Module – 2 Organizational Creativity

The Creative Process

Although innovation is often seen as a simple logical process, in reality it occurs through cycles of divergent creative thinking,
which throws up many potential alternatives, followed by convergence to a selected solution.
The process of creativity can be broken into five steps (Hesselbein and Johnston, 2002):

1. Preparation: Creativity springs from deep wells of expertise. Research shows that most creative people have a
towering command of a given discipline. Often such expertise comes about after serious study and experience. To develop such
depth often requires 10 years plus of experience. However, creative groups also need beginners, mid-levels, and newcomers to
the field who bring a fresh perspective and ask good questions.
The Creative Process

2.Innovation opportunity:
To be creative, in any field, requires as a starting point a focus of attention.
Without a ‘problem’ no direction is given to the creative effort and so it remains
idle, i.e. expertise must be applied to real-world problems and opportunities.
Interestingly, this throws up perhaps what is the most critical challenge:
defining the problem or area of opportunity on which to focus creative energies.
The Creative Process

3. Divergence:
This part of the process is concerned with coming up with new ideas and
solutions. This is the most dynamic and social phase of the creative process.
Arriving at a ‘good’ solution requires first having a wide range of
alternatives. Such choice can only spring from a breadth and diversity within
the group itself: a diversity of working, thinking styles, professional and
personal experiences, education and culture
Ex: Brainstorming is the most well-known problem-solving strategy
associated with divergent thinking.
The Creative Process
4. Incubation: Time and space is needed to reflect on solutions or considerations that may not be immediately apparent. It is
no good just accepting the first solution that comes by.
5. Convergence: Once a rich and diverse group of ‘ideas or solutions’ has been assembled, the next step is to select one or a
few from amongst them. The process of selection involves convergence to the single or few ideas that are to be taken further.
Unless this is well managed, the most vibrant and innovative ideas may be lost.
Ex: Scientific experiments are great examples of convergent thinking. Scientists conduct experiments to find the best possible
answer to a problem. Experiments also follow a logical sequence of events and compare unknowns to proven scientific facts.

Another Ex: Solving an algebraic equation that has one correct answer is
an example of convergent thinking. Composing music and writing creative
lyrics to the music shows divergent thinking.
Divergence and Convergence
Attribute theory
Attribution theory focuses on explaining our behaviors and
actions. This theory focuses on questions such as, "Does a person
react in a certain way based only on what's inside their psyche or
also on environmental factors?"
Ex: Is shouting, anger, laughing, or crying a reaction based on
internal or external factors?
Attribution theory of psychology is an umbrella field covering
many categories such as attribution theory in organizations,
politics, and everyday life.
Factors Affecting Attribution
Attribution theory focuses on three important factors or attributes to define a personality;
Locus of control,
Stability, and
Controllability.

Locus of Control
Locus of control has both external and internal factors. It emphasizes whether a person thinks that the reasons for success or
failure are based on external circumstances or personal attributes.

Example of a student who is studying for a test. Internal factors in this example would be the time the
student spent studying and the student's efforts into studying. The internal control factor can be
measured by the effort and time the student puts forth in the task. But what about external factors? A
great example of an external factor is the idea of luck playing a part in the outcome of the test results.
I passed my test because I am lucky." (external)
"I can achieve my goals through my hard work." (Internal)
The protagonist is asked by a merchant how he can offer anything to
the world if he has discarded all of his possessions. Siddhartha tells
the merchant that, "Everyone gives what he has," and the merchant
replies, "Very well, and what can you give? What have you learned that
you can give?”
"I can think, I can wait, I can fast," Siddhartha says.
Stability
Next is the stability (changeable/stable) attribute that focuses on
changing the sources of success or failure. Continuing with our
example of the student who is preparing for a test, the abilities and
difficulties of this task are considered to be stable. But how are
ability and difficulty stable or changeable factors?
According to Attribution Theory (2021), students who understand
that ability changes with effort quickly learn that durability is
excellent motivation to push forward and persist. Let's say that the
student failed the test.
Controllability
The last of the three attributes is controllability (not
controllable/controllable). This attribute focuses on another
question, "Can we change and control the circumstances and
behaviors or are these entirely out of our control?“
In the case of our student, the task's difficulty level and the student's
abilities are considered not controllable. The amount of effort
needed for studying is the only controllable factor.
In Brief
Locus of control has both external and internal factors. Its focus
is on whether a person thinks that the reasons for success or failure
are based on external circumstances or personal attributes.
The stability (changeable/stable) attribute focuses on changing
the sources of success or failure.
Controllability (not controllable/controllable) focuses on another
question, "Can we change and control the circumstances and
behaviors or are these entirely out of our control?"
Theories for Organizational Creativity
Behavioral Theory
1. Osborn's Brainstorming: Alex Osborn introduced brainstorming as a method
to encourage creative thinking in groups. It emphasizes the generation of a
large quantity of ideas without criticism, which can lead to innovative
solutions.
2. Guilford's Divergent Thinking: J.P. Guilford proposed the idea of divergent
thinking, which involves generating multiple solutions or ideas from a single
starting point. This approach encourages exploring various possibilities to
solve a problem.
3. Amabile's Componential Theory: Teresa Amabile's theory suggests that
creativity is influenced by three components: domain-relevant skills, creativity-
relevant processes, and intrinsic task motivation. She emphasizes the
importance of intrinsic motivation in fostering creativity.
Divergent and Convergent Thinking
Divergent and Convergent Thinking: Creativity often involves both
divergent thinking (generating many possible solutions) and convergent
thinking (selecting the best solution). The interplay between these two types
of thinking is central to creativity.
Assembly corresponds to the microprocess of divergent thinking, in which
ideas are assembled and mixed together. In contrast, convergent thinking
makes it possible to focus on a single idea (Guilford, 1950).
This mode of thinking allows individuals to find the one and only solution to
a problem. The generation of ideas that have not yet been checked and
assessed corresponds to ideation (Carson, 1999).
 Differences
1. Divergent thinking encourages the exploration of multiple creative possibilities
without early judgment or constraint. It's like casting a wide net to catch as many
ideas as possible.
2. Divergent thinking is expansive and inclusive.
3. Divergent thinking often leads to the generation of raw, unfiltered ideas
2. Convergent thinking involves critically evaluating and selecting the best idea or
solution from the pool of possibilities. It's the process of filtering, refining, and
focusing on the most suitable option for a particular context or problem.
2. Convergent thinking is selective and evaluative.
3. Convergent thinking guides the refinement and selection of the most promising ones.
Amabile's Componential Model of Creativity:
Teresa Amabile's model suggests that
creativity results from the interaction of
three components: domain-relevant
skills, creativity-relevant skills, and task
motivation.
Amabile proposed a componential
model for creativity in 1983, which was
updated in 1996 [24]. This model has
three components: task motivation,
domain-relevant skills, and creativity-
relevant processes.
Task motivation reflects a person’s
reasons for working on a task, which
includes interactions of intrinsic and
extrinsic motivation. Domain-relevant
skills are a person’s knowledge about
the task, their skills, and their talents
Creativity-Relevant Processes: It includes skills like problem identification, idea
generation, and solution evaluation. These processes can be influenced by factors such
as divergent thinking and associative thinking.
Intrinsic motivation refers to engaging in an activity or task because it is inherently
rewarding, enjoyable, or personally fulfilling. It is driven by internal factors such as
passion, curiosity, or a sense of accomplishment.
Example: An individual who loves painting and spends hours creating art purely for
the joy of self-expression and creativity is intrinsically motivated. The act of
painting itself is the reward.
Extrinsic motivation involves engaging in an activity or task for external rewards or
incentives, such as money, recognition, or praise. Individuals are motivated by external
factors rather than personal enjoyment or fulfilment.
Example: A salesperson who works hard to achieve a monthly bonus is
extrinsically motivated. The primary driver for their effort is the financial reward
they will receive for meeting their sales targets.
 Componential Model of Creativity
The Componential Model of Creativity suggests three components interact and influence one another. Creativity is at its peak
when an individual possesses expertise in a domain, employs creativity-relevant processes effectively, and is intrinsically
motivated to engage in creative tasks. This model has been widely used to study creativity in various fields, including art,
science, business, and education.
This model also includes five phases of the creative process, which don’t necessarily occur in this order, and which may
occur more than once:
1) Problem or Task Identification,

2) Preparation,

3) Response generation,

4) Response validation and communication,

5) Outcome
Process Theory
The Creative Process Model: This model typically consists of stages like
preparation, incubation, illumination, and verification. It suggests that
creativity involves a sequence of mental activities.

This is a systematic Procedure used to discover original ideas and reorganize

existing concepts in new ways
The creative process is defined as a succession of thoughts and actions
leading to original and appropriate productions (Lubart, 2001; Lubart et al.,
2015). The creative process may be described at two levels: a macro level,
featuring the stages of the creative process, and a micro level, which explains
the mechanisms underlying the creative process, e.g., divergent thinking or
convergent thinking (Botella et al., 2016).
Wallas Four Stage Model
Cognitive Theory
Creative
Brainstorming
Techniques
Alex Osborn developed the traditional brainstorming technique in the 1960s. It is a technique that introduces an element of
structure to free association. The technique is traditionally used to help groups of 6–12 people free associate ideas suggested
by a problem statement. A facilitator or recorder commonly stands at a board or flip chart and records ideas as group members
verbalise ideas in their raw form, as quickly as they occur.
Activities here include:
1. Identify the appropriate team to conduct the brainstorming session.
2. Convene the team and clarify the topic and ground rules.
3. Generate ideas.
4. Clarify the ideas and conclude the brainstorming session.
 Exploratory brainstorming/benchmarking
Exploratory Brainstorming: Exploratory brainstorming is a creative process where individuals or teams
generate a wide range of ideas and concepts, often without immediate judgment. It is used to spark
creativity and explore new possibilities.

Example: A software development team engages in exploratory brainstorming to generate

innovative features for their next software release. During a brainstorming session, team
members come up with various ideas for user interface design, functionality enhancements,
and user experience improvements, without immediately filtering or evaluating them.
Benchmarking: Benchmarking involves comparing an organization's processes, products, or
performance metrics to those of industry leaders or competitors. It helps identify areas for improvement
and best practices to adopt.

Example: A manufacturing company benchmarking its production processes against industry

leaders to enhance efficiency. By studying how competitors optimize their production lines, the
company can identify strategies to reduce costs, minimize waste, and increase overall
productivity.
 Exploratory brainstorming/benchmarking

This is usefully applied during the early stages of any project or process. Unlike traditional benchmarking, exploratory
benchmarking is attuned to seeking novel approaches to a subject.
You gather a hodgepodge of real-world examples, not all of which necessarily relate to your subject matter, and then
find out just enough information about them to get the gist of what they are about or how they work.
It is a quick sweeping process. The product of exploratory benchmarking is an eccentric collection of designs or other
ideas that may or may not be directly relevant to your subject but are certainly inspirational as you seek new approaches
to the subject.
This method is used to help groups explore complex problems or projects. It uses the free-association rules of
brainstorming to generate as many sub-problems as possible.
Start by displaying and reading a formal statement of the problem to the group. Then point out that the problem
statements tend to be fairly abstract and can often be broken down into sub-problems, or component parts.
The product of breakdown brainstorming is a lengthy list of sub-problems. Some of these will be very helpful in
formulating creative solutions to the main problem because they will surface aspects of the problem or suggest
components of the solution that were not visible to the group when it tackled the problem on a higher level. Individuals
can also use the method.
 Electronic Brainstorming/E-Brainstorming or Online
Brainstorming
In addition to the above, many creativity techniques have been enhanced by electronic and Internet media. I t is
a collaborative idea-generation process facilitated by digital tools and technology. This has increased the range
of connectivity and sources of inspiration.

Example: A software development team located in different countries uses an online collaboration
platform to conduct an electronic brainstorming session. Team members log in simultaneously, and
they are presented with a virtual whiteboard where they can post and discuss ideas for a new software
feature. The online platform allows for simultaneous contributions and real-time interaction, enabling
the team to generate creative ideas and refine them collectively, even though they are not physically
present in the same location.
Two techniques that are particularly amenable to this are the billboard and the chain letter.
Chain letter
This is used to get a large quantity of possible solutions outside of a formal meeting. In the chain letter, team
members generate and pass ideas around via memo or e-mail.

Example: In an educational setting, a teacher initiates a chain letter-style brainstorming. The first
student responds to a writing prompt, sends their response to the next student, and so on. Each student
adds to the story, building upon the ideas of their predecessors.
The steps in this approach are as follows:
Electronic Brainstorming

1. Define your brainstorm objective.

2. Establish a medium and distribution method (paper or electronic, fax, internal mail, e-mail, etc., what’s the order of routing and
set a time frame for response).
3. First round, each person writes one or two ideas (then passes the letter on).
4. Next person builds on and/or adds to the ideas.
Billboard
This technique is used to gather ideas from a broader range of people, in a non-meeting format. The billboard is a public
brainstorming tool – manual or electronic.

Example: In a virtual marketing brainstorming session, the central idea on the digital "billboard" is "Promote our new
product launch." Team members post ideas for promotional strategies, such as social media campaigns, influencer
partnerships, and email marketing.
The steps in this approach are as follows:
1. Define your brainstorming objective.
2. Post a message in a public place asking for ideas (and include the objective) – using
A flip chart, intranet, etc.
3. Gather ideas at the end of a specified time frame, and narrow and select from them.
4. Remember to thank the people for contributing.
 Anti-Solution
The Anti-Solution technique is a creative brainstorming approach where participants
intentionally generate ideas that are the opposite of the desired solution, often leading to
innovative and unexpected insights.
This technique is used to open mindsets to see things differently and from different
perspectives. Here, individuals are asked to brainstorm the opposite of what needs to be
accomplished.
1. Define your brainstorming objective.
2. Create a new objective, opposite to the ‘real’ one.
3. Brainstorm based on the ‘anti’ objective (have fun and be wild).
4. Examine each ‘anti’ idea and see what positive idea it suggests.
5. Record the positive ideas and add to them as much as possible.
For example, how about an anti-ageing cream that puts wrinkles on you, makes your skin
sag, and leaves your skin greasy and smelly?
 Free association and creative association
Idea association is one of the most basic building blocks of individual and group creativity. Yet, oddly
enough, there is no specific discussion of it in the traditional creativity literature. Perhaps the best-known
technique for idea association is free association, a rudiment of the Freudian psychoanalytical method.
Most people are familiar with the exercise in which a person is given a word and responds with the first
thought that pops into their mind; this is free association in its most basic form. Free association is a
valuable aid for creative thinking since it helps people make connections they otherwise might not see.
In Free Association, participants spontaneously contribute words, phrases, or ideas related to a central topic
without filtering or judging. It encourages a flow of creative thinking.

Example: In a brainstorming session for a new ice cream flavour, participants call out words like
"summer," "beach," "pineapple," and "coconut" without any restrictions, creating a pool of related
concepts to inspire flavour ideas.
Creative Association Technique: Creative association prompts participants to link seemingly unrelated
concepts to find innovative connections and ideas. It encourages thinking beyond conventional boundaries.

Example: In a design brainstorming for a furniture collection, participants connect "space travel"
with "chairs." This association might lead to futuristic chair designs inspired by spacecraft
aesthetics.
 Word Associations and Analogies
Word Associations Technique: Word associations involve participants responding with
words or phrases related to a given term. It's a simple way to trigger creative thinking and
generate ideas.

Example: In a branding brainstorming session for a tech company, the term

"innovation" might prompt word associations like "cutting-edge," "revolutionary,"
"disruption," and “technology."
Analogies Technique: Analogies draw parallels between two unrelated concepts to inspire
new ideas. Participants identify similarities and apply them to the problem at hand.

Example: Marketing Campaign: Problem: Creating a memorable marketing campaign

for a new eco-friendly cleaning product.
Analogy: Draw an analogy between the cleaning product and a superhero. Develop a
campaign that positions the product as an environmental superhero, fighting against
dirt and grime to save the planet. Use superhero imagery and slogans to convey its
power and environmental benefits.
 Difference - Free Association, Creative Association and Word Associations

Free Association: Involves spontaneously sharing words or ideas related to a central topic
without restriction. the assumption is to have free-flowing, uncensored talking. It is a
technique of exploring the unconscious mind by having the person relax and say whatever
comes to mind no matter how trivial or embarrassing.

Example: In a brainstorming session for a new book title, participants call out words
like "adventure," "journey," and "mystery" related to the story's themes.
Creative Association: Encourages linking seemingly unrelated concepts to find innovative
connections and ideas.

Example: In a brainstorming session for a marketing campaign, participants associate

"hot air balloon" with "elevation," inspiring an advertising concept centred on
reaching new heights.
Word Association: Involves responding with words or phrases related to a given term to
stimulate creative thinking. It is a common word game involving an exchange of words that
are associated together.

Example: In a brainstorming session for a restaurant's branding, the term "comfort"

 Incubation methods
Incubation methods refer to techniques or processes used to nurture and develop creative
ideas over time, allowing them to mature and evolve.

Example: In a corporate setting, an "idea incubator" is established where employees

can submit innovative ideas. The best ideas are selected, and a dedicated team is
assigned to work on them over several months, conducting research, prototyping, and
testing. This incubation process allows ideas to develop into fully-fledged projects.
Cyclical creativity
It is a creative process that involves repeating phases of idea generation, evaluation, and
refinement. It allows for continuous improvement and innovation through iterative cycles.

Example: In product design, a team uses cyclical creativity by creating prototypes,

gathering user feedback, refining the design, and repeating this cycle multiple times.
Each iteration leads to an improved product until the final version is ready for
production.
Incubation methods
Incubation is the idea development that occurs when you sit on a
problem for a while. The extraordinary value of this building block is
well expressed by Bertrand Russell (1930, pp. 49–50):
Cyclical creativity
Cyclical creativity is a tool that helps teams incubate ideas. To
prevent interruptions, it involves fewer but longer work sessions,
usually offsite or under ‘lockdown’ orders. These intensive sessions
are punctuated by several-day breaks, during which team members
incubate ideas associated with a given problem
Mapping methods
Mind mapping is a visual technique that involves creating a diagram to represent ideas, concepts, or information in a
hierarchical and interconnected format, often radiating from a central topic or concept.
Examples:
Project Planning: Use a mind map to plan a project, starting with the project's main goal in the centre and branching out
into subtasks, resources, and timelines.
Creative Writing: Writers can use mind maps to organize plot ideas, character traits, and key events for a novel, helping
to structure the storyline.
Studying for Exams: Students can create mind maps to condense and visualize key information from their notes,
making it easier to understand and remember complex topics.
Mapping methods
Mapping methods are used to graphically break down a broad goal or problem into increasing levels of detail to better
understand the existing knowledge about it
Mind mapping

This allows a team or individual to generate an enormous number of ideas by branching each idea into
many more detailed ideas. The ideas in each branch can either be loosely or tightly connected with the
‘limb’ from which it grew. To create a mind map follow these steps:
1. Write the topic (or draw a picture that represents it) in the centre or extreme side of a sizeable piece
of paper.
2. Brainstorm ideas around the topic. For each major idea, draw a line directly from the main topic.
3. For each new idea, decide whether it is a new theme or a variation on an existing idea. Record ideas
on the lines as they are generated.
4. Continue thinking, drawing and recording until the ideas (of the people involved) are exhausted.
Mind Mapping
Morphological box
This is used to map out all the combinations of potential solutions that address the essential parts of a problem.
It helps to identify all parts of the problem that must be addressed to reach a successful solution.
It builds a table that helps to display options for solving each essential part of the problem and allows the team to evaluate
several solutions at one time
To do this:
1. Assemble a knowledgeable team.
2. Define the parameters that are necessary for any solution to the
problem (a parameter being a characteristic that a solution must
possess in order for it to be effective). Good parameters must be
independent from other parameters, and create a complete
solution when combined with other parameters.
3. Generate options for each parameter.
4. Build alternative solutions by linking different options.
5. Analyse the alternative solutions and select the best ones
TRIZ: a structured methodology for creative problem solving
TRIZ is the Russian acronym for the "Theory of Inventive Problem Solving," an international system of creativity
developed in the U.S.S.R. between 1946 and 1985, by engineer and scientist Genrich S. Altshuller and his colleagues.
Pattern 1. Subtraction: In developing new products there is a tendency always to add features. The principle of subtraction
works in reverse. Instead it takes away features from the product to look for developmental insight. For instance, caffeine from
coffee leads to caffeine-free. Similarly, the principle can be used for other foods.

Pattern 2. Multiplication: This pattern requires adding a copy of an already existing component, but doing so in a way that
alters the copy in some fundamental way. Perhaps the easiest example of this is adding an extra blade to a shaving razor.
Pattern 3. Division: This principle operates by breaking the product down into its component parts, and then re-configuring it
in some anticipated way. Let us use the old TV example again, for illustration. Imagine it is an old TV, say from 20 years ago. It
has a screen, a base, on–off buttons, electronic circuits, etc.
Pattern 4. Task unification: This principle sets the task of embedding a task or function into an existing element or
component of the product. The most common example of this is embedding a car radio antennae function into the defrosting
filament on the windscreen.
Pattern 5. Attribute dependency: This focusses on the relationship of the products and its attributes to its immediate
environment. For example, in a car the pedals could be designed specifically in relation to its user (male or female). Let us
say the attribute relationship is to be made with a female: the pedals are set in a way that allows higher heels and accounts for
smaller foot-span. Or the relationship could be in terms of seat and height of individuals, thus leading to a seat that raises or
lowers and expands or reduces leg-space.