ENGR/ME200

Thermodynamics I
Chapter 2
ENERGY, ENERGY TRANSFER, AND GENERAL ENERGY ANALYSIS
 Content

• Forms of energy
• Macroscopic = kinetic + potential
• Microscopic = Internal energy (sensible + latent + chemical + nuclear)
• Energy transfer by heat
• Energy transfer by work
• Mechanical forms of work
• The first law of thermodynamics
• Energy balance
• Energy change of a system
• Mechanisms of energy transfer (heat, work, mass flow)
• Energy conversion efficiencies
• Efficiencies of mechanical and electrical devices (turbines, pumps)
2
2
 Review: State of a system

State
• It refers to the condition of the system
by its properties (Gas @T = 70 and P =
1.5 bar).
• There are normally relation among the
properties of a system.
• When any of the properties of a system
change, the state changes and the
system is said to have undergone a
process.

3
 Review: Process
Process
• Any change that a system undergoes from one equilibrium state to another.

Note:

If the system exhibits the same values of its properties at two different times, it is in the
same state at these times. A system is said to be at steady state if none properties
change with time.
4
 Forms of Energy
• Energy can exist in numerous forms such as thermal, mechanical, kinetic, potential, electric, magnetic,
chemical, and nuclear, and their sum constitutes the total energy, E of a system.

• Thermodynamics deals only with the change of the total energy.

1. Macroscopic form of energy: Energy that passes through boundaries of the system and reacts to the
environment or another system.
• Potential energy, PE: due to system elevation in
gravitational field.
• Kinetic energy, KE: due to system motion with
relative to reference frame.

2. Microscopic forms of energy: The energy at atomic and

molecular scale of a system.
The macroscopic energy of an object
• Internal energy, U: The sum of all microscopic changes with velocity and elevation.
forms of energy.

5
5
 Kinetic Energy Potential Energy Flow Energy for open system only
Flow Energy / Work Flow: Work is needed to
push the fluid into or out of the boundaries of
a control volume if mass flow is involved.
Specific Kinetic Energy Specific Potential Energy
Flow power = PV (J)
For unit mass = PV/m =Pv=P/ρ (J/kg)
Power of Kinetic Energy Power of Potential Power P and v are the Pressure and the Specific Volume of the
fluid entering or leaving the open system, respectively.
KEሶ = m.ke
ሶ (J/s or W) PEሶ = m.pe
ሶ (J/s or W)
𝐦ሶ = the mass flow rate in kg/s 6
6
 Mechanical Energy

Mechanical Energy of a fluid per unit mass, for an Open System

Note: the difference in mechanical energy

between an open system and a closed system
Rate of mechanical energy of a flowing fluid
is the presence of the term P/ (Pv), which is
known as the flow energy

Mechanical Energy change of a fluid per unit mass, during Incompressible Flow

Rate of mechanical energy change of a fluid during incompressible flow

7
7
 Some Physical Insight to Internal Energy
Thermal Microscopic

Sensible energy: The portion of the

internal energy of a system
associated with the change of the
Sensible Latent Chemical Atomic temperature of the system.
Latent energy: The internal energy
associated with the phase change of
a system during which the
temperature of the system remains
constant.
Chemical energy: The internal
energy associated with the atomic
bonds in a molecule.
Nuclear energy: The tremendous
amount of energy associated with
the strong bonds within the nucleus
of the atom itself.
The internal energy of a system is the sum of all forms of the microscopic energies.
8
The summation of all microscopic energies is called Internal Energy, U 8
 The total energy of a system

Energy

Internal
Mechanical energy U
Macroscopic Energy Microscopic

The summation of all microscopic energies is called internal energy, U

Kinetic Potential Flow Energy Sensible Latent Chemical Atomic

Inter-molecular
sum of (phase change)
Mechanical energy: The form of energy that translational, Atomic bonds
can be converted to mechanical work vibrational,
rotational. Bonds within nucleolus of atoms
completely and directly by an ideal mechanical Higher at higher
device such as an ideal turbine. temperature
9
9
 Static Vs Dynamic Forms of Energy

• The total energy of a system, can be contained or

stored in a system, and thus can be viewed as the
static forms of energy.
• The forms of energy not stored in a system can be
viewed as the dynamic forms of energy or as energy
interactions.
• The dynamic forms of energy are recognized at the
system boundary as they cross it, and they represent
the energy gained or lost by a system during a process.
• The only two forms of energy interactions associated
with a closed system are heat transfer and work.
The macroscopic kinetic energy is an organized form of
energy and is much more useful than the disorganized
microscopic kinetic energies of the molecules.

10
10
 Total Energy of the System

In thermodynamics, we deal with change of the total energy of a system only.

1. Total Energy (closed system)

2. Specific Total Energy (closed system)

3. Power of Total Energy (closed system)

4. Total Energy (open system)

Can obtained by adding the term flow energy to the equation above

11
11
 Energy Transfer

• Energy can transfer by boundary 𝑾𝒃

work (Piston); (𝑾𝒃 )
𝑾𝒆
• Mechanical form of work such as
paddle; (𝑾𝒎 )

• Electrical work (Battery); (𝑾𝒆 )

𝑾𝒎

12
 Energy Transfer by Work
Work: It is defined as the form of energy transfers through the boundary due to
change one or more properties

Mechanical work [Boundary Work]:

It is associated with the expansion or compression of a gas in a piston–cylinder device. During this
process, part of the boundary (the inner face of the piston) moves. Therefore, the expansion and
compression work is often called moving boundary work, or simply boundary work.

13
 Boundary Work Calculation

: :boundary work [Joule]

F: force exerted from gas to piston [N];
ds: piston displacement [m];
P: absolute pressure, it is always positive, [pa];
A: piston area [m2]
dV: volume change, positive in expansion
and negative in compression,[m3]

Note:
The work is positive during expansion and negative in compression
Wout +ve [Expansion]
Win -ve [Compression]
14
 Boundary Work Calculation

The total boundary work done

during the entire process as the
piston moves is obtained by
adding all the differential works
from the initial state to the final
state (or by integration):

15
 Boundary Work Calculation

This integral can be evaluated only if we know the functional relationship between P and
V during the process. That is, P = f (V) should be available. Note that P= f (V) is simply the
equation of the process path on a P-V diagram.

A gas can follow several different paths as it

expands from state 1 to state 2. In general, each
path will have a different area underneath it, and
since this area represents the magnitude of the
work, the work done will be different for each
process.
16
 Work is a path function

The figure shows that the work is a path function (i.e., it depends on the path followed
as well as the end states)

A gas can follow several different paths, each path will have
a different area underneath it (work is path dependent).

17
Example 1

18
Example 1: continue

19
 Example 2
A frictionless piston–cylinder device contains 5 kg of steam at 4.0 bar and 160 oC. Heat
is now transferred to the steam until the temperature reaches 205oC. If the piston is not
attached to a shaft and its mass is constant, determine the work done by the steam
during this process. The densities of steam are 4 and 1.0 kg/m3 at 160 and 205 oC,
respectively.

20
 Example 2: continue

V1=m/= 5/4=1.25 m3 V2=m/=5/1.0=5 m3

P0=4(10)5 pa

Then ,
W=4(10)5[5-1.25]= 15(10)5 [J]= +1500 kJ

Discussion The positive sign indicates that the work is done by the system. That is, the
steam used 1500 kJ of its energy to do this work. The magnitude of this work could also
be determined by calculating the area under the process curve on the P-V diagram.

21