1 PHYSICS PROJECT WORKS

2 A PROJECT SUBMITTED FOR THE PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE

3 REQUIREMENT IN PHYSICS OF CLASS XII
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11 Submitted By:
12 MADHAB PAUDEL
13 Grade:XII
14 ROLL NO.: 03
15 SECTION: AB
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17 Gurukul Academy
18 Ghorahi, Dang, Nepal 2023
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22 CERTIFICATE OF APPROVAL
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25 This project work entitled “PHYSICS PROJECT WORK" submitted by MADHAB
26 PAUDEL having ROLL NO. 03 under the supervision of respected teacher Sabin
27 Bhandhari, Basudev KC and Ramesh Chaudhary is appointed for the partial fulfillment
28 of the requirement of chemistry in grade XII. This project work entitled " PHYSICS
29 PROJECT WORK " has not been submitted in any other school and institution previously
30 for the award of grade XII.
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43 Supervisior
44 Sabin Bhandhari
45 Department of Physics
46 Gurukul Academy
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55 RECOMMENDATION LETTER

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58 This is to certify that the project work entitled “PHYSICS PROJECT WORK " had
59 been carried out by "MADHAB PAUDEL" as a partial fulfillment for the requirement of
60 grade XII under my supervision. To the best of my knowledge, this work has not been
61 submitted to any other purpose in this institute.
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79 Supervisor
80 Sabin Bhandhari
81 Department of Physics
82 Gurukul Academy
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90 DECLARATION
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 92 Myself( MADHAB PAUDEL ) , hereby declare that the work present herein is genuine
93 work done originally by me and has not published or submitted elsewhere for the
94 requirement of a grade XII. Any literature, data or words done by others, presented in this
95 dissertation are cited, has been due acknowledgement and listed in the reference section.
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116 MADHAB PAUDEL
117 Grade : XII
118 Email address:Madhabpaudel22@gmail.com
119 Date: 2079/11/01
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126 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
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129 I would like to express my sincere gratitude and deep respect to my superior Sabin
130 Bhandhari, Basudev KC and Ramesh Chaudhary Department of Physics, Gurukul
131 Academy for his continuous inspiration and constructive guidance.
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133 I would like to express my deep respect and gratitude to Mr. NIMANAND GAIRE, AJAY
134 SHAH and KRISHNA DEV THAPA MAGAR, department of Science, Gurukul Academy
135 for providing me an opportunity to conduct this project work in this department. I would like
136 express my deep regards to all my respectful faculty members and non-teaching staffs of the
137 Department.
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139 I am thankful others who help me in this project work.
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141 My special thanks to my thesis mates and colleagues and he helped me for solving technical
142 problems which occurred while doing project work.
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144 I cannot forget the endless love, support and encouragement of my parents. Without them, I
145 would not be the person I am today.
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159 PROJECT 1
160 CONSTRUCT A MODEL OF AC GENERATOR/DYNAMO
161 APPARATUS REQUIRED
162 1. Armature with coil
163 2. Concave magnets with horseshoe magnet
164 3. Slip rings
165 4. Two conducting brushes
166 5. Galvanometer
167 6. Axle
168

169 THEORY: AC generator, also known as alternators, is a machine that converts mechanical
170 energy into electrical energy. The generated electrical energy is in the form of an alternating
171 current sinusoidal output waveform. The mechanical energy is usually supplied by steam
172 turbines, gas turbines and combustion engines.
173 AC generator work on the principle of Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction which
174 states that electromotive force- EMF or voltage- is generated in a current-carrying conductor
175 that cuts a uniform magnetic field. This can either be achieved by rotating a conducting coil
176 in a static magnetic field, or by rotating the magnetic field that contains the stationary
177 conductor. The preferred arrangement is to keep the coil stationary because it is easier to
178 draw induced alternating current from a stationary armature coil than a rotating coil.

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180 Figure 1:Model of AC generator

181 The generated EMF depends on the number of armature coil turns, magnetic field strength,
182 and the speed of the rotating field.
183 The various components of an AC generator are:

184  Field
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185  Armature
186  Prime Mover
187  Rotor
188  Stator
189  Slip Rings
190 FIELD
191 The field consists of coils of conductors that receive a voltage from the source and produce
192 magnetic flux. The magnetic flux in the field cuts the armature to produce magnetic flux.
193 This voltage is the output voltage of the AC generator.
194 Armature
195 The part of an AC generator in which the voltage is produced is known as an armature. This
196 component primarily consists of coils of wire that are large enough to carry the full-load
197 current of the generator.
198 Prime Mover
199 The component used to drive the AC generator is known as a prime mover. The prime mover
200 could either be a diesel engine , a steam turbine , or a motor.
201 Rotor
202 The rotating component of the generator is known as rotor. The generator’s prime mover
203 drives the rotor. Based on the type of generator, this component may either be the armature
204 or the field. The rotor will be the armature if the voltage output is generated there; the rotor
205 will be field if the field excitation is applied there.
206 Stator
207 The stator of an AC generator is the stationary part. As the rotor, this component may be the
208 armature or the field, depending on the type of generator. The stator will be the armature if
209 the voltage output is generated there; the stator will be the field if the field excitation is
210 applied there.
211 Slip Rings
212 Slip rings are electrical connections that are used to transfer power to and fro form the rotor
213 of an AC generator. They are typically designed to conduct the flow of current from a
214 stationary device to a rotating one.
215 PROCEDURE
216 Following procedures are followed for the construction of model of AC generator:
217 1. Begin by preparing the base for your generator. You can use cardboard or wood to
218 create a stable platform for your generator. Make sure the base is large enough to
219 accommodate all the components.
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220 2. Attach the horseshoe magnet to one end of the axle. This will serve as the stationary
221 part of the generator.
222 3. Mount the concave magnets on the opposite end of the axle, facing inward. Make sure
223 they are positioned so that the armature can rotate between them.Attach the armature
224 to the axle, so that it can rotate freely between the magnets.
225 4. Wind the armature with the coil. The coil should consist of multiple loops of wire,
226 which will generate an electromagnetic field when the armature rotates.
227 5. Attach the slip rings to the axle, so that they rotate with the armature. The slip rings
228 should be positioned on opposite sides of the armature, and they should be insulated
229 from each other.
230 6. Attach the conducting brushes to the base, so that they can make contact with the slip
231 rings as the armature rotates. The brushes should be positioned so that they are in
232 contact with the slip rings at all times.
233 7. Connect one end of the galvanometer to one of the brushes, and the other end to a
234 fixed point on the base. This will allow you to measure the voltage generated by the
235 generator.
236 8. Connect the other brush to one end of the coil, and the other end of the coil to the
237 other fixed point on the base. This completes the circuit.
238 9. Test your generator by rotating the armature with your hand. The galvanometer
239 should indicate a voltage output as the armature rotates between the magnets.
240 10. To improve the efficiency of your generator, you can experiment with different
241 numbers of coils on the armature, or different configurations of magnets and coils.
242 RESULT:
243 Hence, we construct a model of AC generator.
244 SOURCES OF ERROR:
245 The error may be due to:

246 i) improper number of turns of coils

247 ii) less magnetic strength
248 iii) wrong positioning of coil and magnet
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250 PRECAUTION

251 i) The position between coil and magnet must be placed well.
252 ii) The circuit should be examined well.
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254 REFERENCES
255 Basanta Raj Rosyara (A to Z's Physical Practical Book)
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257 PROJECT WORK 02
258 DESIGN AND CONSTRUCT A STEP-UP TRANSFORMER.
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260 APPARATUS REQUIRED

261 1. Electrical insulating tape
262 2. Coated copper wire(i.e., magnet wire)
263 3. Alternating current power supply
264 4. A resistive element (such as a light bulb)
265 5. Core material (i.e., steel bolt can be used to represent a core)
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267 THEORY: A transformer is a static electrical device, used to transfer the energy in electrical
268 form between two or number of circuits. The main function of a transformer is to change the
269 alternating current from one voltage to another voltage. The transformer doesn't have any
270 moving parts and works on the principle of magnetic induction. The transformer design is
271 mainly for step-up otherwise step down the voltage. These are mainly available in two types
272 based on the windings namely step up and step-down transformer. The purpose of the step-up
273 transformer is to increase the voltage whereas the step-down transformer function is to step
274 down the voltage

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276 fig. Step Up Transformers
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279 A transformer that is used to step up the output voltage by maintaining the flow of current
280 stable without any variation is known as a step-up transformer. This kind of transformer is
281 mainly used in the applications of power transmitting and power generating stations
282 applications. This transformer includes two windings like primary and secondary. The
283 primary winding has fewer turns as compared with the secondary winding.
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285 Step-up Transformer
286 Construction of Step-up Transformer The Step-up transformer diagram is shown below.
287 The construction of the step-up transformer can be done using core and windings.
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291 Core:
292 The designing of core in the transformer can be done using a high permeable material. This
293 core material allows the magnetic flux to now with less loss. The material of core includes
294 high permeability as compared with the nearby air. So, this core material will restrict the
295 magnetic field lines within the core material. Thus, transformer efficiency can be enhanced
296 by decreasing the transformer losses.
297 The magnetic cores allow the magnetic flux to flow across them and also, they lead to losses
298 in core like eddy current losses because of hysteresis. So, hysteresis & low coactivity
299 materials are chosen to make the magnetic cores similar to ferrite or silicon steel. To keep the
300 eddy current losses at a minimal low, the transformer core can be laminated, so that the core
301 heating can be prevented. When the core is heated, then there is some loss of electrical and
302 transformer efficiency can be decreased.
303 Windings:
304 The windings in the step-up transformer will help to transmit the current which are wounded
305 on the transformer. These windings are mainly designed to make the transformer cool &
306 resist the conditions of test and operational. The density of the wire at the primary winding
307 side is thick but includes fewer turns. Similarly, the density of the wire at the secondary
308 winding is thin but includes huge turns. The designing of this can be done like the primary
309 winding carries less power voltage as compared with the secondary winding. The winding
310 material used in the transformer is Aluminium & copper. Here the cost of the Aluminium is
311 less as compared with copper but by using copper material, the transformer life can be

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312 increased. There are different kinds of laminations available in the transformer which can
313 educe the eddy currents like EE type and El type.
314 Working of Step-up Transformer:
315 The step-up transformer symbolic representation is shown below. In the following figure,
316 the input & output voltages are represented with V 1 & V2 respectively. The turns on the
317 windings of the transformer are T1 & T2. Here the input winding is primary whereas the
318 output is secondary.

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322 Construction Transformer

323 The output voltage is high as compared with input voltage because the turns of wire in the
324 primary less than secondary. Once the alternating current flows in a transformer then the
325 current will Mw in one direction, stops and changes the direction to flow in another direction.
326 The current flow will create a magnetic field in the region of the winding. The directions of
327 the etc poles will be changed once the flow of the current changes its direction.
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333 The voltage is induced into the windings through the magnetic field. Likewise, the voltage
334 will be induced within the secondary coil once it is located in a moving magnetic field is
335 known as mutual induction. So, the AC in the primary winding generates a moving magnetic
336 field so that voltage can be induced in the secondary winding. The main relationship between
337 the number of turns in every coil and the voltage can be b using this step-up transformer
338 formula.
339 N1/V1 = N2/V2
340 Different Factors
341 There are different factors that need to check while selecting the step-up transformer. They
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343  Transformers Efficiency
344  Number of Phases
345  Transformers Rating
346  Cooling Medium
347  Material of Windings
348 Advantages
349 The advantages of Step-up transformer include the following.
350  These are used in residential and commercial places • Power Transmitter
351 Maintenance
352  Efficiency
353  Continuous Working
354  Quick Start
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356 Disadvantages
357 The disadvantages of Step-up transformer include the following.
358 • It requires a cooling system
359 • Works for Alternate Current
360 • Size of these transformers is huge.
361 Applications
362 The uses of Step-up Transformers include the following
363 • . These transformers are applicable in electronic devices like stabilize the voltage
364 from low to high.
365 • It is used for disturbing electrical power.
366 • It is used to boost electrical and electronic devices.
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367 • It is also used to make electric motor run, X-ray machines, microwave oven etc.
368 RESULT
369 Hence I construct a step-up transformer.
370 SOURCES OF ERROR

371 1. Winding resistance: Resistance of transformer windings can cause voltage drop and
372 reduce output voltage.
373 2. Magnetic saturation: High magnetic flux in the core can cause saturation and limit
374 output voltage increase.
375 3. Leakage inductance: The magnetic field can extend beyond the core and create a less
376 efficient coupling between the windings.
377 4. Hysteresis loss: Reversing the magnetic field repeatedly can cause energy loss due to
378 hysteresis.

379 PRECAUTION

380 1. Use high-quality insulation material to prevent short circuits and ensure safety.
381 2. Choose a core material with high magnetic permeability to maximize efficiency and
382 reduce losses.
383 3. Calculate the correct number of turns for the windings based on the desired output
384 voltage and current.
385 4. Minimize the distance between the windings and the core to reduce leakage
386 inductance and improve coupling efficiency.

387 REFERENCES
388 Basanta Raj Rosyara (A to Z's Physical Practical Book)
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