willing to give
help and should be capable of or trained to help
in a setting that permits help to be given and
received.” He went on to say that, “ the process
of counseling is directed towards people who
experience difficulties as they live through the
normal stages of life-span development.”
Definition Cont
• According to British Association of Counselors
(BAC), quoted in McLeod ( 1993: 1), says, “The
term counseling, includes work with
individuals and with relationships which may
be developmental, crisis support, guiding or
problem solving……..The task of counseling is
to give the ‘client ’ an opportunity to explore,
discover and clarify ways of living more
satisfyingly and resourcefully.’
Definition cont.
• Nelson Jones,(1997:3) viewed counseling as a special
kind of helping relationship, as a repertoire of
interventions, as a psychological process, or in terms of
either its goals, or the people who counsel, or
relationship to psychotherapy.”
• Intervention for change is all about who should
influence what, who intervenes and who is intervened
on.
• Psychological process in the sense that, the goals of
counseling focuses on the mind, feelings, emotions, as
well as how people think and act.
Definition of a counselor
• A counselor is a person who helps people
solve problems with marriage, career, work,
school work or the like.
• A counselor is a person who makes the best
judgment using the most relevant and
accurate information to arrive at decisions.
The Counselor
• The counselor is a person ” who knows what is good and

desirable” for a client.
• The counselor provides a client with ready made – solutions.
• The Counselor undertakes the following actions: positive

reinforcements, persuading, convincing, evaluating,
giving guidelines, lecturing and training.
Consultant
• Dialogue counselling
• Counsellor will be the partner of the counselee
• Counsellor`s actions includes new aspects of activities and

inspiration to set new goals
• Counselee analyses a problem, gains new information,

experiments with new ideas, discusses her/his choices
• Counsellor and counselee share the responsibility for a

vocational choice decision
• Problems are solved together

Play - roles
- Directive counselling – the expert

and informant (one person takes
a role of counselor another
counselee in this counselling
situation)
- Liberal counselling - laissez –

faireist and reliable guardian (one
person takes a role of counselor
another counselee in this
counselling situation)
Who is a counselee?
• Counselee is a term used to refer to a person
receiving counselling. It is derived from the
word counsel, which can be defined as an
advice or guidance, particularly as solicited
from a well-informed person.
• A counselee can be an accident victim,
bereaved family members, HIV/AIDS victim,
drug abusers etc.
Role of Counselor
Roles of counselor
• Counselors are introspective, cooperative, directive, and attentive.
They have a strong desire to contribute to the welfare of others.
Counselors are gratified by helping others to develop and reach
their potential.
• Counselors often communicate in a personalized manner. They tend
to be positive and kind when dealing with others. Counselors are
good listeners and can sometimes detect a person's emotions or
intentions even before the individual is aware of them. This ability
to take in the emotional experiences of others, however, can lead
Counselors to be hurt easily.
• Counselors usually have intricate personalities and rich inner lives.
They tend to understand complex issues and individuals. They are
generally private people who keep their innermost thoughts and
emotional reactions to themselves. This quality can make them
difficult to get to know.
• Counselors value harmony, which they work to maintain at home
and at work. They may lose confidence, become unhappy, and even
become physically ill if subjected to a hostile environment.
Counselors may be crushed by too much criticism, though they may
not express their feelings to others.
• The primary role of the high school counselor is to be a student’s
advocate, providing each student with the opportunity to acquire the
academic, civic, and social skills essential to graduating from high school
and becoming productive citizens who respect themselves and others.
• In addition to working with students, counselors are a part of the
educational team including parents, teachers, administrators, and
specialists. This team works in a partnership assisting students in meeting
Kings wood Regional High School graduation requirements and in planning
post-secondary options. Each student is assigned to a school counselor
who will follow the student through his or her high school years, allowing
an opportunity for the counselor and student to develop a working
relationship. Students may seek a counselor’s assistance with any or all
types of questions and concerns. Academics, work habits and study skills,
post-secondary planning, and personal concerns are all common issues of
high school students.
• When seeking a conference with a counselor, students and parents may
directly contact their counselor via the guidance secretary. Parents are
encouraged to call the guidance office whenever they have questions or
concerns about their child’s well-being or welfare. Individual concerns
about a specific course or class are best addressed directly with the
subject teacher. Communication is particularly important whenever there
is an illness, death, separation, divorce, stress, or other family crisis.
• Responsibilities of a School Counselor
• Services: The guidance department curriculum includes a
number of activities and services such as:
• • New student registration
• Schedule development
• Course selection and course registration
• Monitoring student academic progress
• Attend parent/teacher conferences
• Participate in IEP and Section 504 meetings
• Consultations with teachers, administrators, parents and
students
• Provide mediations for students to help resolve conflicts
• Assist with freshmen year transition
• Development of Four Year Plans
• Individual counseling and small group counseling
• Academic counseling
• Personal counseling
• Provide crisis intervention
• Post-secondary counseling
• Processing applications to independent schools
and post-secondary programs
• Coordination of referrals to outside resources
• Home tutoring for students with extended
illness
• Communications between school and home
• Orientation programs
• Parent information programs
• College Board for Testing
• Administration
• Exam administration
• Scholarship programs
• Restructuring for the elementary-school counselor is a process where school staff,
parents, and teachers continually evaluate the counseling and guidance program
in the school.
• The introduction of counseling and guidance services at the elementary school is
vital to helping each child achieve maximum success in school. It is also vital to
intervene at the earliest possible stage in a child's life when change is most
possible and before developmental or situational stresses cause deeper problems.
• The elementary-school counselor, in cooperation with other staff, teachers,
parents, and community leaders, becomes a valuable asset to the school
community. Important tasks for the counselors include the following:
• Promoting success in school.
• Developing positive attitudes toward self. family, and community.
• Instilling understanding and appreciation of self and others.
• Increasing motivation and confidence for success in school and community
activities.
• Teaching decision-making and communication skills.
• Creating an emotionally healthy school learning climate.
• Improving cooperation between school and home.
• Developing career awareness for the future.
• Building tolerance and appreciation of persons of all ethnic and cultural
backgrounds.
• Intervening in conflict, crisis, and emergency situations.
• The counselor provides individual and group
counseling services in order to assist children in th
following:
• Conflicts with peers
• Teacher – student issues
• child conflicts
• Rejection
• Friendships
• Grief and loss
• Disasters
• Family goals
• Attention and learning deficit
• COUNSELORS WORK IN FOUR ESSENTIAL AREAS
• 1. Personal development - counselors help students to:
– develop positive self-esteem.
– accept responsibility.
– develop attitudes and actions necessary to achieve.
– deal with the effects of abuse.
– cope with stress that might lead to feelings of isolation, depression
and suicide.
– develop an awareness of the child's unique potential.
• 2. Social development - counselors help students to:
– develop feelings of adequacy in relation to others.
– learn ways to resolve interpersonal relationships.
– establish sound family relationships.
– establish good peer relationships.
– establish effective working relationships with teachers and
administrators.
– develop respect for individual differences in attitude, values, and
backgrounds.
COUNSELORS WORK IN FOUR
ESSENTIAL AREAS
• 3. Educational development -- counselors help students
to:
– use learning opportunities in effective ways.
– develop educational plans that relate to their interests,
aptitudes, achievements, values, and needs.
– Counselors help identify learning problems/styles for early
remediation.
– Counselors affect school environment by implementing
school-wide programs, e.grand opportunities.
– meet and talk to persons from various careers on career
days.
– discuss educational standards that meet career goals
COUNSELORS WORK IN FOUR
ESSENTIAL AREAS
• 4. Career development -- counselors help
students to:
– be aware of career choices
• SERVICES TO PARENTS
• The counselor confers with parents in order to help children change
unwanted behaviors and attitudes.
• The counselor coordinates parent education groups.
• The counselor and teachers interventions and strategies that enhance a
child‘ skills development AND STAFF focus
• The counselor provides information and resources for classroom guidance
activities. resources when necessary.
• The counselor empowers parents to become more involved in school and
community affairs.
• The counselor confers with teachers and staff to plan jointly for the
students' needs.
• The counselor provides in-service and staff development programs on
counseling issues that provides parents with SERVICES TO TEACHERS such
as crisis management, fetal alcohol syndrome, hyperactivity, and behavior
modification.
• The counselor offers s ability to
succeed in the learning environment.
• SERVICES TO THE COMMUNITY
• The counselor coordinates human services at the school site to
ensure that the basic security needs of children are met. Counselors
provide information and referrals about community agencies and
services.
• The counselor acts as liaison for community agencies to
disseminate information to the school community and to bring
additional programs to the school, e.g., youth gang services, mental
health services, college intern programs, etc.
• SERVICES FOR COUNSELORS
• Counselors are aware of current research and future trends.
• Counselors are aware of the need to find positive outlets for stress
and to develop a personal support system.
• Counselors participate in conferences, conventions, meetings, and
other modes of networking and gaining expertise.
• Counselors join professional organizations in order to share and
gain from other professionals.
• CRISIS INTERVENTION
• Counselors deal with personal crises of students and their families.
• Counselors provide emotional support when there is death or violence in the
family or community.
• Counselors provide emotional support in child abuse cases.
• Counselors address suicidal ideation and depression in children.
• Counselors serve on school crisis teams, earthquake preparedness teams, and
other crisis intervention teams. (Prepared by Committee of Elementary School
Counselors, LAUSD.)
• GOALS AND OBJECTIVES
• According to Robert Myrick's (1987) Developmental Guidance and Counseling: A
Practical Approach, eight goals characterize almost all developmental counseling
and guidance programs. For the most part, regardless of school or school systems,
general and specific objectives can be organized around them.
They are as follows:
• GOAL 1: Understanding the School Environment
GOAL 2: Understanding Self and Others
GOAL 3: Understanding Attitudes and Behaviors
GOAL 4: Decision-making and Problem-solving
GOAL 5: Interpersonal and Communication Skills
GOAL 6: School Success Skills
GOAL 7: Career Development and Goal 8: Educational Planning
• Each goal is further delineated by a set of general objectives, which in turn can be
described more specifically through expected observable outcomes. Particular
attention and emphasis to various objectives are usually grade-level related,
considering developmental stages and tasks appropriate for each age group.
Personal Growth and Counselor
Qualities
Counselor personal growth
• The personal growth of a professional
counselor has been facilitated by the
evolution of theories approaches to address
or find solutions to the counseling process.
• A brief look at some of the theories and
approaches helps to demonstrate how
professional counselors have personally
grown through the attendance of programs
that taught these theories and approaches,
where counseling techniques were learnt.
Defining Counseling
“a professional relationship that empowers

diverse individuals, families, and groups to
accomplish mental health, wellness,
education, and career goals" (American
Counseling Association, 2010).
Counseling is a process of helping people by

assisting them in making decisions and
changing behavior (ACA, 1997).
Defining School Counseling
……..a helping process implemented by trained and
credentialed personnel which involves a variety of
strategies and activities that help students explore,
academic, career and personal/social issues which can
impede healthy development or academic progress
(ASCA, 2005).
………is a confidential relationship which the counselor

conducts with students individually and in small groups to
help them resolve their problems and developmental
concerns (ASCA, 1999)
Defining School Counseling
A profession that focuses on the relations and

interactions between students and their school
environment with the expressed purpose of
reducing the effect of environmental and
institutional barriers that impede student
academic success (Education Trust, 1997).
How are these Different or Similar?
Counseling and
advising
guidance
therapy
Purpose of Counseling
Five major goals are at the heart of most counseling
theories and models (George and Christiana , 1990):
1. facilitate a change in behavior;

2. improve social and personal relationships;
3. increase one’s ability to cope;
4. learn and apply the decision making process; and,
5. enrich personal growth and self development.
How do you apply these in a school setting?
©2012 Cengage Learning. These materials are
designed for classroom use and can be used for
educational purposes only. Reproduction for
commercial use is in violation of copyright laws.
The Counseling Process
 Theory
 Technique
 Application
Know Thyself (self awareness)
Reflect on the personal qualities that a school
counselor should possess to successfully
engage students in the counseling process.
Which qualities do you need to further develop?
How will you do this?
Exploring 10 Theoretical Applications for
School Settings
1. The Gestalt Approach
2. The Person-Centered Approach
3. The Individual Psychology Approach
4. The Behavioral Approach
5. The Reality Therapy Approach
Exploring Theoretical Applications, cont.
6. The REBT (Rational Emotive Behavior

Therapy) Approach
7. The Cognitive Behavior Approach
8. The Existential Approach
9. Motivational Interviewing
10. Solution Focused Counseling
Gestalt Theory
 Gestalt theory emphasizes the present and supports
the equation now = experience = awareness = reality
(Fritz Perls).
Dream Work
Empty Chair
Confrontation
Making the Rounds
I Take Responsibility
Person Centered Theory
 Person Centered theory focuses on the “core
conditions” of genuineness, empathy, positive
regard, active listening and concreteness all of
which are considered universally essential to
all helping relationships and the counseling
process (Rogers).
 Three stages: non directive, reflective,
experimental
Individual Psychology
 Individual Psychology (Adlerian Counseling) encourages

the client to be well aware of his/her surroundings and
environment, and supports healthy development to
overcome any feelings of inferiority. The client learns
to grapple with his/her conscious levels of thought and
is responsible for taking charge of changing behaviors.
Empathy
Support
Confrontation
Pushing buttons
Behavioral Theory
 Behavioral: is strongly influenced by the work of B.F. Skinner
and is based on processes closely associated with overt
behavior. Behavioral theory works with the premise that all
behavior is learned and that learning is effective in changing
maladaptive behavior.
Environmental planning
Systemic desensitization
Assertiveness training
Reality Theory
 Reality Theory encourages the client to learn how to make
more effective choices and develop the skills to cope with
daily stresses and problems. Individuals set realistic and
take ownership of goals, thus accepting responsibility for
their choices in life and to obtain what they want in the
present and future (William Glasser).
Role play
Confrontation
Humor
Goal setting
Attending
Teaching
WDEP (wants, direction, evaluation, plan)
Rational Emotive Behavior Theory
 REBT helps people live balanced, productive, and

more rational lives by limiting the demands that
one makes on oneself. This theory concentrates on
the relationship between thoughts and their
impact and affect upon emotions and behaviors
(Ellis).
 Techniques such as teaching and disputing help
school counselors educate students on the
anatomy of emotion. Feelings are viewed as a
result of thoughts and not events.
Cognitive Behavioral Therapy
• Cognitive behavioral therapy assists clients in
being able to deal with life and accomplish
personal and professional goals (Bandura).
Reinforcers
Behavior modification
Shaping
Generalization, Maintenance, Extinction
Existensialism
• Existentialism - emphasizes the importance of
examining anxiety, values, freedom and
responsibility to find meaning. Since people
destine or author their lives by the choices they
make, life’s choices do not depend on the
judgment of others. The client uncovers life’s
meaning by doing a deed, experiencing a value, or
by suffering (Frankl, May).
Philosophy or Therapy
Issues are learning experiences.
Accept the truth and work through ambiguity
Motivational Interviewing
Motivational Interviewing is defined as directive,
client-centered, and eliciting change by helping
clients explore and resolve ambivalence (Miller &
Rollnick, 2002). The counselor serves in the role of
collaborator with the client and helps counselors
work with students who fluctuate between
incongruent thoughts and behaviors (Biles & Eakin,
2010).
4 basic techniques: expressing empathy, developing a
discrepancy, rolling with resistance and support self-
efficacy.
Solution Focused Counseling
 In solution-focused counseling the school
counselor becomes the learner, and in turn, the
student assumes the role of teacher or informant,
telling you what the problem is and when a
workable solution has been created (Davis &
Osborne)
Brief Solution-Focused Counseling
Helps students to gain control and experience success.

Students can assess the problem in concrete and
developmentally appropriate terms, explore attempts
previously used to correct the problem, establish short
terms goals and implement the intervention (Bruce,
1995).
Techniques include: counting on change, highlighting
exceptions, the miracle question, the great instead,
establishing measurable goals and using scaling
questions.
Selecting a Theoretical Orientation
• Counseling theories provide a point of
reference from which the counselor develops
a personal perspective of human growth,
development and behavior.
• Counselors must recognize and choose the
appropriate behaviors and strategies that best
match their theoretical approach
Applying Counseling Skills and
Techniques
 Establishing a Relationship
 Setting the Tone in a Counseling Setting
 Exploring the Issues
 Setting Goals
 Transitioning to Independence
Communication Techniques
 Reflecting
 Paraphrasing
 Clarifying
 Questioning (open ended vs. closed)
Active listening…there’s no time to be passive!

Activity
How would you conduct a first counseling
session with an elementary, or middle or high
school student?
What preparation needs to be done in advance?
Talk about how the sequence of steps that you
would follow.
Case Study: Seeking Solutions
Kara feels she is unable to do anything well. She is
only comfortable in class when the teacher expects
nothing from her. You ask Kara, “What do you want
your teacher and classmates to know about you?
Are there some things in class that you are really
good at and would like everyone to know? How can
we make that happen?”
How would you approach this counseling situation?
Taking the Case Apart
Planning the Intervention: Things to Think
About:
 Key Issues
 Who Else Is Involved
 Theoretical Orientation
 Techniques
 Follow Up
REVIEW: Which Theory Applies Here?
 You feel _______because…….. and you want_______
 The school counselor expresses genuine confidence in the
student and used encouragement.
 I take responsibility for……………….
 The school counselor discusses the difference between
friendly competition and “one-upmanship.”
 How can you remove those self-defeating thoughts that are
holding you back from doing better?
Counselor’s Personal Qualities
1. Sincere interest in the welfare of others
2. Ability & willingness to be present in
client’s joy or pain
3. Recognition & acceptance of one’s
strength & vitality; no need to diminish
others
4. Found one’s own counseling style.
Cormier & Hackney, 1999, p.7. Attributed to Corey, Corey, and Callanan (1998).
Counselor’s Personal Qualities
5. Willingness to be vulnerable & take risks

6. Self- respect, self-appreciation, strong
sense of self-worth
7. Serve as models for clients
8. Risk mistakes & admit making them
9. Growth orientation
10. Sense of humor
Cormier & Hackney, 1999, p.7. Attributed to Corey, Corey, and Callanan (1998).
Counselor’s Interpersonal Skills
• Pragmatism
• Competence
• Respect
• Genuineness
• Promotion of client empowerment & self-
responsibility
Cormier & Hackney, 1999, p.7-8. Attributed to Egan (1998, pp. 43-55).
Effective Helpers
• Self awareness • Objectivity

• Psychological health • Competence
• Sensitivity to racial, • Trustworthiness
ethnic, & cultural • Interpersonal
factors attractiveness
• Open-mindedness
Hackney & Cormier, 2001, pp. 13-21.

Self-Awareness
Of Your:
• Need to
– Give or nurture • Feelings
– Be liked, respected, loved; – Happiness, satisfaction
receive approval – Hurt, disappointment
– Control, be critical, be right – Anger, sadness
– Fear, confusion
• Motivation for helping
• Personal strengths,
limitations, & coping
skills
Hackney & Cormier, 2001, p. 14.

Psychological Health
• Psychologically intact
• Free from over-whelming problems
• Recognize and manage personal issues
• Refer clients with problems like your own to
other counselors
• Seek services of a counselor for yourself, if
necessary.

Cultural Sensitivity
Focused Universal
Culture-Specific
All cultures must be Broadens the definition
understood for their of minority and argues
uniqueness. for a subjective, more
inclusive understanding
of cultural impacts.

• Focused culture-specific: too many variables
confuse multiculturalism; render it meaningless.
• Universal: culture must be defined by more than

just racial or ethnic factors.
– Gender, age, and physical disabilities
– Race, ethnicity
– Sexual orientation
– Socioeconomic level
– Religion and spiritual affiliation
Hackney & Cormier, 2001, pp. 15.

Cormier & Hackney, 1999, p. 8
• Integrative:
– Focused culture-specific and the
universal approach are both important
– Both approaches are blended in
“multicultural counseling and therapy”
(Ivey, et al., 1997).

Cultural Competence
• Be aware of your own cultural heritage.

• Expand your range of experience.
• Seek interaction opportunities with others
different from yourself.
• Be open to continuous learning about
differing groups.
Cormier & Hackney, 1999, pp. 8-10. Attributed to Daw (1977).

Cultural Competence
• Be honest about your range of experience.
– Power
– Privilege
– Poverty
– Oppression
• Consider referring a client you cannot help
from your own range of experience.
Cormier & Hackney, 1999, pp. 8-10. Attributed to Daw (1977).

Open-Mindedness
• Freedom from fixed or preconceived ideas
• Enlightenment
• Internal knowledge
– Perceptions, myths
– Standards, values, judgments
– Assumptions, biases
• Knowledge of the world outside your own
world

Open-Mindedness
Allows the counselor to:
• Engage in honest communication.
• Accommodate client’s
– Feelings,
– Attitudes, and
– Behaviors.
• Interact effectively with wide range of
clients.
Objectivity
• Balance involvement with objective

assessment.
• Provide a new perspective to “reframe” the
client’s issues(s).
• Avoid dysfunctional communication patterns.
• Recognize manipulation attempts by the
client.
Hackney & Cormier, 2001, pp. 16 -17.

Objectivity
• Safeguards against countertransference:
– Counterproductive emotional reaction;
– Entanglement of the counselor’s needs in the client
relationship;
– The need to please one’s client;
– Over-identification with client’s problem(s);
– Romantic or sexual feelings toward a client;
– Need to give constant advice;
– Need to form friendships.
Hackney & Cormier, 2001, pp. 16 -17.

Competence
• Required to transmit and build confidence
and hope with clients.
• Needed to develop positive client
expectations from the counseling
experience.
• Assures ability to work with wide variety of
clients and client problems.
• Includes multicultural competence as
previously discussed.
Competence
• Egan (1998): The counselor is determined,
by outcome of client results, to possess
the necessary
– information,
– knowledge, and
– skills.

Competence
• Kleinke (1994): Includes knowledge of
– psychological processes,
– assessment,
– clinical skills,
– technical skills,
– judgment,
– ethics and personal effectiveness.

Competence
• (Strong, 1968; Strong & Schmidt, 1970; Strong &
Claiborn, 1982): Includes knowledge of
– psychological processes,
– assessment,
– clinical skills,
– technical skills,
– judgment,
– ethics and personal effectiveness.

Trustworthiness
Do not promise more than you can

do, and be sure you do exactly as you
have promised.

Trustworthiness
• Hard to establish; easy to destroy

• Includes
– predictability,
– reliability,
– responsibility,
– ethical standards.

Trustworthiness
• Safeguard clients’ communications.

• Respond with energy to client concerns.
• Essential to
– Establish a base of influence,
– Encourage clients’ self-disclosure.

Trustworthiness
The counselor cannot act trustworthy.
The counselor must be trustworthy

Interpersonal Attractiveness
• Counselors appear “attractive” when they are

seen as similar to or compatible with the client.
• May be determined by instinct or selected

dimensions:
– Gender or age,
– Demeanor or attitude, likeability and friendliness,
– Worldview, theory, or approach.

References
• Cormier, Sherry & Harold Hackney. Counseling
Strategies and Interventions, 5th Edition. Allyn &
Bacon, 1999.
• Hackney, Harold L. & L. Sherilyn Cormier. The
Professional Counselor: A Process Guide to
Helping, 4th Edition. Allyn & Bacon, 2001.
• Sperry, Len, John Carlson, & Diane Kjos.
Becoming An Effective Therapist. Allyn &
Bacon, 2003.
Counseling and Psychotherapy – An
Overview
Definitions of Counseling and
Psychotherapy
• What is Psychotherapy?
• What is Counseling?
• What are the Differences between
Psychotherapy and Counseling?
• A Working Definition of Counseling and
Psychotherapy: “A trained person who
practices the artful application of scientifically
derived principles .
What is a Theory?
• “A coherent group of general propositions
used as principles of explanation for a class of
phenomena” (Random House, 1993, p. 1967).
• For counseling and psychotherapy, a theory
needs to accurately describe, explain, and
predict a wide range of therapist and client
behaviors.
Modern Therapy: Does it work?
• Eysenck’s early review
• A celebration of effectiveness
• Is psychotherapy harmful?
• Are psychotherapy researchers and
practitioners objective?
What Helps Clients: Common Factors
or Specific Techniques?
• Specific techniques
• Common therapeutic factors
– Extratherapeutic change (40%)
– Therapeutic relationship (30%)
– Expectancy (15%)
– Techniques (15%)
• Techniques or common factors? The wrong
question
Ethical Essentials
• Confidentiality
• Multiple roles
• Client harm: The sexual abuse of therapy
clients
• Competence and informed consent
• Additional ethical issues
Our Biases
• Our theoretical roots
• Balance and uncertainty
• Theory versus technique
The Zeitgeist, the Ortgeist, and the
Poltergeist
• Zeitgeist: The spirit of the time
• Ortgeist: The spirit of the place
• Poltergeist: A mischievous spirit or ghost
• Experience your theory.
Critical Corner
• 1. Most of the psychological theories reviewed
were developed by privileged, White, and
European or American males. Given the
narrow origins of these theories, how can the
information provided be useful to you as a
developing mental health professional?
Critical Corner (continued)
• 2. Smith, Glass, and Miller in their extended meta-
analysis of therapy outcome studies concluded that
the average person treated in therapy was better off
than 80% of the untreated sample. Of course, they
neglected to comment on the inverse fact that
average untreated person was better off than about
20% of the treated clients. What does this inverse
statement suggest? Are there large numbers of
treated therapy clients who are getting worse? Or
are some untreated clients somehow spontaneously
getting better?
Critical Corner (continued)
• 3. Might you be better off to simply adopt a
particular theory and hang in there with it,
despite its limitations? Wouldn’t you be better
off just knowing one theory very well, rather
than knowing a little bit about many different
perspectives?
Reviewing Key Terms
The biomedical perspective
The religious/spiritual perspective
The psychosocial perspective
Trephining
Meta-analysis
The Do Do bird effect
Extratherapeutic change
Confidentiality
Key Terms (continued)
Informed consent
Zeitgeist
Ortgeist
Poltergeist
Review Questions
• 1. What is the difference between a therapeutic
experience and a therapy experience?
• 2. Who was Hans Eysenck? Why is he important to
the evolution of psychotherapy and counseling?
• 3. What are the common factors and their relative
importance as described by Lambert (1992)?
• 4. Why is sexual contact between therapist and client
now referred to as sexual abuse of clients?
• 5. What are the limits of confidentiality in therapy?
Differentiating Formal from In
formal Helping
The Counseling Relationship
109
Quick Review
• What is Counseling?
–According to the American Counseling

Association, counseling is:
“The application of mental health, psychological or human

development principles, through cognitive, affective,
behavioral or systemic interventions, strategies that
address wellness, personal growth, or career development,
as well as pathology.”
Tony Thampi
Quick Review
• What is Guidance?
– “Guidance is a process of helping people

make important choices that affect their lives,
such as choosing a preferred lifestyle” (Gladding,
2000, pg. 4).
Tony Thampi
Quick Review
• What is Psychotherapy?
– Traditionally focuses on serious problems

associated with intrapsychic, internal, and
personal issues and conflicts. It deals with the
“recovery of adequacy” (Casey, 1996, p. 175 as quoted
in your text).
Tony Thampi
Our Focus
• While the boundaries
between counseling,
guidance, and
psychotherapy are
changing and blurring,
we are going to focus
our efforts on the
application of
counseling.
Tony Thampi
Factors that Influence Change
• The counseling process is
influenced by several
characteristics that help • Structure
it become a productive • Setting
time for the client & • Client Qualities
counselor. Not all • Counselor Qualities
characteristics apply to
all situations, but
generally, the following
help bring about positive
results.
Tony Thampi
• Structure.
– The “joint understanding between the
counselor & client regarding the
characteristics, conditions, procedures, and
parameters of counseling” (Day & Sparacio, 1980,
p.246).
• This give form to what the formal processwill look

like. Many clients come to counseling with no idea
what to expect. Counseling moves forward when
client and counselor know the boundaries of the
relationship and what is expected.
Tony Thampi
• Physical Setting.
– Counseling can happen

anywhere, but the
professional generally
works in a place that
provides -
• Privacy,
• Confidentiality,
• Quiet and
• Certain comfort
Tony Thampi
S.O.L.E.R.
• When working with a client,
you want to send a
message that you are
listening.
• This can be done by being
attentive both verbally
(responding to the client) and
nonverbally.
• SOLER is an acronym which
serves to remind us how to
listen.
Tony Thampi
• S: Face the client squarely; that is, adopt a posture that
indicates involvement.
• O: Adopt an open posture. Sit with both feet on the

ground to begin with and with your hands folded, one
over the other.
• L: As you face your client, lean toward him or her. Be

aware of their space needs.
• E: Maintain eye contact. Looking away or down suggests

that you are bored or ashamed of what the client is
saying. Looking at the person suggests that you are
interested and concerned.
• R: As you incorporate these skills into your attending

listening skills, relax.
Tony Thampi
Factors that Influence Change: Client
• Readiness or Reluctance or Resistance.
– Readiness can be thought of as the motivation that
the client brings into the session. How motivated are
they to work? Their interest
– Reluctance is generally seen in those clients who are
referred for help by a third party and are
unmotivated.
– Resistance is generally seen in those clients who are
forced into counseling. They bring a motivation to
cling to their issues through various sorts of actions.
Tony Thampi
Factors which influence change
• Client & Counselor Qualities.
– Counselors generally like to work with clients who

are most like them. We are influenced by the
physical characteristics of the client. It is
important to be aware of how you work with all
clients and offer your best work to all clients.
– Clients, depending on culture, initially like to work
with counselors who are perceived as experts,
attractive, trustworthy.
Tony Thampi
Some Basic Principles
• Each client must be accepted as an individual and dealt
with as such (the counselor does not necessarily approve of
all behavior, but still accepts the client as a person).
• Counseling is basically a permissive relationship; that is,

the individual has permission to say what they please
without being reprimanded or judged.
• Counseling emphasizes thinking with; not for the

individual.
• All decision-making rests with the client.
Tony Thampi
Some Basic Principles
• Counseling is centered on the difficulties of the client.
• Counseling is a learning situation which eventually results

in a behavioral change.
• Effectiveness in counseling depends largely on the

readiness of the client to make changes and the therapeutic
relationship with the counselor.
• The counseling relationship is confidential.
Tony Thampi
The Initial Session
• There is always an initial session. It is during
this time both the client and the counselor
are assessing one another to see if the
relationship will work. It is here the subject
of the subsequent sessions will be discussed
and determined.
• There are several skills which are useful

during this phase of counseling.
Tony Thampi
Gathering Information
• Types of Questions:
– Open—allows the client to answer the question

in a free-flowing or narrative style. Used when
you want more detailed and elaborate answers.
• Tell me how this is working for you?
– Closed—this type of question requires only a one

or two word response. Usually…Yes or No.
• Do you enjoy that type of work?
Tony Thampi
Gathering Information
• Types of Questions:
– Probes—a questions which begins with a who,

what, where, how, or when.
• What do you plan to do to complete your project?
– Requests for Clarification—Asking the client for

more information.
• Help me understand what this relationship is for?
Tony Thampi
Gathering Information &
Building the Relationship
• When you can take the time to build the
relationship with the client & gather
information, there are other skills which you
must possess and develop. In efforts to build
the relationship, you would concentrate more
on the client’s attitudes and emotions. The
skills you need include the following:
Tony Thampi
• Restatement/Content Paraphrasing.
– A re-statement of what you heard the client say in
slightly different words.
• Reflection of Feeling.
– Similar to a re-statement, but you are
concentrating more on the emotional aspect &
the non-verbal communication.
Tony Thampi
• Summary of Feelings.
– A simple summary paraphrase of several feelings
which have been verbalized (non-verbal and verbal).
• Acknowledgement of Non-verbal Behavior.

– You are noting to the client what you are seeing.
You are not interpreting the non-verbal content.
Tony Thampi
A Touchy Subject—Touching
• Touching a client is very
problematic in today’s
society. Touch
appropriately is a major
concern for counselors. It is
a powerful way to
communicate caring and
empathy. It can also be
easily misunderstood,
misconstrued, and
damaging to the counseling
relationship.
Tony Thampi
Some Non-Helpful Behaviors
• There are several lists
of non-helpful
behaviors. Most
common among them
include: • Advice Giving
• Lecturing
• Excessive Questioning
• Storytelling
• Asking “Why?”
• Asking “How did that
make you feel?”
Tony Thampi
A Word About Goals
• Goals within counseling help to set the
tone and direction one travel’s with their
client.
• Without goals, the sessions will wander
aimlessly.
Tony Thampi
Goal Guidelines
• Goals are mutually agreed on by the client and
counselor.
• Goals are specific.
• Goals are relevant to behavior.
• Goals are achievement & success oriented.
• Goals are quantifiable & measurable.
• Goals are behavioral & observable.
• Goals are understandable & can be re-stated
clearly.
Tony Thampi
Perceiving Reality
“Perception is Reality”
• As you move past the initial stage of
counseling, you begin to gain an
understanding of the client’s world view.
How they perceive reality is considered
true by the client, and often seen only one
way. As you work with a client, you may
offer new frames to their pictures of
reality (re-framing) and fresh ways to look at
things.
Tony Thampi
Important Skills/Tools for the
Counselor
• There are several • Empathy
important skills which • Leading
we will cover briefly. • Responding
Each is considered a
“micro-skill” which you • Self Disclosure
will need to develop • Immediacy
during the clinical • Humor
sequence of the • Confrontation
counselor training
program.
Tony Thampi
Empathy
• You want to build the
relationship with the
client through all the
previously mentioned
skills. Yet all these
skills will be hindered
without the use of
empathy.
Tony Thampi
Empathy
• According to Rogers (1961)…
– This is the ability to enter the client’s
phenomenological world, to experience the
client’s world as if it were your own without ever
losing the ‘as if’ quality.
• It involves two specific skills:
– Perception/understanding of what is taking place
emotionally.
– The ability to communicate your understanding of
that to your client.
Tony Thampi
Empathy
• According to Martin (1983)…
– Empathy is communicated understanding of the other
person’s intended emotional message. Every word
counts in this definition. It is not enough to understand
what the person said; you must also hear what they
meant to say; the intended message.
– It is not enough to understand, even deeply; you must
communicate your understanding somehow.
– It is absolutely essential the other person “feel”
understood—that your understanding is perceived.
Tony Thampi
Two Forms of Empathy
• Primary Empathy:
– Responding in such a way that it is apparent to
both the client & counselor the counselor has
understood the client’s major themes.
• Advanced Empathy:
– This takes the relationship one step further. You
are exploring themes, issues, meanings, and
emotions that are below the surface of what is
being shared by the client.
Tony Thampi
Levels of Empathy
• Throughout your time with a client, you will
be using different levels of empathy. As the
sessions progress, empathy will deepen as you
know more about your client and their story.
You also use an appropriate level of empathy
for the stage of counseling.
Tony Thampi
Levels of Empathy
1. The verbal & behavioral expressions of the
counselor either do not attend to or detract from
the verbal & behavioral expressions of the client.
2. Although the counselor responds to the

expressed feelings of the client, they do so in a
way which subtracts noticeable affect (emotion)
from the communications of the client.
Tony Thampi
Levels of Empathy
3. The expressions of the counselor in response
to the expressions of the client are essentially
interchangeable.
4. The response of the counselor add noticeably

to the expressions of the client in a way that
expresses feelings a level deeper than the
client was able to express.
Tony Thampi
Levels of Empathy
5. The counselor’s responses add significantly to
the feeling & meaning of the expressions of
the client in a way that accurately expresses
feeling levels below what the client is able to
express.
Tony Thampi
Moving the Client—Leading
• There are several ways to “lead” the client
forward in a session. They include using
silence, acceptance, paraphrasing, etc…
• Be aware of how you lead and where you are

going. You are working on the client’s issues,
not your issues, or what you think the client
should be working on.
Tony Thampi
Moving the Client—Leading
– Restatement of content
– Reflection of content
– Reflection of feeling
– Minimal Encouragers: “I see” or “uh huh”
– General Encouragers: Direct client talk more on a
specific topic, e.g., “Please say some more
about…”
– Encouragement/Support
– Therapeutic Silence
Tony Thampi
Responding Styles
• Counseling is often perceived as just focusing
on feelings. This is not true.
• While counseling helps people work through

feelings; how one responds and
communicates with others will effect how
the counselor responds to the client.
Tony Thampi
Responding Styles
•Affective Responding.
–Focusing on feelings.
•Behavioral Responses.
–Focusing on actions and behaviors.
•Cognitive Response.
–Focusing on thoughts and cognitions.
You will balance these throughout the session with a client.
Tony Thampi
Self-Disclosure
• Self-disclosure is making oneself known to
another person (the client) by revealing personal
information.
• Counselors self-disclosure is only necessary as it

relates to the therapeutic process. Too much
self-disclosure hinders the counseling process,
while not enough, may inhibit the client from
forming a bond with the counselor.
Tony Thampi
Immediacy
• This involves a counselor’s understanding
and communicating of what is going on
between the counselor and client within
the helping relationship. There are 2 types:
– Relationship immediacy. (Between client &

counselor)
– “Here & Now” immediacy focuses on some
particular event in the session.
Tony Thampi
Humor
• Humor can have a
positive effect on the
counseling process when
used properly.
• It must be used with

sensitivity and timing. It
does not demean and is
supportive.
• A session is not a time to

try out a new joke heard
at lunch.
Tony Thampi
Confrontation
• This is not skill at putting the client down for
doing something wrong!!
• This is an invitation to the client to look more

closely at behavior that is not working or
interfering with growth, change, or healthy
functioning.
• A Challenge…
Tony Thampi
Confrontation
• Before you confront someone you want to
make sure the relationship is strong and able
to withstand the challenge of the
confrontation.
• Example: “You have said you want to change

this behavior but it seems you keep doing it
over and over again. Help me to understand
what is going on and how repeating this
pattern is helpful to you.”
Tony Thampi
Transference & Counter-
transference
• A concept as old as
Freud, transference and
countertranference are
issues that affect all
forms of counseling,
guidance, &
psychotherapy.
Tony Thampi
Transference & Counter-transference
• Transference.
– This is the client’s projection of past or
present feelings, attitudes, or desires onto the
counselor. It can be direct or indirect and will
cause the client to react to you as they would
in the past or present relationship.
Tony Thampi
Transference & Counter-transference
• Counter-transference.
– This is the counselor’s projected emotional
reaction to or behavior towards the client. It
can take on many forms, from a desire to
please the client, to wanting to develop a
social or sexual relationship with the client.
When this happens, supervision or counseling
for the counselor is called for.
Tony Thampi
Termination of a Session
• There is no great secret to
ending sessions. There are
some guidelines:
Start and end on time.

Leave 5 minutes or so for a summary of the
session.
Introduce the end of the session normally (“Our
time is coming to a close.”).
Assign homework.
Set up next appointment.
Tony Thampi
Termination of the Relationship
• Termination is the end of the professional
relationship with the client when the session goals
have been met.
• A formal termination serves three functions:

– Counseling is finished and it is time for the client to face
their life challenges.
– Changes which have taken place have generalized into
the normal behavior of the client.
– The client has matured and thinks and acts more
effectively and independently.
Tony Thampi
Timing of Termination
• There is no one answer when termination is to take
place. Questions you may wish to ask yourself
concerning termination include:
– Have clients achieved behavioral, cognitive, or affective

goals?
? Can clients concretely show where they have made
progress in what they wanted to accomplish?
? Is the counseling relationship helpful?
? Has the context of the initial counseling arrangements
changed?
Tony Thampi
Resistance to Termination
• Clients & Counselors may not want
counseling to end. In many cases this may be
the result of feelings about the loss and grief
or insecurities of losing the relationship. For
clients, this is something to process. For
counselors, this is an issue for supervision.
Tony Thampi
Premature Termination
• Client.
– Many clients may end counseling before all goals
are completed. This can be seen by not making
appointments, resisting new appointments, etc…
It is a good idea to try and schedule a
termination/review session with the client so
closure may take place. At this time a referral
may be in order.
Tony Thampi
Premature Termination
• Counselors.
– At times, counselors have to end counseling
prematurely. Whatever the reason for the
termination, a summary session is in order and
referrals are made, if appropriate, to another
counselor.
Tony Thampi
Referrals
• At times, a counselor needs to make a
referral. When this is done, specific issues
need to be addressed with the client:
– Reason for the referral.
– Note specific behaviors or actions which
brought the need for a referral.
– Have the names of several other counselors
ready for referral.
– You cannot follow up with the new counselor
to see if the client followed through
(Confidentiality issue).
Tony Thampi
Follow-Up
• At times, a follow-up may be scheduled for
various reasons including evaluation,
research, or checking-in with client.
• Follow-ups need to be scheduled so as to not

take the responsibility of change away from
the client.
Tony Thampi
Defining Informal Assessment
• Informal assessment techniques are subjective, mostly

“homegrown;”
• Reliability, validity, and cross-cultural issues often lacking.
• However, informal techniques can do the following:
1. Add one more piece of info to total assessment process.
2. Can be purposeful focused to gather specific information.
3. Can often be used to gather info quickly.
4. Can be non-intrusive, such as using cumulative records at
school, and thus can be nonthreatening.
5. Usually free or low cost.
6. Tend to be easy to administer and interpret.
163
Types of Informal Assessment: Observation
• Completed by professionals (e.g., school counselors),

significant others (e.g., spouses), or by self.
• Two Types and Combination of Two Types:
– Event sampling: Viewing and assessing targeted
behavior without regard for time (observing acting out
child at school ALL day).
– Time sampling: Specific amount of time set aside for
observation (e.g., viewing acting out child for 10
minutes, 5 times during the day)
– Combining event and time sampling: E.g.: Instructor
randomly observes empathic responses from 3, 5-
minute segments of clinical interviews from each of a
dozen students who handed in one-hour videotapes.
164
Types of Informal Assessment: Rating Scales
(Cont’d)
• A rating scale is used to assess a quantity of an attribute being
presented to the rater.
• Rating scales are subjective and the assessment is based on
the rater’s “inner judgment” of the rater.
• Two types of error often associated with ratings scales:
– The Halo Effect: Rate based on overall impression (e.g., intern is
exceptional, so you rate examinee high on all aspects, even though
examinee consistently comes in late).
– Generosity Error: Identification with person affects your rating (e.g.,
you rate fellow student on his or her ability at exhibiting good
counseling skills).
165
Types of Informal Assessment: Rating
Scales (Cont’d)
• Types of Rating Scales

– Numerical Scales: Provide a written statement that
can be rated from high to low on a number line .
– Graphic Type Scales (Likert-Type Scales): Statement
followed by words that reflect a continuum from
favorable to unfavorable.
– Semantic Differential Scale: Statement followed by
pairs of words that reflect opposing traits.
– Rank Order Scales: Series of statements which
respondent can rank order based on preferences.
166
Types of Informal Assessment: Classification
Systems
• Provide information about whether or not an individual
has, or does not have, certain attributes or
characteristics.
• Three common classification inventories:
1. behavior and feeling word checklists,
2. sociometric instruments, and
3. situational tests.
167
Types of Informal Assessment: Classification
Systems (Cont’d)
• Types of Classification Systems:
– Behavior and Feeling Word Checklists: Individual
identifies words best describing his or her feelings or
behaviors.
– Sociometric Instruments: Maps relative position of
individual within a group. Often used to determine the
dynamics of individuals within a group.
– Situational Tests: Real-to-life situations to examine
how individual is likely to respond in a contrived, but
natural situation (e.g., role-playing a counselor as part
of admissions process for a doctoral program).
168
Types of Informal Assessment: Records and
Personal Documents
• Can help examiner understand the beliefs, values,
and behaviors of person being assessed.
• Often obtained directly from client, from individuals
close to client (e.g., parents, loved ones), and from
institution with which the client has interacted.
• More common records and personal documents:
– biographical inventories (see pp. 204-206),
– cumulative records,
– anecdotal information,
– autobiographies,
– journals and diaries, and
– genograms. (see Figures 10.2 and 10.3, p. 209).
169
Test Worthiness of Informal Assessment:
Validity
• Validity: How well examiner defines that which is being
assessed (e.g., acting out behavior of a child—need to define
the behavior identified as “acting out.”
1. Which “acting out” behaviors are we talking about? Does it
include pushing, interrupting, making inappropriate
nonverbal gestures, withdrawing in class, and so forth?
2. Does it only include inappropriate behaviors in the
classroom. What about in the hallway, on the playground,
on field trips, and at home (etc.)?
170
Reliability
• Intimate relationship between validity and reliability.
• The better we define the behavior (the more valid), the
more reliable is our data.
• Interrater Reliability: Ideally, two raters who understand the
behavior assess separately. Then, a correlation coefficient
is obtained (hopefully .80 or higher)
• E.g., Have student respond empathically to a taped client. Two
highly trained raters, rate their responses from low to high on a
scale. Ratings should be similar (high interrater reliabilty).
• In reality, this rarely occurs due to time and cost.
171
Test Worthiness of Informal Assessment: Cross-
cultural Fairness
• Informal assessment procedures vulnerable to bias:
1. Unconscious or conscious bias can lead assessor to
misinterpret verbal or nonverbal behaviors.
2. Assessor may be ignorant about the verbal or nonverbal
behaviors of a particular minority group.
• However, because uniquely geared towards the specific
client behaviors, one can choose exactly which
behaviors to focus upon.
• This can have the benefit of adding sharpened focus to
the understanding of the individual.
172
Practicality
• The practical nature of informal assessments makes
them particularly useful:
– low-cost or cost-free,
– can be created or obtained in a short amount of time,
– are relatively easy to administer, and
– with the exception of possible cultural bias, are fairly
easy to interpret.
173
Final Thoughts on Informal Assessment
• Informal assessment techniques sometimes have

questionable reliability, validity, and may not always be
cross-culturally fair
• They can add one additional mechanism for understanding
the person.
• When making important decisions about a person, they
should generally not be used alone but can be an important
addition to a broader assessment battery.
• Use them wisely and keep in mind the importance that they
add to the decisions one is making about a client.
174
Personal Qualities of Effective
Helpers
Characteristics of the Effective Counselor
Why Do People Become Counselors?
– Most believe they can really help people.
– Some have a desire to help those that are less fortunate.
– Some want to help prevent people from having difficulties in the first
place.
– Some want to help people reach their full potential.
“Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2004”

Potentially Negative Reasons for Becoming a Counselor
– When a counselor needs to make a difference but has unrealistic

expectations for helping.
– When a counselor has a need to care for others, the counselor may
undermine the client’s autonomy by doing for the client.
– When the counseling student has a need to solve his or her own
problems.
– When the counselor has a need to be powerful or influential.

Counselor Interpersonal Dimensions that Affect Counseling
Outcomes
– The ability to listen and convey understanding without judgment.
– The ability to be sensitive, empathic, and patient.
– The ability to convey to the client that the counselor values the client’s
experiences.
– The ability to convey the belief that the client is capable, trustworthy,
respectable, worthy and dependable.

Counselor Interpersonal Dimensions that Affect Positive
Counseling Outcomes (continued)
– Demonstration of a positive belief in himself or herself as a counselor

and demonstration of positive self-esteem.
– Has self-awareness and knows his or her own biases or prejudices

(good or bad) and is able to analyze his or her own feelings.
– Is sensitive to cultural differences.
– Has tolerance for ambiguity.

– Has the ability to model appropriate behaviors.
– Has the ability to be altruistic.
– Is ethical.
– Ability to use oneself as a vehicle of change.

– Is committed to understanding specialized knowledge of the field and

find it personally meaningful.
– Stays current in professional knowledge by continuing to learn.
– Respects the client’s worldview, personal experience, spirituality, and

culture.
– Has good self care strategies.

Characteristics of the Self-Actualizing Person
– He or she can tolerate doubt, uncertainty and ambiguity and can

recognize the phony and dishonest.
– He or she is honest and genuine and accepts oneself as human with

flaws and mistakes and recognizes others as human also.
– He or she has an internal source of motivation and drive and seeks

growth instead of external approval.

Characteristics of the Self-Actualizing Person (continued)
– He or she is not ego-centered but chooses to help others out of concern

for others and not for glorification of the self.
– He or she enjoys solitude and aloneness and is unaffected by the stress

of others.
– He or she derives happiness from growth and internal rewards and not
external needs for recognition.

– He or she has wonder about the world.
– He or she has deep feelings of empathy and compassion for others.
– He or she has deep, meaningful interpersonal relationships.
– He or she is not racist and does not discriminate against others who are
different from himself or herself.

– He or she is highly ethical.
– He or she has a good sense of humor that is not hurtful towards others.
– He or she has a unique creativeness all his or her own.
– He or she is involved in causes outside of himself or herself.

Additional Characteristics of Counselors
– Counselors need a high level of energy to remain alert and attentive to

their clients.
– Counselors take risks everyday and face rejection by their clients or

face clients or situations they may not be prepared to face.
– Counselors face ambiguity all the time and need to be able to handle it.
– Counselors are expected to develop intimate relationships with their

clients as clients will share deeply personal and meaningful material
with the counselor.

Helping Relationships
Characteristics of Helpers
Descriptions of Effective Helpers
– They identify with people rather than with things.

– They have a capacity to cope.
– They are warm and accessible.
– They inspire confidence and trust.
– They are mature.
– They are actualized.
– They are high-functioning.
– They care deeply about others.
– They are compassionate.
– They act to remedy injustice.
– They are human.
Five Levels of Functioning
A high level of empathy is taking place

Level Five
An adequate amount of empathy is taking place
Level Four
A minimum amount of empathy is taking place
Level Three
A little empathy is taking place
Level Two
No empathy is taking place
Level One
More On The Levels Of Functioning
– The constructs of respect, regard, genuineness, concreteness, and

warmth can also be scaled on the same five levels.
– If the helper’s level of functioning is high on these traits regarding

important facilitative conditions, then constructive changes are more
likely to take place.
– A low level of functioning on these constructs means constructive

changes are less likely to take place and can actually have destructive
consequences.
– If the helper is on the same level as the helpee then no change is likely
to take place.
Helping and the Helper-Lifestyle
– Helper traits are genuine and are not “tricks” or “techniques” that the
helper turns on or off. Helper traits can be learned.
– Helpers continuously evaluate their own life in relationship to goals,

plans and personal values. Helpers can develop their innate traits in
order to become even more compassionate and caring.
– Helpers seek revitalizing opportunities to prevent burnout.

Match Making
– Compatibility between helper and helpee is an important aspect in the

success of a helping relationship.
– This is especially true for cultural and ethnic difference factors.
– While helpers do not have to be of the same race or culture, effective

helpers communicate understanding and respect.
– Cultural sensitivity on the part of the helper can help diminish the
barriers to cross-cultural helping.

Facilitator of Growth
Essential conditions for helping to be successful:
Helper Warmth Helper

Helper
Empathy And Caring Openness
Intentionality
Helper Positive Helper Communication

Regard and Concreteness Competence “Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2004”
Respect And Specificity
The Continuum of Responsibility
High Responsibility High Responsibility

Low Responsibility Low Responsibility
Personal Characteristics of Effective Helpers

– Awareness of self and values.
– Awareness of cultural experiences.
– Ability to analyze one’s own feelings.
– Ability to be a model and influence.
– Ability to be altruistic and compassionate.
– Ownership of a strong sense of ethics.
– Ability to be responsible for one’s own actions.
– Ability to serve as a catalyst for empowerment.

Awareness of self and values:
– Self-awareness helps protect the client from helpers inadvertently

projecting their values onto the helpee.
– Helps identify whether or not a helper is judging a helpee by a social or

cultural norm.
– Guides helping in that it allows the helper to be aware of what he or she

believes regarding human nature and change.


Awareness of Cultural Experiences:
– Effective helpers are aware of life experiences other than their own.
– Understanding cultural differences helps eliminate the fear of being

rejected by the helpee.
– Effective helpers are aware of their own ethnocentric, racist or

stereotypical views.


Ability to Analyze the Helper’s Own Feelings
– Effective helpers are aware of, and in control of, their own feelings.
– Effective helpers recognize common feelings associated with helping

(e.g. fear, disappointment, elation, confusion etc).
– Effective helpers are able to deal with their own confusion and accept
that they do not have all the answers.


Ability to be a model and influence:
– Helpers model socially adaptive behaviors to helpees.
– Controversy surrounds whether or not helpers should live fulfilling lives.
The validity of their work may be challenged if they do not (e.g. happy
marriages, well-adjusted kids, no scrapes with the law).
– Practice what you preach.
– Social influence theory plays a role in effective helping.
– Helpers are able to form clear boundaries.


Ability to be altruistic and compassionate:
– Helpers often receive benefits from helping.
– Effective helpers often identify with people and humanity rather than
with things and narcissistic endeavors.
– Helpers help because they truly care.
– Effective helpers are open to feedback from clients regarding their own
motive for helping.


Ownership of a strong sense of ethics:
– Valuing the helpee’s welfare will help to ensure no harm is done.
– Beliefs about human nature guides helper actions.
– Ethical helpers act in such a way as to maintain the confidence of the

helpee. Confidence is not betrayed.
– Ethical helpers understand confidentiality, informed consent, keeping

records, malpractice, competence, beneficence and nonmaleficence.

Responsibility: Whose is it?
– There is debate as to who is responsible for the helping relationship:

helper or helpee?
– Most authorities view this as a shared responsibility.
– The helpee is responsible for his or her own decisions.
– The helper is responsible for presenting ideas, reactions, or support.

Ability to serve as a catalyst for empowerment
– A helper seeking to empower a helpee will form the relationship on trust,

and shared power.
– The helper does not “do for” the helpee as this strips away choice and
power.
– The helper’s goal is to guide the helpee into increasing his or her
personal, interpersonal or political power.

References
Brammer, L. M. & MacDonald, G. (1999). The helping relationship: Process and

skills, 7th ed. Needham Heights, MA.: Allyn & Bacon.
Kottler, J. A. (2000). Nuts and bolts of helping, 1st ed. Needham Heights, MA:
Allyn & Bacon.

The Helping Profession
Concept of Boundaries
• A sense of personal identity and self definition that
has consistency and cohesion over time.
• This remains constant regardless of emotional ups
and downs or external pressures.
• The framework within which the worker-client
relationship occurs.
• Provides a system of limit setting
• The line between the self of client and self of worker
Why Talk About Boundaries?
• Reduces risk of client exploitation
• Reduces client anxiety as rules and roles are
clear
• Increases well-being of the worker
• Provides role model for clients
Who Negotiates Boundaries?
• Duty of the worker to act in the best interest
of the client
• The worker is ultimately responsible for
managing boundary issues
Why the Worker?
• Worker is the professional!
• Clients may not be aware of the need for
boundaries or able to defend themselves
against boundary violations
• There is an inherent power imbalance
between worker and client- worker is
perceived as having power and control
What are Some Examples of Boundaries?
Clear Boundary Areas:
• Planning social activities with clients
• Having sex with clients
• Having family members or friends as clients
A Client Should Not Be Your:
• Lover
• Relative
• Employee or Employer
• Instructor
• Business Partner
• Friend
Strictly prohibited by the Social Work Code of Ethics

Areas Where Boundaries May Blur:
• Self disclosure
• Giving or receiving significant gifts
• Dual or overlapping relationships
• Becoming friends
• Physical contact
What Are Some Other Areas Where
Boundaries May Be Blurred?
Danger Zones
• Over-identification with client’s issues
• Strong attraction to client’s personality
• Strong physical attraction to client
• Clients who can potentially reward you with
their influence
• Transference and counter transference
Questions to Ask in Examining Potential
Boundary Issues:
• Is this in my client’s best interest?
• Whose needs are being served?
• How would I feel telling a colleague about this?
• How would this be viewed by the client’s family or
significant other?
• Does the client mean something ‘special’ to me?
• Am I taking advantage of the client?
• Does this action benefit me rather than the client?
Appropriate Boundaries
Reduce
Risk of Client Exploitation
Exploitation
• Use of professional relationship to promote or
advance our emotional, financial, sexual,
religious, or personal needs
• Stems from the inherent power differential
and the ability we have to exert influence on
the client
A Closer Look at Exploitation:
• Client may actually initiate and be gratified by the
exploitation- they may enjoy feeling ‘special’ or being
‘helpful’
• Can be subtle and vary from promoting excessive
dependency to avoiding confrontation because we
enjoy the adoration of our clients
• Using information learned professionally from the
client for personal gain
Increases in
“Dual Relationship”
Situations
Dual Relationships
• When you have more than one role with a
client
• Such relationships can blur boundaries
• This ‘blurring of boundaries’ increases the risk
of exploitation as roles can become confused
Important Note:
Most cases of sexual exploitation or other

ethical violations began with a step into a
seemingly innocent dual relationship*
*Taylor Aultman
Not All Client Interactions are Dual
Relationships:
• Running into a client at a social event
• Your client is your waiter at a restaurant
• How you participate in the interaction will

determine the outcome
Some Dual Relationships are Unavoidable
• You and a client belong to the same church

• A client lives in your neighborhood
• Your agency hires clients as staff or utilizes
clients as volunteers
Dealing with Unavoidable
Dual Relationships
• Open and honest discussion with client on the
nature of your relationships
• Separate functions by locations- work, home,
etc.
• Be aware of threats to confidentiality
• Understand your role as professional
Group Exercise
A client, who is a mother of three latency age
children, is facing the breakup of her marriage. She is
very concerned about how her children will respond,
what steps she can take to minimize the disruption to
their lives, and how she will manage financially with
the reduced income. The social worker relates her
own experience of divorce and the parenting issues
which followed.
A social worker and client both agree to
terminate services. After several years the
worker sees the client at a shopping mall. The
client offers to take the worker to the food court
for lunch to show appreciation for all the help
provided during their treatment sessions.
You have a client who recently started his own
small tax accounting business. He has shared
with you that the business is struggling and he
does not know what he will do if the business
fails. The client asks to prepare your taxes this
year.
DUAL RELATIONSHIPS
You have a client who is an independent artist

and he brings you a gift of his artwork. The
client gathers the materials for his art from
salvage around town.
You and your family are attending a home game.
As you are walking to the stadium a client
recognizes you and offers for you to join her
tailgate party. The client also notices that your
tickets are in the same area of the stadium as
hers.
You work in a large outpatient setting that
employs several social workers. You are
interested in a client waiting to see a
colleague.
You are a social worker in private practice
whose client has just been diagnosed with
a terminal illness. The client is frightened,
crying, and hunched over.
A year after termination, a client calls and
invites you to lunch to catch up on events
that have transpired since the ending of
therapy.
You and a client have similar tastes and
interests. After a year of therapy, you and the
client terminate the professional relationship.
The client expresses gratitude at her progress,
sadness at the ending of the relationship, and
hope that the two of you can become friends
now that therapy has ended.
Minimizing Risk of Exploitation and
Boundary Crossing:
• Be alert to potential or actual conflicts of
interest
Boundary Crossing:
interest
• Maintain supervision or consultation
relationships
Boundary Crossing:
interest
relationships
• Be aware that isolation is often a major factor
in ethical violations
Boundary Crossing:
interest
relationships
• Meet your personal needs in other areas of
your life
Boundary Crossing:
• Be alert to potential or actual conflicts of interest
• Maintain supervision or consultation relationships
• Be aware that isolation is often a major factor in
ethical violations
• Meet your personal needs in other areas of your life
• Relationship should focus on client at all times
Boundary Crossing:
ethical violations
• A clear understanding of ethics and attention to
professional boundaries
The counseling process (Art and
Science Perspective)
• The six stages of Counseling
• Listening Skills
• Recent Trends in the Counseling Process
• Common Problems for Beginning Counselors
Stages and Skills of Counseling
Counseling Process Structure
1. Rapport and Relationship Building

2. Assessment / Problem Definition
3. Goal-setting
4. Initiating Interventions
5. Termination
6. Review
Rapport and Relationship
• Psychological climate resulting from

the interpersonal contact of client and
counselor.
• Living and evolving condition.
• Relationship includes respect, trust,
and relative psychological comfort.

Rapport and Relationship
Impacted by
• Counselor’s personal and professional
qualifications.
• Client’s – interpersonal history,
– anxiety state,
– interrelation skills, and
– previous ability to share,
3. Goal-setting
5. Termination

Clinical Assessment
Involves specific skills
• Observation
• Inquiry
• Associating facts
• Recording information
• Forming hypotheses (clinical
“hunches”)

Observation
1. Take notice of the client’s general state
of anxiety.
2. Establish sense of client’s cultural
context.
3. Note gestures / movements that denote
emotional / physical dysfunctions.

Observation
4. Hear how the client frames his / her

problems.
5. Note verbal and non-verbal patterns.

Humans Share Basic Needs
1. Survival
2. Physical needs
3. Love and sex
4. Status, success, and self-esteem
Cormier & Hackney, 1999, pp. 120-133.

Humans Share Basic Needs
5. Mental health
6. Freedom
7. Challenge
8. Cognitive Clarity

Formal Diagnostic Assessment
Interview format:
• Focus
• Basic Screening Questions
• Detailed Inquiry
Sperry, Carlson, & Kjos, 2003, Table 4.3, pp. 67-68.

Focus
Presenting problem and context
Basic Questions Detailed Inquiry

• What concerns • Clarify stressors
brought you here?
• Elicit
• Why now? - coping skills,
• Has this happened - social support,
before? - and resources
• How is it impacting • Clarify life function
your daily life? - work
- family
- health
- intimacy
Focus
Mental status

• How do you feel now? • Note
• How is your mood - age & mannerisms
affected? - dress & grooming
- orientation . . . .
• Had any unusual
experiences? • Probe
- anxiety symptoms
• How is your memory? - form, content,
• Do you think that life thought.
isn’t worth living? - suicidal ideation
- violent impulses . . . .

Focus
Developmental history and dynamics

• How would you • Clarify
describe yourself as a - current self-view
person? - level of self-esteem
• Shift to the past, how - personality style
were things when you • Note
were growing up? - developmental
milestones
- experience in school
- best friends
- educational level

Focus
Social history and cultural dynamics

• What is your current • Elicit
living situation? - job or military
• What is your ethnic - legal problems
background? - social support system
- race, age, gender
- sexual orientation
- religion
- language
- dietary influences
- education

Focus
Health history and behaviors

• Tell me about your • Identify
health? - prescriptions
• Health habits? - substance usage
- health status
- health habits

Focus
Client resources

• How have you tried to • Probe
make things better? - Efforts to change
Results? - Efforts vs. successes
• How do you explain • Clarify client
you’re symptoms? explanatory model
• What is your / my role • Identify treatment
in your treatment? expectations
• When will things • Specify readiness for
change / get better? change

Focus
Wind down and close

• What else would be • Use an open-ended
important for me to query
know?
- Allows the client to
• Do you have any
questions for me? add information.
- Creates sense of
reciprocal and
collaborative
relationship.

3. Goal-setting
5. Termination

Conceptualizing Problems
• Recognize a client need.

• Understand that need.
• Meet that need.

1. Beliefs may
• Contribute to the problem.
• Impede the solution.
• Become the problem.

2. Feelings / responses often
• Exaggerate the problem..
• Impede comprehension of the
problem.
• Become the problem.

3. Behavior / responses may

• Be inappropriate.
• Contribute to the problem.
• Complicate the problem.

4. Interaction patterns include

• Miscommunication channels,
• Expectations,
• Self-fulfilling prophesies,
• Coping styles.

5. Contextual factors
• Time
• Place
• Concurrent events
• Cultural and socio-political issues

3. Goal-setting
5. Termination

Goal Setting
• Indicates how well counseling is

working.
• Indicates when counseling should be
concluded.
• Prevents dependent relationships.
• Determines the selection of
interventions.
Goal Setting
Mutually defined by the client and counselor.
Counselor Client
• Greater objectivity • Experience with the
• Training in problem
– Normal and • History of the problem
– Abnormal behavior • Potential insights
• Process experience • Awareness of personal
investment in change
Process Goals
• Related to establishing therapeutic

conditions for client change.
• Includes:
– Establishing rapport,
– Providing a non-threatening setting, and
– Possessing and communicating accurate
empathy and unconditional regard.

Outcome Goals
• Are different for each client and
directly related to clients’ changes.
• Always subject to modification and
refinement.
• To begin, formulate tentative outcome
goals.
• Modify goals as needed to support
effective change.
3. Goal-setting
5. Termination

Interventions
• Objective -- initiate and facilitate client

change.
• After assessment and goals setting,
answers the question, “How shall we
accomplish these goal?”
• Must be related to the problem.

Interventions
• Selecting an intervention may become
an adaptive process.
• Skills to initiate include
1. Competency with the intervention;
2. Knowledge of appropriate uses;
3. Knowledge of typical client responses;
4. Observation skills to note client
responses.
3. Goal-setting
5. Termination

Termination
• No clear cut ending, but no need to

continue beyond usefulness.
• Awareness by the counselor and the
client that the work is accomplished.
• May take the same number of
sessions as rapport building.
Sperry, Carlson, & Kjos, 2003, pp. 176-179.

Types of Termination
1. Suggested termination, with client
agreement
2. Imposed termination
• Continuing is against client best interest
• Client is deteriorating, not progressing
• Incompatibility with the therapist
• Client using therapy in place of life

Types of Termination
3. Situational termination
• Client moves
• Employment or insurance changes
4. Early termination, clients just don’t
return.

Methods & Process
• Gradual tapering off of sessions.

• Therapeutic vacations, taking a
break without breaking the
connection.
• Direct (imposed) termination.

Methods & Process
Therapist must carefully consider the most effective
way to terminate each client.
1. How will termination impact the client?

2. What is the client’s history of separation? Is
the client likely to regress?
3. What is the client’s reaction / opinion about
termination? Can he / she see it as a
positive step?

References
• Cormier, Sherry & Harold Hackney. Counseling
Strategies and Interventions, 5th Edition. Allyn &
Bacon, 1999.
• Hackney, Harold L. & L. Sherilyn Cormier. The
Professional Counselor: A Process Guide to
Helping, 4th Edition. Allyn & Bacon, 2001.
• Sperry, Len, John Carlson, & Diane Kjos.
Becoming An Effective Therapist. Allyn &
Bacon, 2003.
Listening Skills
Introduction
• Almost 45% of time we spend in listening.
• An essential management and leadership
skill.
• A process of receiving, interpreting and
reacting to a message.
• Difference between listening & hearing
Types of Listening
• Appreciative listening
• Empathetic listening
• Comprehensive listening
• Critical listening
Traits of a Good Listener
• Being non-evaluative
• Paraphrasing
• Reflecting implications
• Reflecting hidden feelings
• Inviting further contributions
• Responding non-verbally
Active Versus Passive listening
• Show keenness
• Expressions
• Alertness
• Questions
• Not neglecting physical aspects
• Valid reason for criticism
Implications
• Good listening helps you to take better
decisions and make better policies in
organization.
• On the contrary lack of proper listening can
lead to embarrassing situations because of a
gap in coordination and understanding.
Tips for Effective Listening
• DO’s • Don’ts
• Be mentally prepared to listen • Not to pay undue emphasis on

• Evaluate the speech not the vocabulary as you can use the
speaker context to understand the meaning
• Be unbiased to the speaker by • Not to pay too much attention to
depersonalizing your feelings the accessories and clothing of the
• Fight distractions by closing off speaker
sound sources • Not to prepare your responses
• Be open minded while the speaker is speaking
• Ask questions to clarify and not • Avoid preconceptions and
to overshadow intelligence prejudices
• Paraphrase from time to time • Not to get distracted by outside
influences
• Send appropriate non-verbal • Not to interrupt too often
signals time to time
• Not to show boredom
Conclusion
• You do not listen with just your ears. You
listen with your eyes and with your sense of
touch. You listen with your mind, your
heart, your imagination. (Egan Gerard)
• A good conversationalist is popular, a good

listener even more so. Talk only if you have
something to say.
Current Trends in Counseling
Postmodern Trends
– Conceptualizes the self to include: interpersonal, systemic, and

sociocultural forces.
– Psychological problems are seen from a phenomenological perspective.
– Process is emphasized over content.

Postmodern Trends (continued)
– Contextual/relational perspectives are emphasized.
– Goal setting and intervention comes after exploration of the client’s story
and narrative.
– The counseling relationship is collaborative.
– Research and evaluation are mostly qualitative.

Counseling and the Internet
– E-Mail: Helps counselors communicate with clients but also adds an

element of risk regarding confidentiality.
– Chat Rooms: Self-help groups can be conducted in this manner and

clients can share information.
– Web-Sites: Information can be disseminated to larger numbers of

people.

Counseling and the Internet (continued)
– Search Engines: Can help counselors and client’s locate information on

the internet.
– WebRings: These facilitate interdisciplinary communication between

laypeople and professionals.
– Online Communities: Allow many internet users with similar interests to

interact.

Counseling and the Internet (continued)
– Scholarly Publications: Journals and newsletters can be accessed

online to aid the counselor in his or her work.
– Education and Training: Colleges and Universities offer online classes

and continuing education opportunities online.

Ecosystemic Mental Health Counseling
– This approach enlarges the counseling process from the individual to

the family and the larger sociocultural contexts that contain the
individual.
– Utilizes storytelling and narrative.
– Explores the linguistic and language systems of the client.

Diversity Issues
– Counselors and counselor education programs are working diligently to

become more sensitive to cultural and diversity issues in counseling.
– Diversity includes but is not limited to: Culture, gender, individuals with
disabilities, and spirituality.
– It has been recognized that many of the traditional therapies are based
on research done with white, male, middle-class individuals and may
not apply as well to diverse groups.

Managed Care
– Provides cost control for mental health services.
– Establishes standards of care.
– Limits number of sessions and treatment options.
– Often overuses medication instead of therapy.
– There are a multitude of ethical pitfalls associated with managed care.

Counselor Job Security
– Managed care and the fact that many states are cutting funding for
mental health care mean that there are less doctoral positions available.
– The Master’s level counselor is more employable in many cases.
– Funding has been cut to community based clinics, eliminating many

counseling positions.

Theoretical Trends
– Loyalties to particular schools are not as prevalent.
– The trend is toward eclecticism.
– Brief therapies are also increasing in use due to managed care.

Social Justice/Client Advocacy
– Counselors who are advocates for the disenfranchised can benefit from
being:
• Assertive
• Willing to take risks
• Highly confident
– Most training programs do not train counselors to be advocates.

Problems On Becoming a Counselor
“One of the most important instruments you will

have to work with as a counselor is yourself as a
person.”
G. Corey, 2005
To every therapy session
we bring our human qualities
and the experiences that have influenced us.
The Role of Values in Counseling
• A core issue is the degree to which counselor’s values should
enter into a therapeutic relationship.
• Counselors should guard against the tendency to assume

either of two extreme positions
– At one extreme, counselors hold definite absolute beliefs, and see it as

their job to exert influence on clients to adopt their values.
– At the other extreme are counselors who maintain that they should
keep their values out of their work, and that the ideal is to strive for
value free counseling.
The Rule of Values in Counseling
• Because counseling is a process that teaches
clients how to deal with their problems and
find their own solutions based on their value
system, it is essential that the counselor not
short-circuit a client’s exploration.
Who should establish the goals of
counseling?
• The counselor or counselee?
Where does a counselor begin to develop
therapeutic goal?
• The client and a counselor need to explore what they

hope to obtain from the counseling relationship,
whether they can work with each other, and whether
their goals are compatible.
– What you expect from counseling?

– Why are you here?
– What do you hope to leave with?
– What aspects of yourself or your life situation, would you
most like to change?
Incorporating Culture Into Counseling
Practice
• Suspends preconceptions about client’s race, and/or ethnicity and that their family members.
• Engage clients in conversations about race and ethnicity to avoid stereotyping and making
faulty assumptions.
• Address how race and ethnic differences between therapist and client might affect the
therapy process.
• Acknowledge that power, privilege, and racism can affect interactions with clients.
• Recognize that the more comfortable therapists are with conversations about race and
ethnicity, the more easily they can respond appropriately to clients who may be
uncomfortable with such discussions.
• Be open to ongoing learning about cultural factors, and how they affect therapeutic work.
It is more often by differences than by similarities
that we are challenged to look at what we are doing.
• Formal or informal process?

• What techniques to employ in the counseling
process?
Multicultural Guidelines
• Learn more about how your own cultural background has influenced your thinking
and behaving.
• Identify your basic assumptions, especially as they apply to diversity in culture,

ethnicity, race, gender, class, religion, and sexual orientation.
• Examine where you obtain your knowledge about culture.
• Learn to pay attention to common ground that exists among people of diverse
backgrounds.
• Spend time preparing clients for counseling.
• Be flexible in applying the methods you use with clients.
• Remember that practicing from a multicultural perspective can make your job
easier, and can be rewarding for both you and your clients.
Issues Faced by Beginning Counselor
• Dealing with our anxieties
• Being and disclosing ourselves
• Avoiding perfectionism
• Being honest about our limitations
• Understanding silence
• Dealing with demands from clients
• Dealing with clients who lack commitment
• Tolerating ambiguity
• Avoiding losing ourselves in our clients
• Developing a sense of humor
• Sharing responsibility with the client
• Declining to give advice
• Defining your role as a counselor
• Learning to use techniques appropriately
• Developing your own counseling style, staying alive as a person and as a
professional
Basic Parts of a Theory
• View of Human Nature – 3 Modalities
– Cognition of the issues at hand
– Behavior of both client and counselee
– Affect the counseling process.

Assessment and Diagnosis
• The art and science of Assessment and
diagnosis
• Assessment and diagnosis
• Assessment
• Diagnosis
• Diversity and Postmodern issues in
Assessment and diagnosis
Counseling And Theory
• Negligible differences in effects produced by
different therapy types
• Common elements between theories
– Responding to feelings, thoughts and actions of
the client
– Acceptance of client’s perceptions and feelings
– Confidentiality and privacy
– Awareness of and sensitivity to messages
communicated in counseling
314
Characteristics Of Effective Helpers
• Self-awareness and understanding
• Good psychological health
• Sensitivity
• Open-mindedness
• Objectivity
• Competence
• Trustworthiness
• Interpersonal Attractiveness
315
Components Of The Counseling Process
• Relationship Building
• Assessment
• Goal Setting
• Intervention
• Termination and Follow-Up
316
Relationship Building
317
Conditions Of An Effective Therapeutic
Relationship
• Accurate Empathy
• Genuineness/Congruence
• Positive Regard/Respect
Client’s perception of relationship is what

counts!
318
Counselor Skills Associated With
Facilitative Conditions
• Nonverbal and verbal attending behaviors
• Paraphrasing content of client communications
• Reflecting client feelings and implicit messages
• Openness and self-disclosure
• Immediacy
• Attending to Client's Theory of Change
• Interactive vs. Didactic Approach
• Promoting Hopefulness
319
Functions Of A Therapeutic Relationship
• Creates an atmosphere of trust and safety
• Provides a medium or vehicle for intense

affect
• Models a healthy interpersonal relationship
• Provides motivation for change
320
WAYS OF LISTENING
"Are you listening to me?"
People like to be heard. To be heard helps reduce insecurity. It gives us a
feeling of peace. And when someone really listens to us, we often discover
something about ourselves. Often we solve problems just when we are
really listened to and feel heard. In this handout I will explain two ways of
listening and encourage you to try to listen better to those around you.
ANALYTIC LISTENING: This is the kind of listening we usually do. During
Analytic Listening I am evaluating in my mind as I listen to you. I am busy
judging and deciding what to say. I am analyzing. As a result, you don't feel
heard. You may repeat yourself, or feel annoyed. Maybe I can even repeat
back to you what I "heard" but it just doesn't feel like I listened to you.
DEEP LISTENING: This is a rare talent. In deep listening, my mind is very quiet
when I listen to you. My feeling is peaceful and curious. I don't take
anything personally. I don't judge or decide or figure anything out. I don't
try to remember anything. My mind is quiet and open. As a result, you
find you don't repeat yourself as much. You feel a connection. You are
likely to say, "I don't know why, but I really felt you heard me." Your
feelings will become more peaceful.
321
Session Rating Scale (SRS V.3.0)
Name ________________________ Age (Yrs):____ ID# _____________Sex: M / F Session # __ Date:___________________
Please rate today’s session by placing a mark on the line nearest to the description that best fits your experience.
Relationship
I did not feel heard, understood, and respected. I felt heard, understood, and respected.
I-------------------------------------------------------------------------I
Goals and Topics
We did not work on or talk about what I wanted to work on We worked on and talked about what I wanted to work on
and talk about and talk about.
I------------------------------------------------------------------------I
Approach or Method
The therapist’s approach is not a good fit for me. The therapist’s approach is a good fit for me.
I-------------------------------------------------------------------------I
Overall
There was something missing in the session today. Overall, today’s session was right for me.
I------------------------------------------------------------------------I
Institute for the Study of Therapeutic Change

www.talkingcure.com
© 2002, Scott D. Miller, Barry L. Duncan, & Lynn Johnson
322
Assessment
323
Purposes Of Assessment
• Systematic way to obtain information about
the client’s problems, concerns, strengths,
resources, and needs.
• Foundation for goal-setting and treatment
planning.
324
Assessment Considerations
• Assessment is always an ongoing process, changing as you
learn more about the client.
• Who is complaining or alarmed? Who thinks there is a
problem? What is the person complaining about?
• What is the person motivated for? What does he or she want?
• What does the person do well? (Find contexts of
competence.) Skills, hobbies, sports, activities, avocations, life
experiences, etc.
• Exceptions/previous solutions/times when situation was
better
• Best coping moments
• What are the goals? How will we know when we are done?
Get specific about the problem-free future.
325
Assessment Considerations (Cont.)
• What are the patterns of the problem? How is it
performed? Search for regularities of action and
interaction, time, place, body behavior, etc. Get
specific (so could imagine seeing/hearing the
problem on a videotape)
• Scan for potentially harmful actions of clients or
others in clients' lives (e.g., physical violence,
drug/alcohol abuse, sexual abuse, self-mutilation,
suicidal intentions/attempts, etc.) that may not be
obvious or may be minimized during an initial
interview.
326
Assessment Tools
• Intake forms
• Intake interview
– Clinician questions
• Formal instruments
– ASAM PPC
– DSM IV
– DrInc
– SASSI
– SOCRATES
– ………..
327
Assessment Tool “Rules Of Thumb”
• Never diagnose with a test or screening instrument
only.
• Tests are useful in validating information provided by
the client in the subjective interview.
• Testing tools should only be used by those with
training in using that tool.
• All testing tools have limitations.
• Never replace the expertise, training, and experience
of the clinician with a test.
328
Stages of Change
(Meeting the client where they are)
• Precontemplation - "I really don't want to change.
• Contemplation- I'll consider it."
• Preparation- "I'm making a plan for it."
• Action- "I'm doing it, but not regularly."
• Maintenance- "I'm doing it."
• Termination- "I have no desire to go back to my own

ways."
329
Extratherapeutic Factors
These factors exist prior to and are independent
of participation in treatment
• Client factors
– Strengths
– Resources
– Areas of Competence
• Chance factors
330
Goal-Setting
331
Goal Functions
• Define desired outcomes
• Give direction to the counseling process
• Specify what can and cannot be accomplished
in counseling
• Client motivation
• Evaluate effectiveness of counseling
• Measure client progress
332
Seven Qualities Of Well Formed Treatment
Goals*
• Saliency to the Client/Collaborative
• Small
• Concrete, Specific, and Behavioral
• The Presence Rather Than the Absence of Something
• A Beginning Rather Than an End
• Realistic and Achievable Within the Context of the Client’s Life
• Perceived as Involving “Hard Work”
* Berg and Miller (1992). Working with the problem drinker.
333
Interventions
334
Categories Of Counseling Interventions
• Affective
• Cognitive
• Behavioral
• Interpersonal/Systemic
335
Affective Models
• Person-centered therapy
• Gestalt Therapy
• Body awareness therapies
• Psychodynamic therapies
• Experiential therapies
336
Cognitive Models
• Rational-emotive therapy
• Information-giving
• Problem-solving and decision-making
• Transactional Analysis
337
Behavioral Models
• Behavior therapy
• Reality therapy
• Cognitive-behavioral therapy
338
Systemic Models
• Structural therapy
• Strategic therapy
• Intergenerational systems
339
Collaborative Therapy
A collaborative therapy is one in which:
• The expertise of clients is given at least as much weight as the
expertise of therapists.
• Clients are regularly part of the treatment planning process.
• Clients are consulted about goals, directions and responses to
the process and methods of therapy.
• The therapist asks questions and makes speculations in a non-
authoritarian way, giving the client ample room and
permission to disagree or correct the therapist. Therapists
give clients many options and let them coach the therapist on
the next step or the right direction.
• Client status is elevated from passive needy recipients to
active expert contributors.
340
The art of therapy revolves around
helping clients to bow out of their
symptoms gracefully
- Milton Erickson
341
Termination and Follow-Up
342
Indicators Of Counseling Success
• Clients “own” their problems and solutions
• Clients develop more useful insight into
problems and issues
• Clients acquire new responses to old issues
• Clients learn to develop more effective
relationships
343
Accountability For Mental Health
Professionals
• Continuing education
• Paying attention to relevant research findings
• Applying research findings to clinical practice
• Validating efficacy of our work
344
Outcome Rating Scale (ORS)
Name ________________________Age (Yrs):____ Sex: M / F Session #____Date:_______________________
Who is filling out this form? Please check one: Self _______Other_______ If other, what is your relationship to
this person? ____________________________
Looking back over the last week, including today, help us understand how you have been feeling by rating how well
you have been doing in the following areas of your life, where marks to the left represent low levels and marks to
the right indicate high levels. If you are filling out this form for another person, please fill out according to how you think
he or she
is doing.
Individually
(Personal well-being)
I----------------------------------------------------------------------I
Interpersonally
(Family, close relationships)
I----------------------------------------------------------------------I
Socially
(Work, school, friendships)
I----------------------------------------------------------------------I
Overall
(General sense of well-being)
I----------------------------------------------------------------------I
Institute for the Study of Therapeutic Change

www.talkingcure.com
© 2000, Scott D. Miller and Barry L. Duncan
345
I Realize I Have Not Answered All Your Questions
And In Most Cases My Answers
Have Only Served To Produce New Questions
For Which I Have No Answers
Leaving You (and me) As Confused As Before.
However, I Believe We Are Now Confused

On A Much Higher Level
And About Much More Important Things
Than Before.
346
Assessment
• Assessment is basic to virtually ALL functions
within the scope of practice of rehabilitation
counselors
– Analysis and definition of the problem
– Establishing goals, identifying barriers
– Strategies and comprehensive service plans
Levels of Assessment
• Global level
– Basis of service plans
• Specific level
– Strategies in response to encountered barriers
• More specific level
– Moment-by-moment interactions, e.g.,
determining an appropriate verbal response in a
given context that will produce an intended
response or outcome
Assessment Practice Continuum
• Medical model, counselor as expert
• Collaborative effort between counselor and
consumer/client
• Counselor as consultant, consumer-driven
• Assessment….
– …often associate with the rehabilitation counselor
having control of decision making and service
delivery
Cronbach’s Conceptualization (1990)
• Maximum performance
– Used to predict “best” performance
– ability, aptitude, achievement
• Typical performance
– How an individual might typically behave in
various situations
– interests, values, personality characteristics
Reliability
• Degree to which scores are free from errors of
measurement
• Consistency of socres obtained by the same
persons when reexamined on different
occasions…or under other variable conditions
Validity
• What the test measures, and how well it does
so
• Tells us what can be inferred from scores
Scale example
• Get on and off a scale a number of times and
record the results
• The consistency of the weight measured
would reflect evidence for reliability
• The accuracy of the weight reading on the
scale in comparison with an absolute standard
would provide evidence for validity
Standardization
• Established normative sample
• Carefully specified procedure for
administration and scoring of each member of
the normative sample
• Standardized administration of the test to
others can be scored and results compared to
the normative sample
• Issues for people with disabilities?
Assessment Methods
• Interviews
• Standardized Tests and Inventories
• Simulations of Work and Living Tasks
• Simulated and Real Environments
• Functional Assessment
– Systemic approach to describing skill, current
behavior, or both
– Integration of interviews, observation, self-report,
examinations
Interpretation and Synthesis of
Assessment Information
• Interpretation: Degrees of Inference
– Lowest: Samples of behavior in their own right
– Next higher level: Bits of information are
interrelated in search of consistencies and
generalizations
– Next higher level: A hypothetical construct (e.g.
depression) may be used to describe the essence
of the consistencies or generalizations identified
Note:
• Interpretation can often be far removed from
the original data source
• Keep this in mind when consuming and
interpreting data
Organization of Information
• Assets
• Limitations
• Preferences
• Information that addresses the individual AND
the environment
Synthesis of Information
• Comprehensive working model of the
individual
– Begins with INDUCTIVE reasoning
• inferences are drawn about individual bits of
information and apparent consistencies between them
– ...then DEDUCTIVE reasoning is used...
• formulate and test hypotheses regarding the usefulness
of the working model (accounting for already available
info as well as predictions
Working Model revisions
• To the extent that the model does not account
for or predict relevant information, the model
is revised based upon new data gathered
Danger! Bias in Interpretation and
Synthesis
• Nezu & Nezu, 1993
• Availability heuristic
– Readily recalled past experience exerts undue
influence, fail to consider other explanations
• Representativeness heuristic
– Belief about individuals who share one feature will
likely share another (stereotypes)
• Anchoring heuristic
– Initial impressions that are resistant to change
Final Phase of Assessment: Clinical
and Service Decisions
• Common to RC practice (detail in chapter):
– Selection for service
– Establishment of vocational objectives
– Identification of needed interventions
– Formulation of case service plan
– Disability determination
• Make use of the working model of the
individual to make predictions corresponding
to the above areas
Future Perspectives
• Number of assessment tools available is ever-
increasing
– Tests in Print IV (1994) indicated over 3,000
commercially available
– Work sample/related systems: 18 (Brown et al.,
1994)
– Job Search software systems: 12 (Berven, 1997)
• These numbers will likely increase
dramatically in the years ahead
Computerized Assessment
• Burkhead and Sampson (1985) reviewed
applications in rehab counseling
• Recent advances include the use of Adaptive
Testing for tests like the GRE, Marriage and
Family Therapy Board Exam, and even State
Drivers License Bureaus
– Adaptive testing decreases the number of items
administered, and bases each subsequently
administered item upon the response to the
former
Ethics Defined
• Standards of moral and professional conduct
• Code of ethics: Written ethical guideline
followed by professionals
– Discourages inappropriate practice
– Protects recipient of services
– Promotes exemplary behavior
Making Ethical Judgments
• Identify problem • Consider courses of
• Identify potential action
issues • Consider
• Review ethical consequences for
guidelines various decisions
• Consult colleagues • Determine best
course of action
Values
• Beliefs and principles held by a person that have
been formed by his or her life experiences
• Consultant should know what his or her values are
• Consultant should not expect others to hold the
same values
• Consultant should be aware of specific values held
by cultural and ethnic groups
Competence
• Providing services and accepting jobs for
which one is qualified
– Maintain high levels of professionalism
– Know one’s professional limitations
– Know when to decline and refer
– Avoid situations in which personal concerns
could affect professional performance
Multicultural Issues
• Ethical practice dictates that
consultants take cultural context of
consultees and client systems into
account
• To practice ethically, consultants need to
demonstrate sensitivity to and respect
for cultural differences when they
provide services whether to families, in
schools, or in any other organization
Rights of Consultees
• Confidentiality: Protecting the identities
of parties involved in consultation
• Informed consent: To inform consultees
about the nature and goals of
consultation, their right to privacy, the
voluntary nature of participation and
the complete freedom they have in
following suggestions made by the
consultant
Intervention Areas
Involving Ethical Issues
• Individual vs. systems-level
• Use of assessment data
• Empirical validity of interventions
Issues in Disaster/Crisis
Consultation
• Consultants bear in mind acute
vulnerability of client system in crisis
and disaster situations
• Resulting chaotic environment will
heighten ethical considerations
• Consultants assure that cultural
competence is exhibited when engaging
in crisis consultation in that responses to
a crisis vary to a given culture
Ethical Issues in Organizational
Consultation
• Typical ethical issues exacerbated by
complexity or organization
• Aspirational ethics
• Virtue ethics
Consulting
Over the Internet
• Relationship development
• Confidentiality
• Location-specific factors
Collaboration
and Ethical Issues
• Not all collaborators may have freedom to participate
in team effort
• Confidentiality is assumed in consultation
– In collaboration, pertinent material may have to be
distributed among team members
• In consultation, consultee can accept or refuse
consultant’s recommendations
– In collaboration, such freedom is not presumed due to
each team member’s unique knowledge and skills to
which other team members typically defer
Legal Issues: Malpractice
Behaviors often leading to legal
entanglements:
– Misrepresenting one’s training
– Failing to respect integrity and privacy
– Using improper diagnosis and assessment
– Collecting fees improperly
– Libel and slander
– Breech of contract
– Failing to keep adequate records
– Failing to provide informed consent
– Providing poor advice
Diversity Issues
• Summary
• Personal Exploration
Multicultural Perspectives and
Diversity Issues
How do you define multicultural?
The Need for a Multicultural Emphasis
• Traditional therapy-western development.
• We are working in an increasingly diverse society.
• All counseling can be thought of as multicultural if
culture is broadly defined to include not only race,
ethnicity, and nationality, but also gender, age, social
class, sexual orientation, and disability (Das, 1995).
Multicultural Terminology
• Multiculturalism • Cultural Empathy
• Cultural Diversity • Stereotypes
• Multicultural Counseling
• Racism
• Diversity
• Diversity-Sensitive
• Unintentional Racism
Counseling • Cultural Racism
• Culture-Centered • Cultural Tunnel Vision
Counseling
• Culturally Encapsulated
• Ethnicity
• Ethnic Minority Group
Multicultural Terminology
• Ethnicity: a sense of identity that stems from
common ancestry, history, nationality, religion,
and race.
• Ethnic Minority Group: a group of people
who have been singled out for differential and
unequal treatment and who regard
themselves as objects of collective
discrimination.
Multicultural Terminology continued
• Multiculturalism: a generic term that

indicates any relationship between and within
two or more diverse groups.
• Cultural diversity: the spectrum of
differences that exists among groups of
people with definable and unique cultural
backgrounds.
• Multicultural counseling: a helping role and process
that uses approaches and defines goals consistent
with the life experiences and cultural values of
clients, balancing the importance of individualism
versus collectivism in assessment, diagnosis, and
treatment.
• Diversity: individual differences such as age, gender,
sexual orientation, religion, and physical ability or
disability.
• Diversity-sensitive counseling: a concept that
includes age, culture, disability, education level,
ethnicity, gender, language, physique, race, religion,
residential location, sexual orientation,
socioeconomic situation, and trauma.
• Cultural empathy: therapists’ awareness of clients’
worldviews, which are acknowledged in relation to
therapists’ awareness of their own personal biases.
• Culture-centered counseling: a three-stage
developmental sequence, from multicultural
awareness to knowledge and comprehension
to skills and applications.
• Stereotypes: oversimplified and uncritical
generalizations about individuals who are
identified as belonging to a specific group.
• Racism: any pattern of behavior that, solely because

of race or culture, denies access to opportunities or
privileges to members of one racial or cultural group
while perpetuating access to opportunities and
privileges to members of another racial or cultural
group.
• Unintentional racism: racism that is subtle, indirect,
and outside our conscious awareness.
• Cultural racism: the belief that one group’s

history, way of life, religion, values, and
traditions are superior to others.
The Problem of Cultural Tunnel Vision
• Many new students in training ONLY know
their own culture.
• Cultural tunnel vision: a perception of reality
based on a very limited set of cultural
experiences.
• Students may misinterpret a healthy response
by the client to the helper’s
cultural/theoretical bias as “resistance.”
Characteristics of the “Culturally
Encapsulated” Counselor
• Defines reality according to one set of cultural
assumptions.
• Shows insensitivity to cultural variations.
• Accepts assumptions without proof for fear of
disproving his/her own assumptions.
• Fails to evaluate other viewpoints and makes little
attempt to accommodate others’ behavior.
• Is trapped in one way of thinking that resists
adaptation and rejects alternatives.
– (Wrenn, 1962 & 1985)
Learning to Address “Cultural
Pluralism”
• Cultural pluralism: a perspective that recognizes the
complexity of cultures and values the diversity of
beliefs and values.
– Learning about your own culture helps you acquire
multicultural competence.
– Self-exploration makes learning about race, cultures, and
experiences of clients a manageable process.
– “Pluralistic” is cited twice in Tennessee Chapter 450 under
Rule 450-1-.01(29) & 450-1-.02(2d) relating to the practice
of a professional counselor or professional counselor as a
mental health service provider
Reaching Diverse Client Populations
• Identify resources in the client’s family and the larger
community and use them in delivering culturally
sensitive services.
• Due to psychology being based on Western
assumptions, the influence and impact of racial and
cultural socialization has not always been
considered.
• Minority clients are underrepresented in mental
health, and many stop coming after 1 or 2 sessions.
Reaching Diverse Client Populations
cont.
• The medical model of clinical counseling.

• Culturally encapsulated counselors may
assume that a lack of assertiveness is a sign of
dysfunctional behavior that should be
changed.
Ethics Codes from a Diversity
Perspective
• Therapists should try to uncover and respect
cultural and experiential differences.
• Counselors are expected to become aware of
their own attitudes and biases that can
interfere with cultural competence.
• Counselors are prohibited from discriminating.
Cultural Values & Assumptions in
Therapy
• Sue & Sue (2003) feel counselors need to include
support systems such as family, friends, community,
self-help programs, and occupational networks in
their perception of mental health practices.
• The diversity-sensitive counseling movement focuses
attention on the problems of discrimination,
oppression, and racism.
– Some believe this movement lacks moderation and tries to
force its agenda on counseling practice.
Western vs. Eastern Values
• Contemporary theories of therapy are grounded in
Western assumptions, yet most view the world
differently.
• Has there been too great of a focus on individualism
and not enough on broader social contexts?
• There is a growing belief that religion and spirituality
need to be included in counseling practice.
Non-Western Values
• Confucian: • Tao-the path or way:
• The middle way • Harmony of opposites &
– Balance
relativity
• An ideal relationship
between human beings • Simplicity
• Reciprocity • Reversal & Cyclicity
– The other person’s reaction • Nonaction
• Sincerity-congruent with – being natural
one’s actions
Non-Western Values
• Hindu-Character of the • Islamic-5 Major Classes of
person over action: Ethics or Acts:
• Dharma- • Forbidden
– Restraint of anger • Undesirable
– Truthfulness of speech – Can be avoided
– An agreeable nature • Neutral
– Forgiveness
– Purity of conduct
• Desirable-not obligatory
– Avoidance of conflict • Good or desirable
• Ahimsa- – Justice
– Benefit
– Noninjury & nonviolent action
– Truthfulness
– Willing good (intentions)
Challenging Professionals’
Stereotypical Beliefs
• “Lack of motivation”
• “Talk therapy”
• Practitioners who counsel clients without an
awareness of their own stereotypical beliefs
can easily cause harm to their clients.
Assumptions about Self-Disclosure
• “Self-disclosure is essential for the therapeutic
process to work”.
– Sharing personal problems in some cultures reflects poorly
on one’s family.
• In many cultures dance, circumlocutions, and rituals
may precede intimate disclosures.
• If your techniques are not working with a client, you
must learn other ways of connecting with this client.
Assumptions about Assertiveness
• It is better to be assertive than to be

nonassertive.
• Asian Americans are often viewed as
nonassertive and passive, but this assumption
has not been supported by research according
to Sue & Sue (1985).
Assumptions: Self-Actualization &
Trusting Relationships
• Many assume that it is important for the client to
become a fully functioning person.
– Counselors may focus on what they feel is best for the
client and forget to think about how this might impact
others in the life of the client.
• Many middle class Americans readily talk about their
personal lives.
• Many Asian Americans, Hispanics, and Native
Americans have been brought up not to speak until
spoken to, especially elders or authority figures.
Assumptions about Nonverbal
Behavior
• Americans tend to feel uncomfortable with silence
and tend to talk to ease their tension.
• Silence may be a sign of respect and politeness in
some cultures.
• Direct eye contact, physical gestures, and probing
personal questions may be seen as offensively
intrusive by clients from another culture.
– Among some Native American and Hispanic groups, eye
contact by the young is a sign of disrespect.
Assumptions about Directness &
Respect
• Western approaches tend to stress directness
– Other cultures directness is perceived as a sign of
rudeness.
• Some cultures prefer to deal with problems
indirectly.
• Deference as a sign of respect in other
cultures outside America.
Addressing Sexual Orientation
• In 1973, the American Psychiatric Association
stopped labeling homosexuality as a form of mental
illness.
• In 1975, the mental health system began to treat the
problems of people who are GLBT rather than
treating them as a problem.
• Mental health professionals who have negative
reactions to homosexuality are likely to impose their
own values and attitudes, or convey disapproval.
Addressing Sexual Orientation
continued
• Serious damage to a client can occur when a
client discloses their sexual orientation well
into an established therapeutic relationship.
• The APA developed a committee on lesbian,
gay, and bisexual concerns and they
developed guidelines for psychotherapy (pp.
128-9).
– The guidelines are relevant to all mental health
professionals, not just to psychologists.
Value Issues of Gay and Lesbian Clients
• Concealing sexual orientation or “coming out.”
• Loss of friends.
• Clinicians who work with gay men need to be
able to talk with their clients about “safe-sex”
practices.
Educating Counselors about the Concerns
of Clients
• Before therapists provide mental health
services to people who are GLBT or their
children, they should complete formal,
systematic training on sexual diversity.
• A study to assess psychologists’ attitudes
toward parenting found that they held
affirming attitudes toward parents who are
gay or lesbian.
Educating Counselors about Concerns of
Clients continued…
• Practitioners post-graduate training topics:

– Coming out
– Family estrangement
– Support system development
– Internalized homophobia
Court Case about a Therapist’s Refusal
to Counsel Gay Clients
• Ms. Bruff was fired by her employer for her refusal to
“counsel anyone on any subject that went against
her religion”.
• She was offered several other job opportunities
within the agency and she turned them down.
• The courts eventually found that she was not
improperly dismissed and that the company made
reasonable attempts to accommodate her religious
beliefs.
The “Bruff” Case continued
• In a counseling relationship, it is not the

client’s place to adjust to the therapist’s
values.
The “Bruff” Case continued
• What is your position?
• Our authors felt that Bruff should have
informed her potential clients in writing about
her religious convictions and moral opposition
pertaining to homosexuality.
– They also question whether she should have had a
position in a public counseling agency given her
inexperience and ineffectiveness working with
diverse client populations.
Matching Client & Counselor
• C.H. Patterson (1996) states that ALL
counseling is multicultural.
– According to him, all clients belong to multiple
groups that influence their perceptions, belief,
attitudes, and behavior.
– This belief allows room for clinicians to effectively
work with clients who differ from themselves in a
number of significant ways.
continued
• Counselors become too analytical about what
they say and do when they are overly self-
conscious about their ability to work with
diverse client populations.
• The more differences between the client and
the therapist, the stronger the need to
collaboratively find meaning and
understanding.
continued
• If there are differences between the client and
the therapist, should the clinician or the client
address this?
– Most clients will not initiate this conversation due
to the power differential between them and the
therapist.
– Therefore, the therapist should directly address
these differences.
continued
• Corey, et. al., (2007) express that the counseling
process is ever-changing, that clinicians must stay
with the client and be led by the client into the most
important areas for him or her.
• Monitor your internal dialogue and use it as part of
the therapy process rather than to strive to discover
the ideal match.
• The most important aspects of culture-centered
counseling can be learned, but not necessarily
taught.
continued
• Pay attention to the voices within you and
within your clients.
• You only hear the spoken content if your
approach is rigid and concrete.
• Unintentional racism can be more dangerous
than those who are more open with their
prejudices.
Signs of a culturally ineffective
counselor
• Being afraid to face the differences between
you and your clients.
• Refusing to accept the reality of these
differences.
• Perceiving the differences as problematic.
• Feeling uncomfortable working out these
differences.
How to Learn to Work with Clients that
Differ from Us
• Be trained in multicultural perspectives, both
academic and experiential.
• Agree with the client to develop a working
therapeutic relationship.
• Be flexible in applying theories and techniques to
specific situations.
• Be open to being challenged and tested.
• Be aware of your own value systems, of potential
stereotyping and any traces of prejudice, and of your
cultural countertransference.
Multicultural Training for Mental
Health Workers
• Referral should not be viewed as a solution to
the problem of inadequately trained helpers.
• You may not have the luxury of referral.
• CACREP standards call for supervised
practicum experiences that include people
from the environments in which the trainee is
preparing to work.
Characteristics of the Culturally Skilled
Counselor
• Understands their attitudes and beliefs about
race, culture, ethnicity, gender, and sexual
orientation.
• Understands his or her own worldview.
• Develops skills, intervention techniques, and
strategies necessary to serve diverse client
groups.
Characteristics of the Culturally Skilled
Counselor continued
• La Roche & Maxie (2003) believe that acquiring
cultural competence is an active and lifelong learning
process, rather than a fixed state that is arrived at.
• Multicultural competencies: a set of knowledge and
skills that are essential to the culturally skilled
practitioner.
• You can find the essential attributes of culturally
competent counselors on pp. 143-144 in our text.
Hermeneutic (Interpretation) Model of
EDM
• An ethical dilemma
• The counselor’s, supervisor’s, & client’s
– values, race, ethnicity, gender, personal history, etc.
• Agency policies
• Geographic region & culture
• Local, state, & federal laws
• Professional codes of ethics
• Professional knowledge
• Ethical theories
– (Houser, Wilcezenski, & Ham, 2006)
Diversity Issues in Group Counseling
Issues in Counseling and Psychotherapy
– Many counseling and psychology related organizations have recognized

the need for counselors and psychologists to become more multicultural
in their practice.
– Race/ethnicity and culture must be considered when using theoretical

orientations, when training counselors and in practice.
– A balance needs to be found between differences (emic) and

commonalities (etic).

Diversity in Groups
– Groups are an important tool for addressing racism, sexism,

religious intolerance, homophobia etc.
– Greater recognition has been centered on the diversity of group
members and how culture impacts groups.
– Most theories were developed in working with white, male,

middle-class clients and may not be applicable to other groups
without adaptation.

Diversity in Groups
– The diverse make-up of the group also sends messages. For example
in schools, group composition and subject topic need to be carefully
constructed. If only certain ethnicities are represented and the topic is
about bullying, then what does that say to group members and the
greater population.
– Another consideration is that the more diverse or heterogeneous the

group, the less likely it is to become cohesive early in the group process
or even at all.

Diversity in Groups
– A group that is too alike or homogeneous runs a risk of engaging in

“group think.”
– If forming a racially heterogeneous group, it is important to include more

than just one member of a race. Otherwise, group members may look
to that person to represent the whole race and it may isolate that
member who is different from the others.
– It is important to directly address the diversity of a group.

Implementation and Preparation for a Diverse Group
– Define Goals: Are the goals and values that will be established
congruent with the values and beliefs of the cultures represented?
– Select Members: How do issues of diversity influence who is or who is

not in the group? What are the levels of racial identity development of
the leader and group members?
– Establish Norms: How open will group members be to discussing

issues of diversity?

Implementation and Preparation for a Diverse Group
– Manage the Process: Group leaders need to have training in diversity

issues so that they can recognize issues that hinder or enhance group
process.
– Evaluate the Outcome: How did diversity issues play out in the
sessions? If diversity issues are directly considered, did group
members reach goals?
– Multicultural groups mirror the greater society and inter-member

relationships can have a profound impact on group dynamics.

Marginalized Groups
– A marginalized person is one who has suffered discrimination and

oppression.
– Many people who have been marginalized have feelings of suspicion,

cynicism and pessimism.
– It is important not to assume things about the marginalized person’s

experiences.

Marginalized Groups
– We often place a individual into a group with others when those “others”
represent the group of the oppressor to that individual. We then expect
that individual to share his or her most intimate thoughts, ideas or
feelings within a group where he or she does not feel safe. This might
set the individual up for a negative or hurtful experience.
– Cultural insensitivity on the part of a leader or other group members

can enhance feelings of mistrust, suspiciousness and alienation and
hinder feelings of belonging and acceptance.

Marginalized Groups
– Diversity is not just about race or ethnicity. It also includes disabilities,

age, gender, and sexual orientation among others.
– All group members and leaders bring biases and prejudices to the
group. How much this hinders and hurts the group is up to the leader.
Awareness of diversity issues is imperative. All group members have a
right to feel safe and respected.

Group Work With Marginalized Members
Group leaders need to:
– Understand that many people from marginalized groups have been hurt
and are often suspicious and tentative in their participation.
– Remember not to stereotype. There is as much diversity within groups

as there is between groups.
– Be culturally sensitive to issues of self-disclosure. Some cultures view

this as a form of weakness or betrayal.

Group leaders need to:
– Ask the person how he or she wants to be identified. Group leaders

don’t apply their own labels or make assumptions.
– Be aware of the power differential as a group leader and how that might
be perceived if the counselor is of the majority culture and group
member(s) are from a minority culture(s).

Group Leaders need to:
– Be aware of the level of acculturation and cultural identity of individual

group members. Not attending to this information increases the
likelihood that the marginalized person will feel misunderstood and will
drop out or have a negative experience.
– The process of empowerment is important in marginalized groups

otherwise the oppression is perpetuated.

– It is important for white counselors to be aware of white privilege.
– It is important not to be color-blind or act like race does not matter. It is

the polar opposite of racism and even though usually done though good
intentions, can have similar hurtful effects because it shows lack of
respect for culture.
– Group leaders of any ethnic background face challenges when leading

a racially mixed group. It is important to validate a group member’s
feelings and point of view although you may not agree with it.

Group Guidance Related to Race and Ethnicity
– Issues of race and ethnicity can be explored in groups especially in

schools. Counselors can help by:
 Helping members accept and appreciate differences in others.
 Teaching appropriate terminology when discussing diversity
issues.
 Helping members explore their own biases and prejudices.
 Teaching about diverse cultures and ethnic groups.

Becoming a Multiculturally Competent Group Leader
– Educate yourself (e.g. read literature, attend workshops, or classes that

focus on other cultures and ethnicities).
– Identify your own racial or ethnic origin and the privileges or liabilities
that have historically come with it.
– Understand ethnocentrism in the mental health field.
– Visit and get to know people from outside your own group.

• A speech-language pathologist or audiologist
may possess and practice impressive technical
skills related to speech language pathology and
audiology.
However, such technical
skills are not sufficient in
providing good service to a
client.
• “If a client cannot understand the nature of
the problem, as delineated by the clinician,
or if the client cannot act constructively
upon the help which is offered by the
clinician, than the impressive technical skills
have gone for naught”
Schum (1986)
• Counseling is the mutual exploration and
exchange of ideas, attitudes, and feelings
between a counselor and a client…
specifically including
– a client’s misperceptions about the disorder
– a client’s misperceptions that create emotional
overlays affecting self-concept, and
– a disparity between a client’s thoughts & feelings
Cooper (1983)
Sheehan (1970)
• Create atmosphere of trust without
censorship
–client is never wrong on a feeling level
• Focus on person who stutters, not the
elimination of stuttering
• Emphasize the future, not the past
• Help clients prepare for relapse and avoid
therapy induced guilt
• Encourage clients to become own
clinicians
Mowrer (1982)
• Made clear distinction between:
– Guidance: to provide information
– Counseling: to help solve problems &
adjustment issues and
– Psychotherapy: to change personality
Emerick (1988)
• Divided counseling approaches for stuttering
therapy into 3 categories
– approaches that focused on changing
speech behavior, with the assumption that
feelings and attitudes would improve as
stuttering decreased
– approaches that focused on changing
speech behavior, negative emotions, and
maladaptive attitudes
– approaches that focused only on negative &
maladaptive attitudes & ignored the
behavior associated with speech
A FORMULA FOR SUCCESS
FLUENCY SKILLS
+
COUNSELING
+
TEACHING RESPONSIBILITY
=
EFFECTIVE THERAPY
The amount of time we spend
counseling our clients typically
increases with the age of the
client.
Rational vs. Irrational Emotional
Responses
Concern vs. Anxiety
– Concern: “I hope that this threat does not
happen, but if it does, it would be unfortunate”
– Anxiety: “This threat must not happen and it

would be awful if it did”
Regret vs. Guilt
• Regret: person feels badly about the act or
deed but not about himself.
– “I prefer not to act badly, but if I do, too bad!”
Guilt: person feels badly both about the act and
himself
– “I must not act badly and if I do it’s awful and I
am a rotten person”
Annoyance vs. Anger
• Annoyance: does not like what the other
has done but does not damn him or her for
doing it
• Anger: believes that the other absolutely

must not break the rule and damns the
other for doing so
Disappointment vs.
Shame/Embarrassment
• Disappointment: feels disappointed

about own action, but accepts self in
process…does not demand that she act
well
• Shame/Embarrassment: recognizes
he/she acted “stupidly” and condemns
self for acting in a way that he/she should
not have
Suggested activities or “tools” to
elicit these feelings in your client...
• Complete the sentences:

– Most of all I want….
– I’m afraid...
– People shouldn’t….
Suggested activities or “tools”...
• Have client create a word picture

– write a series of words that describe yourself
– you can include things you like as well as things
you don’t like
• Count Me Out!!!!!!!
–Read list of statements and check
those situations that you would
presently avoid
–Examples
• Introducing myself to another
person
• Talking with close friends
• Asking for a date
• Create a worry ladder

– hierarchy of worries
Strategies for building self-
esteem
• Self talk
• become encouragers as clinicians
• validate child’s feelings
• cognitive activities
– self-rating scales
– being open about stuttering
– being a problem solver
Counseling in Adolescents &
Adults who Stutter
It is possible to reduce a client’s

stuttering by modifying his or her
attitude toward stuttering.
(Silverman, 1996)
10 Fundamentals for Counseling
• Rarely be a problem solver; help guide the
client to coming up with own solutions
• Trust your intuition
• Provide a sense of direction for the client
• Take care of your client; protect his/her

feelings; help him/her move at own
pace
• Have a sense of humor
• Incorporate self-disclosure as an
important part of counseling; show that
you are willing to share as well.
• Be open-minded
• Believe that clients are doing the best that
they can
• mutual agreement on expectations for
therapy between you and your client is
essential
• Ask client for feedback
Blood (1995)
Attitudinal changes are likely to result in
a reduced severity of stuttering
• Less avoidance
• acknowledgment of problem
• better self-concept as a speaker
• anticipation of fluency
(not stuttering)
Attitudinal changes likely to result in
a reduced severity of stuttering
• realistic expectations
• less embarrassment, guilt, shame
• acceptance of the problem
• sense of ownership & humor
POWERR:
Relapse management with
adolescents who stutter Blood
• Training techniques in
a) problem solving
b) general communication skills
c) assertiveness
d) coping responses for stuttering episodes
e) realistic expectations for fluency &
relapse
• P = permission
• O = ownership
• W= well-being
• E = esteem (of self)
• R = resilience
• R = Responsibility
Techniques from the POWERR GAME
• help client see thing from different

perspective
• demystify stuttering
• Value-free listening
• Paraphrasing and summarizing
Techniques from the POWERR GAME
• Encouraging
• Comforting and showing
empathy
• Clarifying
• Using silence
Peer Counseling
and
Self-Help Groups
Definition
• People who stutter helping each other by
listening, sharing common experiences,
exploring options and giving support.
Self Help Group Goals
• Teach each other about dynamics of
stuttering and how it affects individuals
• Help members feel better about
themselves
• Validate members’ experiences
• Build self-confidence and self-esteem
Self Help Group Goals
• Teach stress management techniques
• Teach members how to have fun
• Create a safe place to talk about feelings
• Strengthen coping skills
• Community outreach regarding stuttering
Diploma in Counseling_ethics
2014
CO-IHP-101:Issues and Ethics in the
Helping Professions
• Introduction
• Professional ethics
• The counselor as a Person and as a Professional
• The values and the helping relationship
• Multicultural perspectives and diversity issues
• Client rights and counselor responsibilities
• Confidentiality, ethical and legal issues
• Managing boundaries and multiple relationships
• Professional competence and training
• Issues in supervision and consultation
• Issues in theory and practice
• Ethical issues in couples and family therapy
• Ethical issues in group work
• Ethical issues in community work
Introduction
Concept of Boundaries
• A sense of personal identity and self definition that
has consistency and cohesion over time.
• This remains constant regardless of emotional ups
and downs or external pressures.
• The framework within which the worker-client
relationship occurs.
• Provides a system of limit setting
• The line between the self of client and self of worker
Why Talk About Boundaries?
• Reduces risk of client exploitation
• Reduces client anxiety as rules and roles are
clear
• Increases well-being of the worker
• Provides role model for clients
Who Negotiates Boundaries?
• Duty of the worker to act in the best interest
of the client
• The worker is ultimately responsible for
managing boundary issues
Why the Worker?
• Worker is the professional!
• Clients may not be aware of the need for
boundaries or able to defend themselves
against boundary violations
• There is an inherent power imbalance
between worker and client- worker is
perceived as having power and control
What are Some Examples of Boundaries?
Clear Boundary Areas:
• Planning social activities with clients
• Having sex with clients
• Having family members or friends as clients
A Client Should Not Be Your:
• Lover
• Relative
• Employee or Employer
• Instructor
• Business Partner
• Friend
Strictly prohibited by the Social Work Code of Ethics

Areas Where Boundaries May Blur:
• Self disclosure
• Giving or receiving significant gifts
• Dual or overlapping relationships
• Becoming friends
• Physical contact
What are some other areas where
boundaries may be blurred?
Danger Zones
• Over-identification with client’s issues
• Strong attraction to client’s personality
• Strong physical attraction to client
• Clients who can potentially reward you with
their influence
• Transference and counter transference
Questions to ask in Examining Potential
Boundary Issues:
• Is this in my client’s best interest?
• Whose needs are being served?
• How would I feel telling a colleague about this?
• How would this be viewed by the client’s family or
significant other?
• Does the client mean something ‘special’ to me?
• Am I taking advantage of the client?
• Does this action benefit me rather than the client?
Appropriate Boundaries
Reduce
Exploitation
• Use of professional relationship to promote or
advance our emotional, financial, sexual,
religious, or personal needs
• Stems from the inherent power differential
and the ability we have to exert influence on
the client
A Closer Look at Exploitation:
• Client may actually initiate and be gratified by the
exploitation- they may enjoy feeling ‘special’ or being
‘helpful’
• Can be subtle and vary from promoting excessive
dependency to avoiding confrontation because we
enjoy the adoration of our clients
• Using information learned professionally from the
client for personal gain
Increases in
“Dual Relationship”
Situations
Dual Relationships
• When you have more than one role with a
client
• Such relationships can blur boundaries
• This ‘blurring of boundaries’ increases the risk
of exploitation as roles can become confused
Important Note:
Most cases of sexual exploitation or other

ethical violations began with a step into a
seemingly innocent dual relationship*
*Taylor Aultman
Not All Client Interactions are Dual
Relationships:
• Running into a client at a social event
• Your client is your waiter at a restaurant
• How you participate in the interaction will

determine the outcome
Some Dual Relationships are Unavoidable
• You and a client belong to the same church

• A client lives in your neighborhood
• Your agency hires clients as staff or utilizes
clients as volunteers
Dealing with Unavoidable
Dual Relationships
• Open and honest discussion with client on the
nature of your relationships
• Separate functions by locations- work, home,
etc.
• Be aware of threats to confidentiality
• Understand your role as professional
Group Exercise
A client, who is a mother of three latency age
children, is facing the breakup of her marriage. She is
very concerned about how her children will respond,
what steps she can take to minimize the disruption to
their lives, and how she will manage financially with
the reduced income. The social worker relates her
own experience of divorce and the parenting issues
which followed.
A social worker and client both agree to
terminate services. After several years the
worker sees the client at a shopping mall. The
client offers to take the worker to the food court
for lunch to show appreciation for all the help
provided during their treatment sessions.
You have a client who recently started his own
small tax accounting business. He has shared
with you that the business is struggling and he
does not know what he will do if the business
fails. The client asks to prepare your taxes this
year.
You have a client who is an independent artist
and he brings you a gift of his artwork. The
client gathers the materials for his art from
salvage around town.
You and your family are attending a home game.
As you are walking to the stadium a client
recognizes you and offers for you to join her
tailgate party. The client also notices that your
tickets are in the same area of the stadium as
hers.
You work in a large outpatient setting that
employs several social workers. You are
interested in a client waiting to see a
colleague.
You are a social worker in private practice
whose client has just been diagnosed with
a terminal illness. The client is frightened,
crying, and hunched over.
A year after termination, a client calls and
invites you to lunch to catch up on events
that have transpired since the ending of
therapy.
You and a client have similar tastes and
interests. After a year of therapy, you and the
client terminate the professional relationship.
The client expresses gratitude at her progress,
sadness at the ending of the relationship, and
hope that the two of you can become friends
now that therapy has ended.
Boundary Crossing:
interest
Boundary Crossing:
interest
relationships
Boundary Crossing:
interest
relationships
Boundary Crossing:
interest
relationships
• Meet your personal needs in other areas of
your life
Boundary Crossing:
ethical violations
Boundary Crossing:
ethical violations
• A clear understanding of ethics and attention to
professional boundaries
Professional ethics
PROFESSIONALISM AND
ETHICS
Professional Codes
Kultgen – Chapter 10
Meaning: Professional Ethics
1. Norms required by the moral point of view for
the kind of work (a rational ethic)
2. Common norms actually followed by most
professionals
3. Common elements of codes of professional
associations
4. Prospective compact between the professions
and society (represents convergence of the first
three)
Evaluating Codes of Conduct
• Social functions – Actual consequences that explain
the existence of rules, practices, and institutions
• Human functions – Consequences of possible rules,
practices, and institutions for human welfare that
would warrant their observance or support from the
moral point of view
Social Functions of Professional Codes
• The social functions of codes are

ideological – promote the profession and
impute loyalty to the institution
• Codes are instruments of persuasion – to
both the profession and the public they
serve
• Ethical codes are notably missing in
business professions, other than
accounting
Social Function
• Common values are enhanced

• Codes may be used among members for
disciplinary reasons
• The disciplinary utility of coces is limited because
enforcement mechanisms are weak
• Professions use codes to instill trust in the public
(we must be ethical, just look at our code)
Social Function
• Codes are often used to persuade society that
the profession deserves status and autonomy
Human Functions
• To guide practitioners who have not thought
through moral issues, but are not desired to
eliminate the need for personal judgment
• An ideal code is consensual, rationally valid,
and accepted by both the members and public
Food for thought
• Can a code be an effective tool of morality and
a good public relations tool at the same time?
Semantics of a Code
• Codes are texts that communicate ideas,
express attitudes, and direct behavior
• They should be clear, precise, unequivocal
• They should be internally consistent (one
can tell which provisions take priority)
• Do most codes meet these criteria?
Criticisms of Codes
• Promote superiority of the male
• Vague
• Do not provide explicit definitions
• Do not address whether the primary purpose is to serve
the individual or society
• Address “confidentiality”, but do not explain what that
covers
• Do not have a tight “logical structure”
• Often assign priority to legalities over client interest, but
only hint at ethical principles
Should a rational code of professional ethics
be supplemented with a legal code?
Do we really want professional conduct to be
legally regulated beyond the statutes
already in place for negligence, fraud,
breaches of contract, etc.
Questions?
Should a rational code of professional ethics

be supplemented with a legal code?
Do we really want professional conduct to be
legally regulated beyond the statutes
already in place for negligence, fraud,
breaches of contract, etc?
Characteristics of an Effective TRS
• Self-awareness
– Must know themselves, their values & needs
– Must know own strengths & growth areas
• Ability to communicate
– Verbally
– In writing
• Knowledge base (TR)
• Strong belief in recreation & leisure
• High ethics
• Commitment to civil rights
• Self-confident vs. timid
• Timely vs. tardy
• Pro-active vs. procrastinator
• Courteous vs. insensitive
• Respectful vs. disrespectful
• Professional vs. unprofessional
• Integrity vs. unreliability or dishonesty
• Personal responsibility vs. blames others
• Positive regard for client
• Empathetic
• Flexible
• Others..
– Depends on author
How professional are you now?
• Strengths
• Growth areas
What are ethics?
• Statements of what is right or wrong, which
usually are presented as systems of valued
behaviors & beliefs
• Serve the purpose of governing conduct
– Jacobson & James, 2001
What are ethics?
• Involves study of what is morally good & bad,
right & wrong regarding human behavior
– Sylvester, Voelkl, & Ellis, 2001
• Standards of behavior
• Govern conduct
• How you should act or behave
Clinical Ethics
Clinical ethics is defined as the systematic
identification, analysis, and resolution of
ethical problems associated with the care of
particular patients.
• The concern is with moral dilemmas that
confront all health care professionals. (ATRA,
1998)
Code of Ethics
• Written list of values & standards of conduct
of a group
• Framework for decision-making
• Are normally general statements
• Do not give specific answers to every possible
dilemma that might arise
Professional Ethics
• System of conduct to guide the practice of a
specific discipline
• Applied ethics
• Professional & societal expectations that
those who practice TR have a duty to practice,
behave & act in an ethical manner
Personal Ethics Influenced By…
• Faculty/mentors
• Internship supervisors
• Professional codes of ethics
• Textbooks & professional materials
• Colleagues
• Family & friends
• Religious & moral influences
TR & Ethics
• Most professions have 1 code of ethics
• TR has how many?
– ATRA
– NTRS (previously)
– ITRS (perhaps other state organizations)
– NCTRC
TR & Ethics
• ATRA code does not have enforcement
procedures
• CTRS’ violation of professional ethics can be
sanctioned by NCTRC
– Misconduct standard
– Gross or repeated violations
– Suspension
– Revocation of certification
ATRA Code of Ethics (2009)
• Principle 1 & 2 both deal with protecting from harm
• Principle 1:Beneficence
– Practitioners maximize benefits to the client and minimize possible
harm.
– Taking action to remove from harm
• Principle 2: Non-Maleficience
– Use knowledge, skills, abilities & judgments to help persons while
respecting their decisions & protecting them from harm
– Not inflicting harm
• Principle 3:Autonomy
– Respect the individual's right of CHOICE.
– Respect the decisions of legally appointed
guardians / advocates if client is incapacitated
• Principle 4:Justice
– Access to services must be available to all. There must be fairness in
distribution of service based on individual need.
– Consider race, creed, orientation, gender, etc.
• Principle 5:Fidelity
– Tell the truth, the whole truth and nothing but the truth. Do what you
say you are going to do.
– Meet commitments
– Secondary obligation is to colleagues, agency, & professions
• Principle 6: Veracity
– Should be truthful and honest
– Deception, by being dishonest or omitting what is
true should be avoided
• Principle 7: Informed Consent
– Services should be based on mutual respect and shared decision
making
– Provide information about service, benefits, outcomes, length of
treatment, expected activities, & limitations
– Provide information about professional’s training & credentials
– Information provides so person can decide to accept treatment
• Principle 8:Confidentiality and Privacy
– Always respect people's privacy and always be confidential with regard
to patient care.
• Principle 9:Competence
– Continually take steps to attain, maintain, and expand your
competence in Therapeutic Recreation practice.
– Demonstrate current competence
– Maintain credential
• Principle 10:Compliance with Laws and
Regulations
– Know the laws governing the profession and the
population served.
• E.g. The Rehabilitation Act of 1973
• ADA
• IDEA
• OSHA
• Patient Bill of Rights (by end of 1999)
Ethics & Confidentiality
• Assume all information is confidential & may
not be shared
• Unless
– Specific permission is obtained
• Or
– Clients pose danger to selves
– Clients request release of information to 3rd party
– Court orders
Ethics & Confidentiality
• Don’t make promises you
can’t keep
• Tell clients about times &
conditions when
information will be shared
• Impact on professional
relationship
Decision-Making Model for Ethical
Situations
• Step One: Identify the Behavior
– What is the behavior, action, or decision at question?
• Step Two: Determine Professional Relevance

– Does this pertain to the TRS professional role?
• Step Three: Differentiate Personal and/or

Professional Ideals and Values
– How are my personal values influencing my professional judgment?
Decision-Making Model for Ethical Situations
• Step Four: Consider Legal Duties

– Is there any law or judicial violation involved in this dilemma?
• Step Five: Assess Ethical Obligations

– Is there a behavior in this dilemma that violates an ATRA Code of
Ethics Principle?
• Step Six: Define Action

– What do I do next?
What should we do?
• Include code of ethics in each
staff’s/volunteer’s/intern’s orientation & in-
service training
• Document code of ethics in written plans of
operation
• Discuss ethical situations in staff meetings
• Attend conference sessions on ethics
The counselor as a Person and as
a Professional
SECTION I:
PROFESSIONAL ORIENTATION
 Chapter 1: The Counselor's Identity: What,

Who, and How?
 Chapter 2: The Counseling Profession’s Past,

Present, and Future
 Chapter 3: Standards in the Profession: Ethics,

Accreditation, Credentialing and
Multicultural/Social Justice Competencies
550
Chapter 1
The Counselor's Identity:

What, Who, and How?
551
Defining Guidance
• Guidance, Counseling and Psychotherapy:

Variations on Same Theme?
• Definitions
– Guidance
– Counseling
– Psychotherapy
• See Figure 1.1, p. 4
552
Comparison of Mental Health Professionals
• The following PowerPoint slides lists a number of

professionals in the field. For each, see if you can
identify the following:
– Major professional organization(s)
– Major roles and functions
– Names and types of credentials
– Names of accrediting body associated with it
553
• Counselors
– School Counselors
– Clinical Mental Health Counselors (Agency Counselors)
– Marriage, Couple, and Family Counselors
– Student Affairs and College Counselors
– Addiction Counselors
– Rehabilitation Counselors
– Pastoral Counselors
554
 Social Workers  Psychoanalysts
 Psychiatric-Mental Health
 Psychologists
Nurses
 Clinical Psychologists
 Counseling Psychologists  Expressive Therapists
 School Psychologists
 Human Service Practitioners
 Psychiatrists
 Psychotherapists
555
Professional Associations in Social Services
• Benefits of:
– National and regional conferences
– Access to malpractice insurance
– Lobbyists
– Newsletters and journals
– Mentoring and networking
– Information on cutting-edge issues in the field
– Codes of ethics and standards for practice
– Job banks
556
• ACA American Counseling Association

– 19 Divisions of ACA (see pp. 12-13)
– Associations Related to ACA
• ACAIT: ACA Insurance Trust
• ACAF: American Counseling Association Foundation
CACREP: Council for the Accreditation of Counseling
and Related Educational Programs
• CORE: Council on Rehabilitation Education
• NBCC: National Board for Certified Counselors
• CSI: Chi Sigma Iota
557
• ACA American Counseling Association (Cont’d)

– Branches of ACA
• 56 Branches
– 50 state branches
– Puerto Rico and Washington D. C.
– Associations in Latin America
– Four Regional Associations in U. S.
– Membership Benefits of ACA (see Bottom of p. 14)
558
• AATA: American Art Therapy Association
• AAMFT: American Association of Marriage & Family Therapists
• APA: American Psychiatric Association
• APNA: American Psychiatric Nurses Association
• APA: American Psychological Association
• NASW: National Association of Social Workers
• NOHS: National Organization for Human Services
559
Characteristics of the Effective Helper
• 9 Common Factors
– 6 “Working Alliance” Empathy
– 3 “other: Cognitive
Complexity
Acceptance
Competence Genuineness
Embracing a Wellness
Compatability with Perspective
and Belief in Theory
Cultural
The "It" Factor Competence
560
The Nine Characteristics
• Empathy
– More than any other component, most related to positive
client outcomes
– See Rogers’ definition, p. 18
– A personal characteristic to embrace
– A skill to learn (Chapter 5 will address this)
561
• Acceptance
– Sometimes called “Positive Regard”
– Foundation for a therapeutic alliance
– An attitude that regardless of what the client says, he or
she will be respected
– Suspension of judgment
– In some manner, almost all counseling approaches stress
acceptance of client and client acceptance of self
562
• Genuineness
• Refers to willingness of the therapist to be authentic,
open, and honest within the helping relationship
• Gelso and Carter: All counseling relationships have to deal
with the “real relationship” between the counselor and
client
• Research on genuineness shows that it may be important
in client outcomes
• May be related to emotional intelligence (ability to
monitor one’s emotions)
563
• Embracing a wellness perspective

– Counselors can easily become stressed, burnt out, have
compassion fatigue, and experience vicarious traumatization
– All of above can lead to countertransference
– Myers and Sweeney suggest attending to:
• Creative Self; Coping Self; Social Self; Essential Self; Physical
Self
• See table 1.1 page 21
– Personal Therapy? (85% of helpers have done it!)
– Other ways?
564
• Cultural Competence
– Clients from nondominant groups are sometimes
distrustful of counselors.
– They are often misunderstood, misdiagnosed, find
counseling unhelpful, attend counseling less frequently,
and drop out more quickly.
– Since culture influences ALL relationships, throughout this
text, and especially in chapters 14 and 15, cultural
competence will be discussed
565
• Cultural Competence (Cont’d)

– For now, consider D’Andrea and Daniel’s RESPECTFUL model:
 R – Religious/spiritual identity
 E – Economic class background
 S – Sexual identity
 P – Psychological development
 E – Ethnic/racial identity
 C – Chronological disposition
 T – Trauma and other threats to their personal well-being
 F – Family history
 U – Unique physical characteristics
 L – Language and location of residence
566
• The “It” Factor

– The unique way that each therapist has of working with
clients.
– Using your unique personality to connect with the client
and build a working relatinoship.
– What is your “it” factor?
567
• Compatibility with and Belief in a Theory

– As counselors, we have to find a theory that “fits” our
personality style
– Helpers are usually attracted to theories that they find
comfortable.
– The more you feel comfortable, like, and understand your
theory, the more you will believe in it.
– Strong belief in a theory helps clients believe in the
helper’s approach and yields better client outcomes
568
• Competence
– Counselor expertise (mastery) has been shown to be a
crucial element for client success in counseling
– Perceived incompetence is often sensed by clients
– Demonstrated through helper’s desire to:
• Join professional associations
• Mentoring and supervising
• Reading professional journals
• Continuing education
• More!
569
• Competence (Cont’d)
 Shown throughout ACA’s ethical code:
1. practicing within one’s boundary of competence
2. practicing only in one’s specialty areas
3. accepting employment only for qualified positions
4. monitoring one’s effectiveness
5. knowing when to consult with others
6. keep current by attending continuing education activities
7. don’t offer services if physically or emotionally impaired
8. assure proper transfer of cases when incapacitated or leaves a
practice (ACA, 2005, Standard C.2)
570
 Cognitive Complexity
 Cognitive complexity means you are a:
▪ Helper who believes in your theory but able to question it
▪ Critical thinker
▪ Helper who views the world from multiple perspectives
▪ Likely more empathic, open, and self-aware
▪ Better able to cure “ruptures” in the counseling relationship
▪ Person who is not seeking “truth”
▪ A person who does seek the best way to help your client
 Hopefully, your program will support you and challenge you to
view situations in new and complex ways.
571
Multicultural/Social Justice Focus
• Inclusion of Multiculturalism in the Profession

– Small number of person from culturally diverse groups
entering counseling profession
– We all need to make the helping professions attractive for
people of color
– To become culturally competent, all counselors must:
1.Learn counseling strategies that work for all clients
2.Work with client s from diverse backgrounds
3.Gain a deep appreciation for diversity
4.Acquire an identity as a counselor that includes a
multicultural perspective
572
Ethical, Professional, and Legal Issues
• Knowing Who We Are and Our Relationship To Other Professionals

– Professional identity gives us a sense of who we are, and who we are not.
• Helps us know:
– how to practice only within our areas of competence
– when to consult with other, related mental health
professionals
– when to refer clients because of our lack of expertise
– when to refer clients due to lack of cross-cultural
knowledge and skills with some clients
573
Ethical, Professional, and Legal Issues
• Impaired Mental Health Professionals

– We have a responsibility to know when an impairment will
negatively affect our clients
– Know to seek help for our problems
– Know when to “limit, suspend, or terminate” work if our
impairment negatively affects others
– Impairment can lead to incompetence
• Incompetence is unethical and can be illegal and lead to
malpractice suits
574
The Counselor in Process
• Personal Therapy and Related Growth Experiences

– Can you understand your client if you have never sat in his
shoes (been in counseling)?
– Counseling prevents countertransference
– Counseling helps you develop as a counselor
– Other ways of growing: prayer, meditation, relaxation
exercises, exercise, reading, other???
– We can grow personally and professionally throughout our
lives
575
The Counselor as a Person & a
Professional
Lecture 2
Steve Zanskas, Ph.D., CRC
Week in Review…
• Understand the difference between law and ethics
• Differentiate between aspirational and mandatory ethics
• Begin to learn about the role of ethics codes in making ethical
decisions
• Introduced to the six moral principles
• Reviewed one model of working through an ethical dilemma
• Involving the client in the ethical decision making process
Informal Survey of Principles
(n=20)
1 2 3 4 5 6
Autonomy 20% 25% 15% 5% 20% 15%
Beneficenc 15% 10% 15% 10% 30% 20%

e
Fidelity 5% 10% 15% 35% 20% 10%
Justice 0% 15% 15% 15% 15% 40%
Non- 40% 10% 25% 15% 10% 0%

Maleficence
Veracity 30% 20% 15% 20% 5% 15%
Case of Kevin
• Kevin informs his counselor that he lost his job
and he will not be able to continue counseling
because of his inability to pay for the sessions.
– Four counselor responses in the text
Models of Ethical Decision Making
• Feminist Model (Hill, Glaser, & Harden, 1995)
– Power should be equalized
– Maximizes client involvement
• Social Constructionist Model (Cottone, 2001)
– Emphasizes the social aspects of decision making in
counseling
– Interactive, consensus driven, negotiation model
Models Continued…
• Transcultural Integrative Model
– Includes cultural factors when resolving dilemmas
– Considers universal principles
• (Garcia, Cartwright, Winston, & Borzuchowska, 2003)

• (Frame & Williams, 2005)
Corey, Corey, & Callanan’s Model
(2007)
• Identify the problem or dilemma
• Identify the potential issues involved
• Review your relevant ethical code
• Know the applicable laws & regulations
• Consult
• Consider the possible and probable courses of action
• List the consequences of the potential decisions
• Decide on what appears to be the best course of action
• Time for a break…
How many agree with these statements?
• “Counselor know thyself…”
• “Counselor heal thyself…”
• It is difficult to distinguish between what is

personal and what is professional.
What are my Motivations for
Becoming a Counselor
• Two critical questions:

– “What are my motivations for becoming a
counselor?”
– “What are my rewards for counseling others?”
Personal Problems & Conflicts
• Should we be aware of our own biases, areas
of denial, unresolved problems or conflicts?
• The critical consideration is not whether you
are struggling with personal issues, but how
you address them.
Professional Therapy
• Do you feel professional therapy should be
required for all counselors?
• Under what circumstances?
– Pre-service
– Post graduate
Professional Therapy for Counselors
A means of increasing your availability to your
clients.
Formal Methods:
– Individual therapy
– Group counseling
– Consultation with colleagues
– Continuing education
– Reading
Professional Therapy for Counselors
continued
• Informal methods include:
– Reflection
– Evaluating the meaning of your work and life
– Remaining open to the reactions of significant others
– Travel
– Meditation
– Spiritual activities
– Exercise
– Time with friends and family
Experiential Learning
• Experiential Learning: a basic component of
many counseling programs that provides
students with the opportunity to share their
values, life expectations, and personal
concerns in a peer group.
– This is not necessarily the same as group therapy.
Experiential Learning continued
• Instructors and/or supervisors need to clarify the line
between training and therapy.
• Students should be informed at the outset of the
program of any requirement for personal exploration
and self-disclosure.
• This informed consent is especially important in
cases where the instructor also functions as the
facilitator of the group experience.
Personal Therapy During Training
• Coster & Schwebel (1997) found that
psychologists favored recommending personal
therapy to all students but not requiring it
unless it appeared to be professionally
necessary.
• Students are more likely to seek personal
therapy when faculty are supportive of such
experience.
Personal Therapy continued
• Few empirical studies in the literature focus

on the benefits or liabilities of personal
therapy.
• The average length of treatment for those
receiving therapy was 1.5 years.
Personal Therapy continued
• The majority of students entered treatment
voluntarily.
• It is both practical and ethical to refer professionals
external to a program for student therapy.
• 8 in 10 clinicians in Newhouse-Session’s study
thought that personal counseling should be
mandated for any person in the counseling
profession.
Reasons for Participating in Personal
Psychotherapy
• The experience of being a client.

• Personal awareness:
– the areas in your life that are not developed
– areas limit your effectiveness
– how these areas affect your professional work
Common Issues that Surface in a Practicum or
Internship
• A tendency to tell people what to do
• A desire to alleviate clients’ pain
• A need for quick solutions
• A fear of making mistakes
• A desire to be recognized and appreciated
• A tendency to assume too much responsibility for client
change
• A fear of doing harm, however inadvertently
• A tendency to deny or not recognize client issues that may
relate to their own issues
Psychotherapy for Remediation
Purposes
• One study found that although personal
psychotherapy was often endorsed as a
remediation, the efficacy of this approach has
not been empirically established.
• Mandated psychotherapy is not always viewed
as an effective intervention.
Ethical Issues in Requiring Personal
Therapy
• The APA (2002) has the following standard on

mandatory individual or group therapy:
– If therapy is a program or course requirement, students
are allowed the option of choosing therapy from outside
professionals.
– The faculty responsible for grading the students do NOT
provide this therapy for the students.
Personal Questions about Therapy
• What kind of self-exploration have I engaged in prior
to or during my training?
• How open am I to examining my own personal
characteristics that could be either strengths or
limitations in my role as a counselor?
• At this time, what am I doing to work through
personal problems?
Ongoing Therapy for Practitioners
• The problem areas most often addressed in personal
therapy:
– Depression or general unhappiness
– Marriage or divorce
– Relationship concerns
– Self-esteem and self-confidence
– Anxiety
– Career
– Academics
– Family-of-origin issues
• According to Mahrer (2000), “It seems sensible that
if therapists truly have faith in some of the methods
they use in their professional work, they would use
these methods on and for themselves in their
personal lives.”
Transference
• Transference is the process whereby clients project onto their
therapists past feelings or attitudes they had toward
significant people in their lives
• Transference: the “unreal” relationship of therapy
– Counselors need to be aware of their personal reactions to
a client’s transference
– All reactions of clients to a therapist are not to be
considered as transference
– Ethical issue is dealing appropriately with transference
Issues and Ethics - Chapter 2 (2)

Countertransference: Clinical
Implications
• Countertransference: any projections by
therapists that distort the way they perceive
and react to a client.
• Can be a constructive or destructive element
in the therapeutic relationship.
• Whether the clients stimulated the
countertransference or not, what matters is
how the therapist responds.
Countertransference
• Indicators of countertransference:
– being overprotective with a client
– treating clients in benign ways
– rejecting a client
– needing constant reinforcement and approval
– seeing yourself in your clients
– developing sexual or romantic feelings for a client
– giving advice compulsively
– desiring a social relationship with clients

Stress in the Counseling Profession
• Counseling can be a hazardous profession
• Some sources of stress for counselors are:
– Feeling they are not helping their clients
– The tendency to accept full responsibility for clients’
progress
– Feeling a pressure to quickly solve the problems of clients
– Having extremely high personal goals and perfectionistic
strivings

Counselor Impairment
• Impaired counselors have lost the ability to resolve stressful events and
are not able to function professionally
• Shared characteristics of impaired counselors:
– fragile self-esteem
– difficulty establishing intimacy in one’s personal life
– professional isolation
– a need to rescue clients
– a need for reassurance about one’s attractiveness
– substance abuse

• Ethically, what would you do if you felt a
colleague is impaired?
ACA Code: C.2.g. Impairment
• Counselors are alert to the signs of impairment from their own physical,
mental, or emotional problems and refrain from offering or providing
professional services when such impairment is likely to harm a client or
others. They seek assistance for problems that reach the level of
professional impairment, and, if necessary, they limit, suspend, or
terminate their professional responsibilities until such time it is
determined that they may safely resume their work. Counselors assist
colleagues or supervisors in recognizing their own professional
impairment…
ACA Code & Self Care
• Section C Professional Responsibility: Intro
• Counselors have a responsibility to
the public to engage in counseling
practices that are based on rigorous
research methodologies. In addition,
counselors engage in self-care activities
to maintain and promote their
emotional, physical, mental, and spiritual
well-being to best meet their professional
responsibilities.
Maintaining Vitality as a Counselor
• Counselors are often not prepared to maintain their vitality
• Sustaining the personal self is an ethical obligation
• Personal vitality is a prerequisite to functioning in a
professional role
• Main challenge is to create a balanced life:
– Spirituality - Self-direction
– Work and leisure - Friendship
– Love

The values and the helping
relationship
Introduction To Helping Relationships
PowerPoint produced by Melinda Haley, M.S., New Mexico State University.
“This multimedia product and its contents are protected under copyright law. The following are prohibited by law:
• any public performance or display, including transmission of an image over a network;
• preparation of any derivative work, including the extraction, in whole or part, of any images;
• any rental, lease, or lending of the program.”

Dimensions of the Helping Relationship
Within the relationship the helpee may feel:
Trusted Confronted
Safe Not judged
Important Listened to
Respected Valued
Understood Accepted

What can the helper do to enhance the relationship
– Be warm and encouraging

– Show strength and confidence
– Be consistent and dependable
– Model honesty and integrity
– Restrain your own personal needs
– Resonate with what you sense is going on
– Be open to change within the relationship
– Stay flexile
– Respond therapeutically
– Show caring and understanding

Stages in Helping
Building the Working Alliance
– Who is to be included? Is this family therapy? Will someone other than

the helpee be there?
– Have a distraction free environment. Have a quiet place that facilitates

openness and discussion where there is enough space to sit facing
each other.
– Give your undivided attention. With body posture, eye contact, facial
expressions etc., let the helpee know you are fully present.

Stages in Helping
Building the Working Alliance (continued)
– Focus your concentration. Do not disassociate and start thinking

thoughts unrelated to the helpee or the helping process.
– Show warmth and caring. Be real, don’t play the “role” of the helper.
– Listen and not just with your ears but with your senses and your whole
being.

Stages in Helping
– Find out expectations and desires. What does the helpee expect you
can do for him or her? What does he or she expect from the helping
process?
– Discuss ground rules. What are the parameters of the relationship?

Have these been make clear? What are the goals to be worked on?
How much time will it take?
– Learn about the person. Get to know him or her from his or her point of
reference.

Stages in Helping
– Don’t ask too many questions. Listen more than you talk. Ask open
ended questions (e.g. questions the helpee can’t answer with a yes or
a no).
– Reflect back what you understand. Try to re-state in your own words
what the helpee has expressed in both content and feeling.
– Your job is not to fix the problem. Your role is to build a relationship in
which the helpee feels safe enough to explore his or her issues and
then with your guidance and help, come up with his or her own answers.
Stages in Helping
– Ask the helpee how the helping process is going for them. Do they feel
it is helping? What is helping most?
– Assess the level of resistance. Is the helpee reluctant?
– Get a commitment to continue. Help the helpee accept responsibility for

the process and outcomes, commit to working on the problem or issue
between sessions and commit to returning to see you.

Stages in Helping
Facilitating Positive Action
– What changes are needed? What needs to be changed and what

interventions are appropriate to facilitate the helpee’s goals?
– Is there a working diagnosis? Do you have a road map of where the

helpee needs to be heading that will help with intervention planning?
– Have the pertinent issues been explored thoroughly? Has enough

information been collected?

Stages in Helping
Facilitating Positive Action (continued)
– Has transference or countertransference been identified and

addressed? Help the helpee identity and work through these feelings
and work through your own.
– Is confrontation needed? If so, is there enough trust in the relationship

to sustain it?
– Have goals been set? Are these realistic and obtainable? Have they
been prioritized?

Stages in Helping
– What needs to be clarified? What are the helpee’s feelings? Issues?

What skills or resources does the helpee have to deal with these?
– Is there a plan of action? What are the steps that need to be taken to
reach the helpee’s goals?
– How does the “treatment plan” fit with the helpee’s cultural values? Are
you imposing your values or is the plan respectful of the helpee’s culture
and worldview?

Stages in Helping
– How do you terminate the session or helping relationship? Summarize

accomplishments and evaluate progress. Make sure to process
thoughts or feeling regarding the end (of the session or the helping
relationship.)

Uses of the Helping Relationship
Diagnostic Aid:
• The helpee probably acts with you much in the same way he or she
acts with others.
• What are the helpee’s coping and interpersonal styles?
• Is the helpee passive, withdrawn or dependent? Or is the helpee

controlling, obnoxious, or dominant?
• Use the relationship to aid the helpee in identifying patterns that

might not be working as well as they could.

Unfinished Business or Transference
• You will remind the helpee of other people in his or her life and he or
she may transfer unfinished feelings onto you.
• Use this opportunity to help the helpee work through this residual
feelings.

Problem Solving Collaboration
• Model ways of problem-solving.
• Aid the helpee in generating new options for himself or herself.

Brainstorm!
• Help the helpee identify opportunity.

Novel Interaction Experiences
• Aid the helpee in discovering new ways of relating to people.
• Help them be accountable for their behavior.
• Create the opportunity for honesty, openness and caring. The

helpee might not have experienced those things within a
relationship.

Customized Relationships
– The relationship with the helpee will change over the course of the
relationship. The relationship is dynamic.
– Each relationship is dependent upon a multitude of variables that will be

different for each helping experience (e.g. issues, gender, culture,
preferences and needs.)
– As the stages of helping occur the dimensions of the relationship will

reflect that (e.g. trust building, goal setting, limit setting).

How to Resolve Conflicts in the Helping Relationship
– Identify the triggers (What gets you angry or upset).
– Explore the origins of the conflict (When did it start? What is it

about?)
– Examine the issues (Why do you lose control?)
– What can be learned? (How does this reflect other aspects of your
life?)

How to Resolve Conflicts in the Helping Relationship (continued)
– Resist blaming. It takes two to participate in any conflict.
– Commit yourself to change. Do whatever is in your power to do.
– Experiment. Do things differently. Try something new.
– Use a mediator. If you can’t solve it yourself, ask for help.

Introduction to Helping Relationships
Presentation Resources
Brammer, L. M. & MacDonald, G. (1999). The helping relationship: Process and

skills, 7th ed. Needham Heights, MA.: Allyn & Bacon.
Kottler, J. A. (2000). Nuts and bolts of helping, 1st ed. Needham Heights, MA:
Allyn & Bacon.

Becoming A Helper
4th Edition
by Marianne Schneider Corey & Gerald Corey
Wadsworth Group
A division of
Thomson Learning, Inc.
What Are Your Needs as a Helper?
• To what degree do you have the need to

– make an impact – make money
– return a favor – gain prestige and status
– care for others – provide answers
– work on your personal – gain and maintain control
issues (self-help) – variety and flexibility
– be needed
Becoming A Helper - Chapter 1 (1)

Portrait of the Ideal Helper
• Some of the characteristics of a helper who is
making a significant difference are:
– being committed to assessing your strengths and weaknesses
– doing in your own life what you expect your clients to do
– having good interpersonal skills
– recognizing that it takes hard work to bring about change
– welcoming and understanding diversity

Portrait of the Ideal Helper
• Some of the characteristics of a helper who is
making a significant difference (continued):
– being aware of your own problems and monitoring how they influence
your work with clients
– taking care of yourself
– questioning life and engaging in self-examination
– having meaningful relationships in your life
– having a healthy sense of self-love

Factors in Choosing a Career Path
• Recognize that choosing a career path is an
ongoing process rather than a one-time event
• In choosing a career, it is well to consider the
following factors:
– self-concept
– motivation and achievement
– interests
– abilities
– values
Factors in Choosing a Career Path
• Some work values for you to explore include:
– income – family relationships
– power – interests
– prestige – serving people
– job security – adventure
– variety – creativity
– achievement – inner harmony
– responsibility – teamwork
– independence – intellectual challenge
– competition

How to Get The Most from
Your Fieldwork Experience
• There are concrete steps you can take to ensure getting the maximum
benefit from your fieldwork and supervision experiences
• Assume an open stance in learning from your supervisions This can best
be done by:
– being able to ask for what you need
– saying "I don't know" at times
– expressing your reactions
– dealing with yourself and your client in supervision
– being willing to learn from supervisors, without copying their styles
– accepting different styles of supervision
– being assertive without becoming aggressive

Know Thyself, Then Help Others
• The value of self-exploration
– Knowing yourself is a basic requisite to helping
others
– Using individual and group counseling for self-
exploration

Know Thyself, Then Help Others
• Essential that you understand your family-of-origin issues
– Identify issues in your family
– Identify family rules
of origin -- how your experiences
in your family have current – Ways you coped with conflicts in
influences your family
– Become aware of how your – Messages you received from your
issues with your family might family
help or hinder you in working – Significant developments in your
with families family
– Identify your role in your family – Identify areas for further self-
– Review ways you related to exploration
siblings and parents

Diploma in Counselling - Introduction - Counselling (Autosaved)

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Diploma in Counselling - Introduction - Counselling (Autosaved)

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Diploma in Counseling

• The counselor is a person ” who knows what is good and

• The counselor provides a client with ready made – solutions.

• The Counselor undertakes the following actions: positive

• Counsellor will be the partner of the counselee

• Counsellor`s actions includes new aspects of activities and

• Counselee analyses a problem, gains new information,

• Counsellor and counselee share the responsibility for a

• Problems are solved together

- Directive counselling – the expert

- Liberal counselling - laissez –

“a professional relationship that empowers

Counseling is a process of helping people by

………is a confidential relationship which the counselor

A profession that focuses on the relations and

1. facilitate a change in behavior;

6. The REBT (Rational Emotive Behavior

 Individual Psychology (Adlerian Counseling) encourages

 REBT helps people live balanced, productive, and

Helps students to gain control and experience success.

Active listening…there’s no time to be passive!

5. Willingness to be vulnerable & take risks

• Self awareness • Objectivity

Hackney & Cormier, 2001, pp. 13-21.

Hackney & Cormier, 2001, p. 14.

Hackney & Cormier, 2001, pp. 14-15.

Hackney & Cormier, 2001, p. 15.

• Universal: culture must be defined by more than

Hackney & Cormier, 2001, pp. 15.

Hackney & Cormier, 1999, p. 15.

• Be aware of your own cultural heritage.

Cormier & Hackney, 1999, pp. 8-10. Attributed to Daw (1977).

Cormier & Hackney, 1999, pp. 8-10. Attributed to Daw (1977).

Hackney & Cormier, 2001, p. 16.

• Balance involvement with objective

Hackney & Cormier, 2001, pp. 16 -17.

Hackney & Cormier, 2001, pp. 16 -17.

Hackney & Cormier, 2001, pp. 17-18.

Hackney & Cormier, 2001, pp. 17-18.

Hackney & Cormier, 2001, pp. 17-18.

Do not promise more than you can

Hackney & Cormier, 2001, p. 16.

• Hard to establish; easy to destroy

Hackney & Cormier, 2001, p. 16.

• Safeguard clients’ communications.

Hackney & Cormier, 2001, p. 16.

The counselor cannot act trustworthy.

The counselor must be trustworthy

Hackney & Cormier, 2001, p. 16.

• Counselors appear “attractive” when they are

• May be determined by instinct or selected

Hackney & Cormier, 2001, p. 18.

–According to the American Counseling

“The application of mental health, psychological or human

– “Guidance is a process of helping people

– Traditionally focuses on serious problems

• This give form to what the formal processwill look

– Counseling can happen

• O: Adopt an open posture. Sit with both feet on the

• L: As you face your client, lean toward him or her. Be

• E: Maintain eye contact. Looking away or down suggests

• R: As you incorporate these skills into your attending