Ferrous & Non Ferrous

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Module: NG1S422
AEROSPACE MATERIALS &

HARDWARE
Part 66
Module NG1S422- Book 1 & 2 (Ferrous & Non- Ferrous) Revision 2
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Disclaimer ED
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The information contained within this document is for TRAINING USE ONLY.
These training notes should not be used for carrying out any work or procedure on ANY
aircraft. You must always use the correct aircraft maintenance manual or equipment
manufacturer’s handbook.
You should abide by the rules set out by your regulatory authority and as laid down in
the company policy where you are working. All reports, documentation, etc., must be in
compliance with your organization.
For Health and Safety, always follow the guidance laid down by the equipment
manufacturer, company policy, national safety policies and national governments.
Aircraft Maintenance Engineering

University of South Wales
Treforest Campus
Pontypridd
NP20 2BP
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BOOK 1
FERROUS MATERIALS
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Table of Contents HO
Introduction to Aircraft Materials..........................................................................................................6 ED
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Aircraft Materials.................................................................................................................................10 S
PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS.............................................................................................................11
Material Properties Groups.........................................................................................................11
Mechanical Properties.................................................................................................................11
Physical Properties......................................................................................................................12
Chemical Properties.....................................................................................................................13
Dimensional Properties...............................................................................................................13
METALS................................................................................................................................................15
Ferrous (Fe) Metals..........................................................................................................................15
Alloy Steels..................................................................................................................................16
The Process of Steel Making............................................................................................................19
Open Hearth Process..................................................................................................................20
Basic Oxygen Process..................................................................................................................20
The Electric Arc Furnace Process................................................................................................20
Non Ferrous Metals.............................................................................................................................22
Super Alloys.....................................................................................................................................23
Aluminium Alloys (Al Alloys)............................................................................................................23
CHEMICAL ABBREVIATIONS.............................................................................................................26
IDENTIFICATION OF METALS............................................................................................................26
Marking Methods........................................................................................................................26
Standard Colour Scheme.............................................................................................................27
Protective Film Treatments.........................................................................................................27
Colours.........................................................................................................................................28
Heat Treated Material.................................................................................................................28
Identification Marking.................................................................................................................28
WORKSHOP TESTS FOR THE IDENTIFICATION OF METALS...................................................................29
HEAT TREATMENTS.........................................................................................................................30
Microstructure of Steels..................................................................................................................32
Annealing.....................................................................................................................................33
Normalising..................................................................................................................................33
CASE HARDENING........................................................................................................................33
Methods of Carburising...............................................................................................................33
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HEAT TREATMENT OF ALLOY STEELS...............................................................................................34 HO
HEAT TREATMENT OF ALUMINIUM ALLOYS....................................................................................35 ED
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Solution Treatment......................................................................................................................35 S
Precipitation Treatment..............................................................................................................36
Annealing.....................................................................................................................................36
Refrigeration................................................................................................................................36
Soaking Times..............................................................................................................................37
Quenching...................................................................................................................................37
Methods of Heating.....................................................................................................................37
Limitations on Heat Treatments..................................................................................................37
Precautions Before/After Salt Bath Use.......................................................................................38
Rivets...............................................................................................................................................38
Identification of Heat-Treated Metal...............................................................................................38
Work Hardening..........................................................................................................................39
Identification of work hardening.................................................................................................39
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Introduction to Aircraft Materials DU
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Materials used in aircraft require exceptional high performance characteristics. An
aircraft and its systems are operated under various environmental and variable load
conditions. An aircraft must be reliable during a take-off carried out in the dessert at a
temperature of + 50 °C, but also it must function properly at a temperature of - 60 °C,
which you will encounter at a cruising altitude of 10 km high. The loads exerted on an
aircraft during a heavy weight landing or a flight through turbulence are enormous.
Also the variable forces carried out on the structure of a pressurized cabin are very
great.
The aforementioned conditions cause stresses which varies in magnitude, duration and
frequencies. These stresses can have a negative effect on the structural integrity and
fatigue life of an aircraft. So a good knowledge and understanding of the materials is
vital to construct and maintain an aircraft and its equipment.
Figure 1, Various Metals
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Stresses HO
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There are 5 major stresses to which all aeroplanes are subjected: DU
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- Tension
- Compression
- Torsion
- Shear
- Bending
Tension is the stress that resists a force that tends to pull something apart.
Compression is the stress that resists a crushing force. It tends to shorten or squeeze
aircraft parts.
Torsion is the stress that produces twisting. The torsion strength of a material is its
resistance to twisting or torque.
Shear is the stress that resists the force tending to cause one layer of a material to slide
over an adjacent layer. Two riveted plates in tension subject the rivets to a shearing
force.
Bending stress is a combination of compression and tension. Compression on the inside

of the bend and stretching on the outside of the bend.
Figure 2, Stress Type
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Aircraft structures need to be light weight, stiff, strong with adequate fracture ED
toughness. DU
The choice of materials must take the following into consideration: S
• Strength of a material
• Fatigue
• Fracture toughness and crack growth
• Corrosion and embrittlement.
• Availability and reducibility cost
• Environmental stability
• Rigidity
• Temperature stability
Strength of a material
This is the ability of a material to resist fracture when subjected to a steady stress. The
tensile strength is the resistance of a material which it can offer to a load before it will
break.
Fatigue
Fatigue results from the cyclic stresses that are below the ultimate tensile strength or
even the yield stress of a material. Tiny micro cracks arise in the material and slowly
grow into a bigger crack until you get a rapid fracture.
Fatigue Life is being defined as the number of loading cycles required to initiate a
fatigue crack and to propagate the crack to critical size.
Fracture Toughness and Crack Growth.
The fracture toughness and crack growth characteristics of a material have become
increasingly important. Fracture toughness may be defined as the ability of a part with a
crack or defect to sustain a load without failure.
Corrosion and Embrittlement.
Corrosion and embrittlement influence the selection of aircraft materials. As strength

levels of aircraft materials have increased, the material tolerance.
Availability and Reducibility Cost
The material must be available in all forms required to fabricate the aircraft structure
and components. Once a material has been produced commercially, lead - time for
material procurement must be considered.
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Environmental Stability
Environmental stability is the ability of a material to retain its original physical and
mechanical properties.
Rigidity
This is the ability of a material to resist elastic deformation when subjected to stress. A
material may be able to resist stress but may produce excessive deflection when
subjected to a load.
Temperature stability
Materials may react to changes in temperature by softening, expanding, contracting,

loss of strength and loss of stiffness.
Material Cost and Fabrication Characteristics
Decisions involving the use of material in aircraft will frequently be based on whether
or not it will be cost effective. Raw material and manufacturing costs will therefore be
important considerations.
The modern aircraft technician and engineer has a vast range of materials at his/her
disposal. Effective design in engineering requires that we should be able to put these
materials to the best use. We must choose the right material for the job. To do this, we
need to know how and why different aircraft materials behave differently in service.
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Aircraft Materials
Within the materials knowledge there is a distinction between metals and non-metals.
In case of non-metals we should think of plastic or rubber.
Furthermore we can distinction the metals in ferrous and nonferrous.
• Metallic Materials: containing metal.

• Non- Metallic Materials: contain no metal.
• Ferrous Materials: Iron or alloy containing iron.
• Non-Ferrous Materials: Metal which contains no iron.
` Figure 4, Material Types
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PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS
Material Properties Groups

Material properties can be divided in 4 main groups:
- Mechanical properties
- Physical properties
- Chemical properties
- Technological properties
The separated groups will be discussed hereafter. Many of the properties listed below
are inter - dependent. In nearly all cases, these properties can be modified by heat
treatment or cold hardening.
Mechanical Properties
Elasticity strength per square millimetre of cross

The property by which the material is section.
enabled to return exactly to its original
shape on removal of a straining force.
Ductility Tensile Strength (sigma σ) = Force /

The ability of a material to be Area = F / A = N/
permanently deformed by the mm2
application of a tensile load. Wire is
drawn into shape by being pulled F = total load in Newton (N)
through a series of dies and is said to be A = cross sectional area (mm2)
ductile (Drawn – Dies – Ductile).
Plasticity
Brittleness The reverse of elasticity, a plastic
This is a lack of ductility and opposite to material will retain exactly the shape it
toughness. Will fracture or break when assumes under load when the load is
impacted by a force. A brittle material removed. Exceeding the ‘Elastic Limit
will have a very limited plastic stage. A Stress’ the material will be permanently
brittle material will tend to fracture deform and not return to its original
when subjected to a sudden blow. shape.
Strength Fatigue
The resistance of a material which it can Fatigue is associated with cyclic stress.
offer to a load before it break. This is All materials should be resistant to
also called the breaking strength or fatigue. Fatigue is serious and has been
tensile strength and is expressed as the cause of many aircraft accidents.
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Normally the stress level that causes This is the rigidity of a material, or the HO
fatigue failure is well below that resistance to deflection in response to ED
required to cause the part to fail under an applied load. The contrary is DU
flexibility; the more flexible, the less stiff S
normal tensile stress. A simple example
a material is.
of fatigue is when a paper clip is bent
back and forth until it breaks. See
destructive testing later in this book.
Physical Properties
Hardness
The ability to resist scratching and Melting Point
indentation. Examples, glass is hard, When its heat pure aluminium the
wood is not. Bearings and piston rings material will melt at a certain
should be hard to resist wear. temperature, which is called melt
temperature melting point.
Malleability
Electrical Conductivity
The ability of a metal to be permanently A bar of copper will conduct an
deformed by the action of a compressive electrical current much better than a bar
load - hammering for example. Rivets of ceramic material. Ceramic has a large
are malleable as they are formed by resistance, may be so large that it can be
compression. used as an insulation material.
Density
Softness
This is the amount of ‘substance’ in a
The opposite to hardness. When two
material. It is defined as ‘mass per unit
surfaces are in rubbing contact with
each other, such as some bearings then volume’ ie, Density = kgs per cubic
one is usually made softer than the metre (kgs/m3). Dense material such as
other so it will wear first – usually the lead is said (incorrectly) to be heavy. A
easier one to replace. kg of lead is no heavier than a kg of
feathers. Examples of density of metals
Strain
include: aluminium – density
This the amount of stretch a material
2700kg/m3; steel density 7900kg/m3.
will exhibit when a load is applied. It is
defined as change in length divided by For aircraft the less dense a material is
overall length (DL/L) and has no units. the better – provided it retains those
Stress and stain (stress/strain) is used desired properties such as high strength
to calculate Young’s Modulus. etc. One of the least dense metals is
magnesium alloy. Density 1700kg/m3
Toughness and is used for castings.
This is the ability of a material to absorb
an impact load. Rubber is tough-
ordinary glass is not. Toughness is a
good quality, without it metals would
fracture at the slightest knock.
Stiffness
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Resistivity Chemical Properties

This gives the resistance of a metal (or
any material for that matter) to the Corrosion Resistance
passage of an electrical current. It is Via complicated chemical reactions
called (r) rho. The resistance (R) of an every metal will have the tendency to go
back to its natural state.
object can be found from the equation:
The corrosion resistance is the
R = L resistance against this phenomenon.
A
Where r (rho) is in ohm metres, L is Heat Resistance
length in metres and A is cross sectional This is the resistance against intrusion
area in m2. Conductors should have a in the material of oxygen at high
low resistivity and insulators should temperatures.
have a high resistivity. Copper, for
Acid Resistance
example, has a resistivity of 1.7 ohm
This is the resistance which the material
metres (Wm) and steel has a resistivity offers against influence of strong acids
of about 15Wm depending on the and other corrosive substances.
carbon content. Copper is a better
conductor than steel. Dimensional Properties
Stress Machinability
In engineering terms it is defined as The ease by which it can be cut or
force per unit area. In the SI system it is drilled, welded or be shaped.
the Pascal (Pa) and is defined as a
Newton per square meter N/m2. In the Cast
imperial system it is pounds per square A metal (or any other substance) can be
inch (psi). The higher the stress levels a formed into a shape by being poured
material can take the better. Note that molten into a mould, allowed to solidify
stress units are the same as pressure then removed.
units.
Wrought
Shaped into its final form usually by
compressive forces (rollers or hammer
blows). Compare ductility and casting
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MATERIAL PROPERTIES
MECHANICAL PHYSICAL CHEMICAL DIMENSIONAL
CORROSION
ELASTICITY DENSITY MACHINABILITY;
RESISTANCE
- CUTTING
PLASTICITY MELTING POINT HEAT RESISTANCE - DRILLING
- WELDING
ELECTRICAL - SHAPING
DUCTILITY ACID RESISTANCE
CONDUCTIVITY
BRITTLENESS STRESS CAST
STRENGTH RESISTIVITY WROUGHT
TOUGHNESS
MALLEABILITY
HARDNESS
STIFFNESS
FATIGUE
SOFTNESS
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METALS HO
Metals can be divided into two main groups – ferrous and non-ferrous. ED
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Figure 6, Metal Groups
Ferrous (Fe) Metals

These metals have an iron base and include all the plain carbon steels, alloy steels, cast
irons and wrought iron. A plain carbon steel is a steel which contains only iron (Fe) and
carbon (C) - usually between about 0.15% and 1.4% C. The addition of carbon (C) to
iron increases the tensile strength, hardness and brittleness and is called carbon steel.
Fe metals can be divided into 3 main groups - irons, plain carbon steels and alloy steels.
The following pages contain tables relating to properties and uses of metals used on
aircraft. Some metals are almost never found on aircraft - such as cast iron - but they
have been included because they are found in aircraft related engineering.
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Table 1 shows plain carbon steels/irons in order of carbon content starting with HO
wrought iron which is commercially pure iron. In laboratory conditions it can be made ED
with zero % carbon but commercially is produced with about 0.02% carbon. As the % of DU
carbon is increased and with stricter quality control, mild steel is produced (at about 0.1 S
to 0.3%C). With less quality control and less refining cast iron is produced with about
4.5%C.
Alloy Steels
The main difficulty when studying alloy steels is that there is such a wide range of alloys
that, trying to commit the details to memory, or even a small part of them, would be
difficult. For this reason table 2 shows some of the more commonly used elements used
in steels to produce particular properties and table 3 shows some of the more common
ferrous alloys. Tables are arranged in alphabetical order;
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The Process of Steel Making HO
Pig iron is made from iron ore in a ‘blast furnace’ (figure 7) and when it is further refine ED
the pig iron, steel is produced. In modern steel making beside pig iron, large amounts of DU
scrap steel can be used if required. S
Figure 7, Blast Furnace
In 1709, Abraham Darby developed blast furnace using coke instead of charcoal. The
purpose of a blast furnace is to chemically reduce and physically convert iron oxides
into liquid iron called "hot metal". The blast furnace is fed with iron ore, coke and
limestone from the top, and preheated air is blown into the bottom. IT require 6 to 8
hours for the raw materials to descend to the bottom of the furnace where they become
the final product of liquid slag and molten iron (pig iron) as shown in figure 7. These
liquid products are drained from the furnace at regular intervals. The hot air that was
blown into the bottom of the furnace ascends to the top in 6 to 8 seconds after going
through numerous chemical reactions.
There are three methods of making steel:

- The Open Hearth Process
- The Basic Oxygen Process
- The Electric Arc Furnace Process
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Open Hearth Process blast furnace into a Basic Oxygen HO
In the Open Hearth Process, the heat Furnace where the carbon is burnt out ED
required to melt the pig iron and scrap and the impurities are also burnt out or DU
is obtained by burning a mixture of gas removed via slag separation. The only S
and air over the metal. The gas and air is ‘fuel’ added to the Basic Oxygen
preheated to a high temperature in Converter is oxygen.
regenerators.
Lime is added to the charge, in order to
form a basic slag and so remove the
phosphorous which is present in most
pig irons. The slag floats on the surface
of the molten steel and is run off. Carbon
is then added in the form of anthracite
which dissolves in the molten steel.
Finally the molten steel is transferred to
a large ladle which in turn pours the Figure 9, Basic Oxygen Steelmaking
steel into mould to produce ingots each
of several tonnes mass.
The Electric Arc Furnace Process
The heat to melt the charge is produced
by electric arcs struck between carbon
electrodes and the steel. The impurities
are oxidised from the charge by melting
it under a covering of slag which
absorbs the oxidized impurities and
may then be run off by tilting the
furnace. The charge consists of scrap,
iron ore, pig iron and limestone.
Figure 8, Open Hearth Process
Basic Oxygen Process

Pig Iron coming from a Blast Furnace
has a high carbon and impurity content.
To convert it into steel one have to
reduce the carbon content to less than
1,5%. At an integrated steel mill, the
molten pig iron flows directly from the
Figure 10, Electric Arc Furnace
Process
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BOOK 2
NON-FERROUS METALS
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Non Ferrous Metals
This includes all those metals not having an iron (Fe) base. So brass, bronze, aluminium
(Al) aluminium alloys (Al alloys) etc are all non-ferrous. Tables 4 and 5 show some of
the more common non-ferrous metals in use and their alloys.
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Super Alloys
This class of metals is mainly based on nickel and cobalt (Inconal for example) with
strengths up to 1450MPa. They are expensive, difficult to form and machine but meet
the needs for high strength and specific operating conditions. Non-ferrous.
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Aluminium Alloys (Al Alloys) ED
Extracted from bauxite using an electrolytic process and in its pure state is not used DU
much in aircraft construction except as anti-corrosive plating for Al alloys. It is far too S
weak. Aluminium alloys, how-ever, are used extensively.
These are supplied in wrought or cast form and may be heat treatable or non-heat
treatable. Heat treatments are used at user unit level to improve certain qualities inthe
metal.
The British Standards cover:

 BS 1470 to 75 (now incorporated into EN standards) - Wrought
 BS 1490 - Cast
 BSL Series - Aircraft
 DTD Specifications – Aircraft (DTD = Directorate of Technical Development).
 The Four Digit System
Originally based on an American coding system but now accepted world-wide for
wrought alloys. It is based on the main alloying element as follows:
CODE MAIN ALLOYING ELEMENT (WROUGHT ALLOYS)
1xxx None – 99% pure aluminium
2xxx Copper
3xxx Manganese
4xxx Silicone
5xxx Magnesium
6xxx Magnesium & silicon
7xxx Zinc
8xxx Lithium
The first digit indicates the main group, the second digit indicates any modification to
the original alloy and the last two digits indicates the actual alloy in the group or the
impurity level.
Cast alloys have a similar designation but use a 5-digit identification system.
The last 2 digits for 1xxx metals indicate the purity level of the metal.
Example 1: 2xxx and any suffix after the forth digit would indicate, for example:
- 2017- O = Annealed wrought Duralumin.
- T2 = Annealed cast Duralumin.
- T6 = Solution treated and artificially aged Duralumin.
Example 2: 2025-H4 is aluminium copper alloy (2xxx), original alloy (x0xx), 4.5%
copper, 0.6% manganese and 1.5% magnesium (xx24) and strain hardened (H4).
Strain hardening (a form of work hardening) is not used much on Al alloys and to
modify the properties of Al alloys heat treatments are used (where the alloy is heat
treatable).
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7 series alloys have a strength approaching that of steel and are widely used on aircraft. ED
Aluminium-lithium alloys have a 10% lower density (lighter) and are up to 20% DU
stronger than existing Al alloys. (This would make a weight saving on the construction S
of a Boeing B747 for example of about 14,000 lbs (6400kg).
The coding’s are specified in the metal specification which is printed on the metal; on
the packets for rivets; on associated repair drawings; in the repair manuals – SRM –
Standard Repair Manual; EASA stores form 1 etc and details of what they mean are
found in tables published by the standards authority and/or the aircraft manufacturer.
Some Al alloys will increase their strength with time after heat treatment (age
hardening), others require precipitation heat treatment to bring on the process and
some alloys will not age harden at all. (Refer to the section on Heat Treatments in this
book).
This means that some Al alloys require heat treatment before being put into service and
others do not – always check the specification.
Al alloys generally have the following properties:

 Good strength/weight ratio.
 Fatigue limited. Have poor fatigue qualities (see the section in this book ‘Testing
of Metals).
 Notch sensitive (a small scratch is liable to develop into a crack).
 Less corrosion resistant than aluminium.
 Less malleable and ductile than aluminium.
 Good thermal and electrical conductivity (r = 5).
 Up to 8 times stronger than aluminium with little or no increase in
- Weight. (Density = 2800kg/m3, aluminium = 2700kg/m3).
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CHEMICAL ABBREVIATIONS HO
These are used extensively within the industry and while you need not remember them ED
specifically you should have some knowledge of the more commonly used terms eg: DU
Al - Aluminium S
C - Carbon
Cd - Cadmium
Co - Cobalt
Cr - Chromium
Cu - Copper
Fe - Iron
Li - Lithium
Mg - Magnesium
Mn - Manganese
Mo - Molybdenum
N - Nitrogen
Ni - Nickel
0 - Oxygen
Pb - Lead
Sn - Tin
Ti - Titanium
V - Vanadium
W - Tungsten
Zn – Zinc
IDENTIFICATION OF METALS
The CAA specifies that materials used in the manufacture of aircraft parts shall comply
with at least one of the following standards:
 British Standard Aerospace Series (BSAS) Specifications.
 DTD Specifications.
 Specifications approved by the CAA.
 Specifications prepared by an organisation approved by the CAA.
BSAS and DTD specifications make provision for the material to be marked by the
inspector as well as other markings to ensure full identification.
Marking Methods
Materials during manufacture should be marked as soon as possible during their
production run with one or more of the following methods:
a) Metal stamp marking.
b) Markings produced by a die or mould used in the shaping of the metal. For cast
items may be carried out during casting.
c) Marking by rubber stamp, roller, or printing machine. Some sheet metal is
printed ‘all over’.
d) Using a colour scheme.
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The marking should not be easily removed and should not damage the metal. Stamp HO
marking should not be used on: ED
 Stressed parts where the stamp might cause stress concentration. DU
 Thin section metals. S
 Metals of hard surface finish/special surface finish.
 Parts or materials machined to close tolerances.
 Titanium.
Standard Colour Scheme

A widely used system for the identification of metals is the standard colour scheme. The
scheme is additional to any identification requirements laid down in the various
specifications. If the colour scheme has not been applied by the manufacturer then it
should be applied by the operator before the metal is placed in bonded store.
An alternative method to colour coding is overall marking. The metal - usually in sheet
form - is printed all over with the material specification eg, BSL72 (L72). The metal
must, of course, be printable and the metal must not be affected by the print.
The colours may be applied as a band or bands across the corner of sheet metal bearing
the identification stamp. On some sheet metals the bands may be painted near one edge
of the metal and at right angles to it.
Strip material will have the bands painted on one end, or in some cases on both ends.
Some sheet metals have a coloured disc 3" (76mm) diameter painted on them with
additional colours added as concentric rings 1.5" (38mm) wide. For material in coil
form the colours will be marked at intervals.
When removing metal from sheet or bar it is important to cut the metal in such a way as
to leave the identification markings on the original piece and the metal specification and
batch number should be copied on a piece of paper and when certifying the repair in the
aircraft log book these details should be inserted.
Protective Film Treatments

All metals are required by regulation to be capable of storage without deterioration.
This means that if there is any chance of corrosion etc occurring during storage then the
metal must have anti-corrosive treatment sufficient to protect it during the expected
storage life. This means that most metals are required to have an additional protective
film treatment applied as soon as possible after production. This may be a clear film, but
if it is coloured, such as red lanolin resin, then an additional band of black paint is added
to the colour scheme and the protective film is added up to the black band.
Some metals which differ only in surface condition or intended usage but are the same
basic material are given the same colour code. Metals with the same specification but
with different heat treatment conditions or properties have different colour codes.
When the specification number of a material is changed eg, from a DTD number to a BS
number, then the colour code will not be changed unless there is a significant change in
the material itself.
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Colours HO
Current colours used are black, blue, brown, green, red, white, yellow (and violet for ED
aluminium rivets). DU
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Heat Treated Material
Material that is released in a heat-treated state other than that stated in the
specification must be marked in red with the appropriate term to denote the condition.
The Approved Certificate must also be annotated.
Where the metal specification includes a heat treatment the ident code will be followed
by a ‘T’ number (xxxx Tx):
 T1 - Cooled from a high temperature and naturally aged.

 T2 - Cooled from a high temperature, cold worked and naturally aged.
 T3 - Solution treated, cold worked and naturally aged.
 T4 - Solution treated and naturally aged.
 T5 - Same as T1 but artificially aged.
 T6 - Solution treated and artificially aged.
 T7 - Solution treated and over-aged/stabilised.
Examples of the terms used.

a) AS ROLLED - Rolled which would cause some work hardening.
b) ANNEALED - Material in its softest condition. May require some further heat
treatment before being used.
c) NOT AGED - Material solution treated and requires precipitation treatment to
start the ageing process (see the section on heat treatments).
Identification Marking
 The marking should contain the following information:
 The material specification number.
 The inspection stamp (where necessary).
 The manufacturer’s name.
 Batch number (and cast number where appropriate).
 Test report.
General
1. Always use material specification as laid down in the aircraft
maintenance/repair manual (SRM). If the correct material is not available check
the alternative spares/materials list, and if that does not help contact the aircraft
manufacturer.
2. Always positively identify the material from the colour coding /specification
numbers. If in the stores also check specification against the Approved
Certificate/EASA Form 1 and/or other documents from the manufacturers.
3. If the material has to be cut (from sheet or strip) and used in smaller pieces then
always cut from the side/end furthest from the identification markings. This
does not apply to ‘all over marking’ material.
4. If in doubt about the identification of a piece of metal then it is not to be used on
aircraft.
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WORKSHOP TESTS FOR THE IDENTIFICATION OF METALS HO
ED
The following two tables shows practical workshop tests that can be used for the DU
identification of metals and must not to be used for the identification of metals to be S
used on aircraft.
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DU
S
HEAT TREATMENTS
Metals may have their properties changed by alloying. Alloying can give a metal:
 Better anti-corrosive properties.
 Better strength and fatigue resistant properties.
 Better machinability, casting and heat treatable properties.
Heat treatment can also modify the properties of a metal. It normally involves heating
the metal to a specific temperature and then cooling at a specific rate. Heat treatments
can produce the following properties:
 Increase strength.
 Increase hardness.
 Increase softness.
 Increase toughness.
 Increase ‘springiness’.
Some heat treatments can affect the anti-corrosive properties of a metal though they are
not normally heat treated for this reason.
HEAT TREATMENT OF PLAIN CARBON STEELS

QUESTION:
What does ‘plain carbon’ mean? (1 min)
ANSWER:
A steel containing Fe and C only.
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When steel is heated its temperature increases steadily until it is momentarily arrested. ED
At this arrest point heat is still inputted but the temperature is held constant for a short DU
period of time. After this arrest period the temperature of the metal will continue to rise S
as before. Then again another arrest point occurs and the same thing happens – the heat
is still inputted but the temperature is held stationary for a short period of time.
At these arrest or critical points the metal absorbs heat and changes occur in the
structure of the metal, without temperature rise. These critical points are known as the
Lower Critical Point (LCP) and the Upper Critical Point (UCP).
If steels having different carbon contents are heated in this way and the ‘arrest’ points
plotted on a graph, and if all these points are joined-up an Iron Carbon Equilibrium
Diagram is produced (figure 4).
Line AEB of figure 4 represents the Lower Critical Points (LCPs), and line DEC
represents the higher Upper Critical Points (UCPs). For example, looking at the graph,
the LCP and UCP of steel with, say 1.4% carbon is, respectively just under 700°C and just
under 1100°C.
Most of the heat treatments that are carried out on plain carbon steels relate to the LCP
and UCP temperatures on the iron carbon equilibrium diagram.
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Microstructure of Steels HO
When viewed under the microscope the microstructure of plain carbon steel looks like ED
the views shown in figure 5. The ferrite is pure iron (Fe) and cementite is iron carbide DU
(Fe + C). Pearlite gets its name from its pearl-like appearance (under the microscope) S
and is made up of fine plates of cementite and ferrite. When heated to just above the
LCP (line AEB on the graph - about 700°C), the pearlite changes to austenite. The ferrite
and cementite do not change.
When heated to higher than the UCP (line DEC on the graph) the metal goes into what is
called Solid Solution where the whole structure becomes austenite. The main heat
treatments applied to plain carbon steels are:
Hardening. This produces a hard brittle steel. Heat to just above the UCP for steel up to
0.87%C, and just above the LCP for steels with a higher carbon content. Quench in
water. Slower quenching produces tougher (and not so hard) steel.
Tempering. This relieves the brittleness in a hardened steel. Reheat a hardened steel to
between 200 to 300°C and cool or quench. (The cooling rate is not critical). Some steels
are heated to 600°C which produces a high strength steel, tough and with good ductility.
In general, the higher the temperature the less the hardness and the greater the
toughness.
Examples of tempering temperatures:

 Some structural steels 600°C (tough).
 Springs 300°C.
 Drills, taps, and dies 240°C (hard).
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Annealing. This will refine the structure and convert it to its softest possible state. Heat ED
to the same temperature as for hardening but cool as slowly as possible by leaving the DU
part in the ashes or furnace and allowing the furnace to cool naturally. Best done in a S
furnace as the steel may absorb some carbon from the ashes which will increase the
harness of the surface.
Normalising. This process allows the structure to be refined back to its normal
condition after working. When the metal is cold worked internal stresses are set up
which can make it weak and brittle, normalising relieves this condition. The steel is
heated to its annealing temperature and allowed to cool naturally in still air. On low
carbon steel Low Temperature Normalising may be carried out at a temperature of
500°C.
Refining. Prolonged heating above the UCP can cause the grain structure to coarsen (the
grains to get bigger and the structure more brittle), so refining is used which will reduce
the size of the crystalline structure, reduce the brittleness and increase the toughness.
This process is usually carried out on steels that have been case hardened.
Heat to about 900°C and quench. Repeat the process 2 or 3 times but with a lower
temperature each time.
CASE HARDENING
Applied to low carbon steels to produce a hard wearing ‘outer skin’ whilst still retaining
a tough inner core. The process is normally carried out in the following sequence:
1. Carburising (eg introducing extra carbon into the ‘outer skin’ of the metal).
2. Annealing - slow cooling from the carburising temperature.
3. Refining (as described above).
4. Hardening.
5. Tempering - as necessary.
Methods of Carburising
Open Hearth. Heat the part to a cherry red colour then dip in a box of carburising
compound (Kasenite). Repeated 3 or 4 times to give a ‘case’ thickness of about 0.005in
(0.13mm) thick.
Box Process. The parts are packed in Kasenite (a carbon rich compound) in a sealed
metal box and heated to 900°C. Four hours at this temperature produces a case
thickness of 0.040in (1.02mm).
Cyanide Hardening. The part is placed in molten sodium cyanide at 920°C to produce a
case of about 0.010in (0.25mm).
Nitriding. Used on certain alloy steels containing aluminium and chromium called
Nitriding Steels. The parts are heated to 500°C in a box through which is passed
ammonia gas. Produces a case thickness of 0.030in (0.76mm) after 90 hours. The low
temperature and the fact that there is no quenching required means that there is less
likelihood of distortion.
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HEAT TREATMENT OF ALLOY STEELS ED
There is such a wide range of alloy steels that it is difficult, if not impossible in a single DU
book, to describe all the heat treatments that may be carried out. The following table S
attempts to give some idea as to the range of alloy steels and the hardening and
tempering heat treatments. There should be no need to commit any of the details to
memory but read it through to give yourself some idea as to the processes available.
Again, the heat treatment for any specific metal is carried out using an Equilibrium
Diagram which is more complex than the Iron Carbon Equilibrium Diagram shown
above.
Note. Nickel-chrome steels are prone to a defect known as ‘temper brittleness’ when
being tempered through the range 250°C to 400°C. The problem - which is not fully
understood - causes a marked reduction in the toughness of the metal and, to make
things more difficult, can only be revealed by destructive testing of test pieces after the
heat treatment process (test pieces are included with the actual metal for that purpose).
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HEAT TREATMENT OF ALUMINIUM ALLOYS ED
The heat treatments that can be carried out to Al alloys are as follows: DU
a) Homogenisation. Carried out by the manufacturer on castings. S
b) Stoving. Also carried out by the manufacturer to cure coatings.
c) Solution Treatment. Initially makes the metal soft but allows the process of age
hardening to occur.
d) Precipitation Treatment. Carried out after solution treatment and accelerates the
process of hardening (2xxx, 6xxx and 7xxx alloys).
e) Annealing. Makes the metal soft for working (1xxx, 3xxx and 5xxx alloys).
As (a) and (b) are manufacturer’s only we will concentrate on the last three processes.
The heat treatment requires the metal to be heated for a specified time at a specified
temperature then cooling or quenching in a specific way.
IMPORTANT NOT ALL ALUMINIUM ALLOYS CAN BE HEAT TREATED & THOSE THAT
CAN MUST BE HEATED TO SPECIFIC TEMPERATURES WITHIN SPECIFIC TOLERANCES.
TO HEAT TREAT A PARTICULAR AL ALLOY REFERENCE MUST ALWAYS BE MADE TO
THE APPROPRIATE SPECIFICATION/PROCESS DOCUMENTS.
Example: To heat treat L72 refer to British Standards BSL72. It will specify treatments,
temperatures, and cooling methods. For example, Solution Heat Treat to 495°C ± 5°C.
The soaking time* will be specified as well as the quenching process.
Note the temperatures here are quite specific, with most ferrous metals, temperatures
may be approximate to 30° or so.
Soaking time = time in the oven.
Solution Treatment
NOTE. The term has nothing to do with putting the metal into a salt bath or any other
type of solution for that matter - other than for cooling/quenching purposes. It is
concerned with the process of making the copper go into solution with the aluminium.
This will soften the metal (but not by much) for a short period of time, but more
importantly it will allow the metal to age harden - with an increase in strength. The
metal is heated to a specific temperature usually within the range 460°C to 540°C for a
period of time then quenched in cold or boiling water.
Rivets so treated must be formed (used) within 2 hours of treatment (as they start to
age harden). They will attain their design strength in 2 to 4 days (see graph). Sheet
metals can be lightly fabricated/bent within this period.
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DU
S
Precipitation Treatment
This process, where specified, will greatly accelerate the rate of age hardening. The
metal may attain its design strength within 2 to 20 hours. After precipitation the
strength of the metal is greater than if it is allowed to age harden naturally (figure 6).
Precipitation heat treatment temperatures are low, usually within the range 100°C to
200°C and soaking times may be up to 20 hours. Cooling may be by quenching in cold
water or cooling in still air.
Annealing
This permanently softens the metal for working (unless heat treated further). In many
cases it also makes the metal more prone to corrosion.
In general, the metal is heated to a specific temperature within the range 360°C to
420°C and after the soaking time, allowed to cool in still air.
Refrigeration
This slows down the process of age hardening. The metal is refrigerated immediately
after solution treatment. For example, rivets can be solution treated at the workshops
and taken over straight away to where the work is being carried out at the aircraft, then
put into a cold storage cabinet next to where the work is being carried out. The rivets
can then be taken out in small quantities as and when required.
Rivets removed from the cabinet must be used within 2 hours. Storage time will depend
on temperature eg, minus 20°C the storage time is up to 150 hours.
It is common in the industry to use a domestic freezer.
Doing it this way means that when doing a big repair, a large quantity of rivets can be
heat treated in the heat treatment shop, which may be the other side of the airfield.
The rivets can then be put in the freezer close to where the work is being carried out
and used, 2 hours’ worth, at a time.
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QUESTION: ED
If a rivet has to be heat treated, can you work out what sort of heat treatment would be DU
carried out? (10 mins). S
ANSWER:
Let’s analyse the wrong answers first. We cannot heat treat rivets that have already
been formed. Made up parts, riveted plates etc, must not be heat treated because they
will warp due to contraction/expansion. This means we cannot anneal the rivet so as to
make it soft for working as it would be required to solution treated after forming - and
that's not possible. If we precipitated the rivet, it would make it too hard to form.
So the only treatment we can carry out – if allowed by the specification - is solution
treatment. And the rivet must be used within 2 hours - or put in a refrigerator straight
away. It must be used within 2 hours of removal from the refrigerator.
Soaking Times
This is the time the part is kept in the over at the specified temperature. In general the
larger the part the longer the soaking time - but do not over soak. Examples:
 26SWG sheet (0.18” 0.0457mm thick) 10 mins
 Rivets 15 mins
 16SWG sheet (0.64” 0.163mm thick) 25 mins
Quenching
Always quench or cool in accordance with the specification. The quenching methods
listed below start with the fastest method first. Most cooling/quenching for aluminium
alloys are items 2 or 5.
a. Brine (salt water). Wash thoroughly afterwards.
b. Cold water (not warmer than 20°C).
c. Hot water.
d. Oil.
e. Still air.
f. Warm oven.
Methods of Heating
a) Thermostatically controlled electrically heated oven.
b) Air heated furnace.
c) Salt baths. These use salts that melt at high temperatures and have
significant safety issues attached to their operation. Not recommended for
the treatment of Al alloys but are used for Fe metals.
Limitations on Heat Treatments

Clad aluminium alloy sheet should not be heat treated more than 3 times. Riveted up,
bolted, and joined sections should not be heat treated. Only heat-treated Al alloys where
it is laid down in the specification for that metal.
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Precautions Before/After Salt Bath Use HO
It is most important that parts treated in a salt bath should be thoroughly cleaned after ED
treatment (the salts are highly corrosive). The parts should also be thoroughly cleaned DU
prior to putting in a salt bath because dirt/oil on the part can cause a violent reaction S
with the molten salts (effectively a small explosion). If splashed with molten salts wash
off immediately and seek medical advice. Salts can be very hot (up to 600°C) and will
cause severe burns.
Also, parts quenched in brine must be thoroughly washed and dried as brine is very
corrosive.
Rivets
These are usually placed in a wire basket for treatment. If any treatment is allowed for a
specific rivet type it will be solution treatment.
Identification of Heat-Treated Metal

Immediately after the material has been heat-treated, it should be marked with the
appropriate symbol denoting the treatment to which it has been subjected. Rivets
should be put in a bag and labelled.
There are two identification systems in general use in the UK ie, that recommended in
British Standards 1470 to 1477 and that recommended in SP4089.
Identification System BS 1470 – 1477
Withdrawn in 1993 but may be found in old stock and some letters are still used. The
suffix letter added to the designation number means:
F As fabricated.
H Non heat treatable alloy that has been cold worked (or strain hardened).
M Material in the ‘as-manufactured’ condition.
O Material in the annealed condition.
OD Material which has been annealed and lightly drawn.
P Material which has been precipitation-treated only.
T Material which has been solution-treated and requires no precipitation
treatment.
W Material which has been solution-treated.
WD Material which has been drawn after solution treatment.
WP Material which has been solution-treated and precipitation treated.
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BS1470 (UK standard) replaced by BSEN (European standard) 485, 515 and 573 and HO
heat treatment designations are: ED
T1 Cooled from a high temperature shaping process and naturally aged. DU
T2 Cooled from a high temperature shaping process, cold worked and naturally S
aged.
T3 Solution heat treated cold worked and naturally aged hardened.
T4 Solution heat treated and naturally aged hardened.
T5 Cooled from a high temperature shaping process and artificially aged.
T6 Solution treated and artificially aged hardened.
T7 Solution treated and over-aged/stabilised.
Work Hardening
The non-heat treatable range of Al alloys can have their properties changed (improved)
by cold working (done at the manufacturers). Cold rolling is a typical example where
the metal is rolled several times to improve its stiffness and tensile strength.
Identification of work hardening uses the letters O, F or H followed by one or more

digits:
H1X Work hardened.

H2X Work hardened and annealed.
H3X Work hardened and stabilised by low temperature heat treatment.
H4X Work hardened and stoved.
HX2 Quarter hard.
HX4 Half hard.
HX6 Three quarter hard.
HX8 Full hard.
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USW Aircraft Maintenance Engineering Training BLI

AEROSPACE MATERIALS &

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Aircraft Maintenance Engineering

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Figure 1, Various Metals

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Bending stress is a combination of compression and tension. Compression on the inside

Figure 2, Stress Type

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Fracture Toughness and Crack Growth.

Corrosion and Embrittlement.

Corrosion and embrittlement influence the selection of aircraft materials. As strength

Availability and Reducibility Cost

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Materials may react to changes in temperature by softening, expanding, contracting,

Material Cost and Fabrication Characteristics

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• Metallic Materials: containing metal.

` Figure 4, Material Types

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Material Properties Groups

Elasticity strength per square millimetre of cross

Ductility Tensile Strength (sigma σ) = Force /

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Resistivity Chemical Properties

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BRITTLENESS STRESS CAST

STRENGTH RESISTIVITY WROUGHT

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Figure 6, Metal Groups

Ferrous (Fe) Metals

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Figure 7, Blast Furnace

There are three methods of making steel:

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Figure 8, Open Hearth Process

Basic Oxygen Process

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The British Standards cover:

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Al alloys generally have the following properties:

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Standard Colour Scheme

Protective Film Treatments

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 T1 - Cooled from a high temperature and naturally aged.

Examples of the terms used.

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