Chapter II

THEORITICAL FRAMEWORK

In this chapter, the writer describes some theories related to the study. The
theories focus on general concept of Writing and Cooperative Learning Methods.

A. Supporting Theories
1. Writing
a. A definition of writing
Writing is one of the four language skill where the other three
are listening, speaking, and reading (Harmer, 2004). Among the
four language skills, writing is the most difficult skill for second or
foreign learners to master, Richards and Renandya (2002: 303).
Because writing is considered as a complex process of putting
ideas down on paper to transform thoughts in words, Brown (2001:
336). And he also states that writing can be planned and given with
an unlimited numbered of revisions before it release. When
someone want to write something, actually there are some stages
or process to get a good writing.
Meanwhile writing is the mental work of inventing ideas,
thinking how about to express an idea, thinking how about to
express them, and organizing them into statement and paragraph
that will be clear to reader (Nunan (2003:98)).

Writing contains creative inspiration, problem-solving,

reflection and revision in a completed manuscript. From a
student’s opinion, writing is not a thing of exhausting.
Writing success is used multifarious purposes at school level.
Providing assistance to the students inside and outside the
classroom, awarding a grade, selection of students for appropriate
 courses, evaluation of programs are considered important aspects
of assessment in writing skill. The process of assessment of
written literacy should be well organized and well managed to
make it transparent and meaningful
Furthermore, Churchill and friends (2010:1) say the definition
of writing as follows : a) The act of forming letters and characters
on paper, wood, stone, or other material, for the purpose of
recording the ideas which characters and words express, or
communication them by visible signs; b) Anything written or
printed; c) Anything expression in characters or letters; any legal
instrument, as a dead, a receipt, a bond, an agreement, or the like;
d) Any written composition
In addition, Gillet (2009) says, ‘’Writing is one of the main
ways that human beings communicate: it is a social practice’’. It
can be explained that writing is used in human’s life for daily
social purpose, such as writing letters, composing e-mails, making
recipes, sending invitation, etc. thus, people are able to
communicate among one another through written text.

b. Genre of writing
Genre describe the norms of different kinds of writing
( Harmer (2009: 327)). There are many kinds of text and it has
their communicative meaning. There is four types of text says
Kemper ( 1994: 62), as follows :
1). Descriptive
Descriptive text is some of text with a purpose to give
information, to define a person, things, place, animal, etc. it should
be clear to make reader easy to explain the description given on
 their minds. There is a types of descriptive : comparison,
descriptive sentence.
2). Narration
Narration types of discourse gives the readers a sense of
seeing a certain a situation. It narrates the story or a certain event
to the readers. The narrative has four types : folklore/folktale,
legend, myth, fable, and a short story.
3). Persuasive
Persuasive text is a text where the main purpose is to
present a point of view and attempts to persuade a reader. There is
a type of persuasive : opinion text, discussion.
4). Expository
Expository text is fact-based to reveal the truth through a
reliable source. There is a type of expository text : new articles,
textbooks, direction, reports.

c. Proses of writing
The writing proses is divide into four step according to Harmer
( 2005: 4-6 ): Planning, drafting, editing, and final draft.
1. Planning
In planning enables you to ‘’test’’ your topic . part of the
planning process is designed to generate ideas and during this
part of the process. You can determine your topic and
approach.
2. Drafting
In this part, you can create your ideas and are ready to
begin the first draft, but do not expect it to b your final draft.
An essay get stronger as the drafting process continues. As
 the essay develops, the writer also get more advanced in the
process and its outcome in the writing.
3. Revising ( re-drafting)
In this part of the writing process which involves assessing
what has al ready been written and is an important source of
learning (Hedge, 2005).
4. Final draft
It is a final session in the writing process. In this part, you
must check your draft when you have corrected all errors
including grammar, punctuation, and spelling you can write
your final draft.

d. The scoring of writing

Composition for scoring writing (Jacobs et al. 1980)

Table 2.1 the scoring of writing

Categories Explanation Score

Content Excellent to Very Good: 30-27

knowledgeable, substantive, thorough
development of ideas, relevant to assigned
topic
Good to Average: 26-22
some knowledge of subject, adequate range,
limited development of ideas, mostly relevant
to topic, but lacks detail
 Fair to Poor: 21-17
limited knowledge of subject, little substance,
inadequate development of ideas
Very Poor: 16-13
does not show knowledge of subject, non
substantive,
not pertinent, or not enough to evaluate
Organization Excellent to Very Good: 20-18
fluent expression, ideas clearly
stated/supported, succinct, well-organized,
logical sequencing, cohesive
Good to Average: 17-14
somewhat choppy, loosely organized but
main ideas stand out, limited support, logical
but incomplete sequencing
Fair to Poor: 13-10
non-fluent, ideas confused or disconnected
lacks logical sequencing and development
Very Poor: 9-7
does not communicate, no organization, not
enough to evaluate
Vocabulary Excellent to Very Good: 20-18
sophisticated range, effective word/idiom
choice and usage, word form mastery,
appropriate register
Good to Average: 17-14
adequate range, occasional errors of
word/idiom form, choice, usage but meaning
 not obscured
Fair to Poor: 13-10
limited range, frequent errors of word/idiom,
choice, usage, meaning confused or obscured
Very Poor: 9-7
essentially translation, little knowledge of
English vocabulary
Language Use Excellent to Very Good: 25-22
effective complex constructions, few errors of
agreement, tense, number, word
order/function, articles, pronouns, preposition
Good to Average: 21-18
effective but simple construction, minor
problems in complex constructions, several
errors of agreement, tense, number, word
order/function, articles, pronouns, preposition
but meaning seldom obscured
Fair to Poor:
major problems in simple/complex
17-11

constructions, frequent errors of negation,

agreement, tense, number, word
order/function, articles, pronouns, preposition
and/or fragment, run-ons, deletions, meaning
confused or obscured.

Very Poor: 10-5

 virtually no mastery of sentence construction
rules, dominated by errors, does not
communicate, or not enough to evaluate
Mechanics Excellent to Very Good: 5
demonstrate mastery of convention, few
errors of spelling, punctuation, capitalization,
paragraphing
Good to Average: 4
occasional errors of spelling, punctuation,
capitalization, paragraphing but meaning
obscured
Fair to Poor: 3
frequent errors of spelling, punctuation,
capitalization, paragraphing poor,
handwriting, meaning confused or obscured
Very Poor: 2
no mastery of conventions, dominated by
errors of spelling, punctuation, capitalization,
paragraphing, handwriting illegible, or not
enough to evaluate

2. Number Heads Together

Number head together adalah suatu model pembelajaran yang
lebih mengedepankan kepada aktivitas siswa dalam mencari,
mengolah, dan melaporkan informasi dari berbagai sumber yang
akhirnya dipresentasikan di suatu kelas (Rahayu, 2006). Number head
together (NHT) pertama kali dikenalkan oleh Spencer Kagan dkk
(1993). Model NHT adalah bagian dari model pembelajaran kooperatif
structural, yang menekankan pada strukttur-struktur khusus yang
dirancang untuk mempengaruhi pola interaksi siswa.
Struktur Kagan menghendaki agar para siswa bekerja saling
bergantung pada kelompok – kelompok kecil secara kooperatif.
Struktur tersebut dikembangkan sebagai bahan alternative dari struktur
kelas tradisional seperti mengacungkan tangan terlebih dahulu untuk
kemudian ditunjuk oleh guru untuk menjawab pertanyaan yang telah
dilontarkan. Suasana seperti ini menimbulkan kegaduhan dalam kelas,
karena para siswa saling berebut dalam mendapatkan kesempatan
untuk menjawab pertanyaan peneliti (Tryana, 2008).
Menurut Kagan (2007) model pembelajaran NHT ini secara
tidak langsung melatih siswa untuk berbagi informasi, mendengarkan
dengan cermat serta berbicara dengan penuh perhitungan, sehingga
siswa lebih produktif dalam pembelajaran.secara sederhana dapat
dijelaskan bahwa langkah-langkah yang dapat dilakukan dalam
melaksanakan model pembelajaran ini adalah :
- Siswa dibagi dalam beberapa kelompok dan masing-
masing siswa dalam setiap kelompok mendapatkan nomor
urut.
- Guru memberikan tugas dan masing-masing kelompok
mengerjakan permasalahan.
- Kelompok memutuskan jawaban yang dianggap paling
benar dan memastikan setiap anggota kelompok
mengetahui jawaban ini.
- Guru memanggil salah satu nomor dan siswa yang
bernomor tersebut melaporkan hasil kerja kelompok .
- Tanggapan dari teman yang lain, kemudian guru menunjuk
nomor yang lain.
 - Paling akhir yaitu kesimpulan.

Setiap model dan metode yang kita pilih, tentu memiliki kekurangan
dan kelebihan. Salah satu kekurangan dari metode ini ialah kelas
menjadi cenderung lebih ramai, dan jika guru tidak dapat
mengkondisikan dengan baik, keramaian itu dapat menjadi tidak
terkendali, sehingga mengganggu proses belajar mengajar.

Kelebihan metode NHT ini setiap siswa menjadi siap semua dan dapat
melakukan diskusi mengajari siswa yang kurang pandai.