Topic 4

Human nutrition
Human biology june 2023
4HB
20/ 11/2022
Part 1
Biological molecules

Dr. Nihal Gabr

Macromolecules Molecules with large molecular mass

Carbohydrates Proteins Lipids

Elements C, H,O C, H,O ,N C, H,O

Building unit Monosaccharides Amino acids Fatty acids and glycerol

Ex glucose \( 20 different types of

Glycerol
amino acids 0
Tn
3 fatty acids
Importance
Main source of energy from respiration For growth and tissue repair Source of stored energy
where this energy is needed for : For formation of protein molecules Thermal insulation
1. Muscle contraction such as : .

Electrical insulation
2. Cell division Enzymes Protect vital organs
3. Active transport Antibodies C, H, O Part of cell membrane
N
Haemoglobin
Excess stored as glycogen in Part of cell membrane Excess stored as fatty layer.
liver and muscles Under the skin ..+ accumulate
Fibrinogen
on walls of arteries
Some hormones such insulin
Excess amino acids deamination
 Atheroma

= Clot

Consequences of excess fat intake

1. Excess SATURATED fat in take …..where fat will accumulate on walls of arteries ( coronary artery )
2. Narrowing of coronary arteries and wall lose their elasticity
3. Forming ATHEROMA ( harden plaque)

4. Increase in blood pressure

5. Decrease in blood flow to HERAT MUSCLE …less oxygen and glucose to heart muscle …so cant respire
aerobically ….so respire anaerobically … producing lactic acid ……….

6. Increase risk of clotting / thrombosis

So blood supply to heart muscle stop …leading to heart attack / death of heart muscle
 Vitamins

Focus on effect of deficiency :

1. Vitamin C : in citrus fruits
Help in the formation of collagen in skin and blood vessels
1. Strengthen walls of blood vessels
2. Keep teeth and gum healthy,
3. Protect cells from aging
Deficiency : scurvy ( bleeding gum, tooth starts to fall ) , poor healing of wounds

2.vitamin A : source carrots , milk, code liver oil, butter

Make light sensitive chemicals in retina of eye …strengthen eye sight
Deficiency : night blindness , damaged cornea

3. Vitamin D : source sun, fish liver oil , egg yolk

Importance is helping in absorption of calcium in bones and teeth to strengthen bones and teeth
Deficiency : in children rickets , in adults fragile. Bones and muscle cramps

Minerals Calcium : building strong / hard bones and teeth …

maintain density of bones …form compact bone
1.Iron : making haemoglobin
Deficiency rickets in children
Deficiency anaemia ( pale skin, shortness of breath / fatigue) Fragile bone ( osteoporosis )
Fibres
Stimulate perstalsis of smooth muscles
To prevent constipation and bowel cancer

Waves of contraction and relaxation of circular and longitudinal muscles ,

working antagonistic to each other in the small intestine , large intestine
and oesophagus .
Contraction of the circular muscles behind the bolus / food responsible
for squeezing the food down the alimentary canal
Proteins

Deficiency :
kwashiorkor , poor growth , less tissue repair
Less antibodies ( antibodies are protein molecules ) so more liable for infection . . Weaken immune
system
Less haemoglobin .. less oxygen transport … anaemia

Correlation Causation

Indirect Direct

Smoking , excess fat intake , lack of Atheroma cause increase in blood

exercise , stress pressure
Risk factors
Increase risk of….
 Food test Blue color I
DCPIP of known
disappears

¥
1. Test for vitamin C concentration

→
¥¥ ,
Blue color remains =
I

1. ADD DCPIP of known concentration 1% in a graduated pipette

2. Add DCPIP drop by drop to the unknown sample of vitamin C Sample of juice of
3. Shake gently with each drop ….blue color turns colorless unknown vitamin c

4. Keep titrating using DCPIP till the blue color persist / remains CONC .

5. Measure the volume of DCPIP used

6. Compare to standard solution of known vitamin C concentration .
÷ DCPIP of known
concentration
Example : standard vitamin solution 1% ( 0.01gm)
Reliable : repeat and calculate I
Upon titration with DCPIP 1% ……volume 4.3 cm3 of DCPIP
average
Solid food sample : extraction of E
vitamin C by crushing and then Results of unknown ….1.9 cm3 of DCPIP
add water. I
Standard ……..4.3 cm3 DCPIP…………0.01
Unknown ……..1.9 cm3 DCPIP……………X
Vitamin C soln of
X ( concentration of Vitamin C of unknown sample ) = 0.0441 gm . known concentration
0.01 gm
2. Benedict’s test Test for reducing sugars …..glucose , maltose …90% of questions are
qualitative ( testing presence or absence of reducing sugars ) .

1. Prepare sample …….take a specific volume of ……..in a test tube ) boiling tube )
'
-

2. Add Benedict’s solution

3. Heat using a boiling water bath
4. Observe colour change ( if blue turns into brick red then reducing sugars are
present , if remains blue so no reducing sugars ) .
Red Orange Yellow Green Blue

ROYGBIV
Read
90 % he doesnt ask about Read
Quantitative 1. The faster the change in color to brick red , the
Comparing the concentration of higher the concentration of reducing sugars
reducing sugars in different 2. Mass of brick red ptt
samples
3.Buiret test for proteins

1. Prepare a sample ( liquid form )

2. Add biuret ( blue colour )
UU
3. If the colour change from blue to purple then proteins are present and if remains
blue so absence of proteins .

4.Iodine solution for starch

Sample solid / liquid + iodine solution

+VE If colour changes from yellow brown to blue black then starch is present
-ve

5.Ethanol emulsion test

Id solid ( crush) + then add ethanol ….mix gently

Then add water …if white emulsion formed on top of water ..fat is present
If solution remains clear no fat .
 7. Allow the burning food sample to heat up water for specific time interval

:\
Solid food sample

At same distance

Clamp and stand

Repeat 3 more times at each / for each food sample to take average and reduce error and
exclude anomalies
where the closer the results the more reliable they are
Why use same volume of water
Constant variable that affect the result .
Where larger volume of water will take longer time to be heated up , more heat would be needed to raise
the temperature
So it should be controlled to have valid comparison

Why food sample to be of same mass

Larger mass of food will release more heat energy showing a greater increase in temperature.
So it should be kept contatnt to have fair test and valid comparison

Mention Effect of changing a controlled

variable on results if not controlled

To make sure results are reliable

Repeat 3 more times and take average , to be to exclude anomalies .
By repeating ..where the closer the results the more reliable they are
26/11/2022
Balanced diet
Digestion
Ileum adaption
teeth
Balanced diet

Daily intake of all nutrients , in correct amount to supply the energy needed for growth and development
according to age , gender, physical activity .

Female : larger fat to muscle ratio, male larger More calcium : bone development of
foetus+ strengthen bone of pregnant
muscle to fat ratio, where fats uses less energy .
woman .
Muscles need more energy Decrease risk of osteoporosis.
 Ways to measure obesity
1, BMI
Doesn’t take into consideration the difference
between muscles and fat .

2. Better use the waist to hip ratio

Males > 0.9
Female > 0.85
This indicates they are obese .

Mass in kg
Body mass index : BMI =
(Height m)
Steps of digestion

Ingestion ……taking in food through MOUTH

Digestion….break down of insoluble molecules to small soluble ones to be easily absorbed into blood
Absorption : movement of digested food molecules through walls of small intestine into blood
Assimilation ……movement of digested food molecules into the cell and becoming part of the cell
Example
Glucose ……………..in glycogen
Amino acids ………………………protein molecules
Egestion ……………removal of undigested food in form of faeces through anus

Types of digestion
Mechanical digestion Chemical digestion
Breaking down large food Chemical digestion break down of large
pieces into smaller ones without insoluble molecules into small soluble
chemical change with no ones by ENZYMES to be absorbed
enzymes for larger surface area into BLOOD
for ENZYMEs tO ACT ON Lipase
Carbohydrase Protease

Amylase and maltase Pepsin and trypsin

Oesophagus
 PH =7
Mouth A) mechanical digestion …..teeth and tongue
A B) chemical SALIVA contain AMYLASE ( carbohydrase )
Food moves down the Produced from salivary gland
Oesophagus by
peristalsis

PH =2
A) mechanical …..churning action of the stomach muscular walls
Stomach
B) chemical GASTRIC juice contain Pepsin ( protease ) , HCL
P
Produced by pits in the stomach walls

A PH =8/9 A) mechanical digestion …emulsification of fats using BILE JUICe

P Duodenum
B) chemical PANCREATIC ……contain APL ( amylase , protease
L
is trypsin and lipase)

PH = 8/9
Maltase Ileum A) chemical digestion ….enzymes on the small intestinal
Peptidase walls maltase, peptidase , lipase .
Lipase B) absorption ……adaptation of villi
 APL
Amylase
Lipase
Mouth
Small intestine Small intestine
Pepsin Trypsin

Stomach Duodenum( small

intestine )

A Mouth Amylase

P Stomach Pepsin

APL Small intestine Amylase , trypsin , lipase

 Mouth A) mechanical
Teeth : chewing and grinding the food for increasing surface area for AMYlase to act on for
faster chemical digestion
Oesophagus by peristalsis

Tongue : mix the food with the saliva

B) chemical Digestion:
SALIVA ….mucus ( lubricant , protect lining of alimentary canal from being digested by digestive

i enzymes )
Water ( act as a solvent / hydrolysis / medium for enzymatic activity / soften the food )
Amylase ( catalyse break down of starch into maltose )

Stomach A) mechanical …churning action of the stomach muscular walls which contract and relax to help
mix the food with ACID

B) chemical digestion
GASTRIC JUICE …..( mucus + water )
Chyme

……HCL provide optimum pH for protease ( pepsin)+ kills the bacteria by

denaturing the enzymes
…….pepsin ( protease ) that catalyse the break down of proteins into peptides
 A) mechanical digestion
Duodenum
By bile juice which contains
A) bile salts emulsify fats into smaller droplets increasing surface area for lipase to act on
So faster chemical digestion of lipids into fatty acids and glycerol

B) hydrogen bicarbonate ..alkali that neutratlise the acid coming from the stomach
providing optimum pH for trypsin ( protease) and lipase enzymes

B) chemical digestion :
By PANCREATIC JUICE >>>>>APL
Amylase
Protease ( TRYPSIN) …cataylse break down of proteins into peptides / amino acids .
LIPase

Ileum A) chemical digestion ….enzymes on the small intestinal walls maltase, peptidase , lipase
Maltase catalyse break down of maltose into glucose
Peptidase cataylse break down of peptides into amino acids
Lipase cataylse break down of fats into fatty acids and glycerol .
B) absorption ……adaptation of villi
 Sum up ( read)

Juice Site of production Site of action PH Enzymes

Saliva Salivary glands Mouth 7 Amylase

Gastric Pits in Walls of Stomach 2 Pepsin

stomach

Bile Liver and stored in Small intestine 8/9

gall bladder ( duodenum)

Pancreatic Pancreas Duodenum 8/9 Amylase / trypsin /

lipase
 Goblet cells Enzymes on walls of small intestine
1B Goblet cells Maltase
Secrete mucus to protect inner lining of alimentary Peptidase
1 canal from digestive enzymes Lipase
Epithelium

Walls of villi is one cell thick / ⑧

epithelium which is one layer of cells
…shorter diffusion distance for 2
faster absorption Capillaries
Allow continuous blood flow to
maintain steep concentration
gradient between ileum and blood

8
….so soluble digested food
molecules such as amino acids
and glucose are absorbed into

1.A blood in capillaries .

3
Microvilli
Lacteal
Microvilli to increase surface area ….so more molecules can diffuse
at the same time ..so faster rate of absorption of digested food Transport fatty acids ( water

molecules into blood by diffusion or active transport insoluble ) to lymphatic system

With large number of mitochondria

To produce ATP for getting energy for active transport
Function of small intestine
Its about 5m long with large surface area
Giving enough time for food to be digested and absorbed
Its the site where most of the water is absorbed

Function of duodenum Important

Site of emulsification of fats +
Neutralisation of acid coming from the stomach ….so increase pH to 8/9
Receive pancreatic juice ……contains APL enzymes

Role of liver
Deamination of excess amino acids producing urea
Excess glucose stored as glycogen
Old red blood cells break it down producing bile pigments excreted in faeces
 Teeth

Je Cutting and bitting

Holding and tearing

Crushing and chewing

Teeth : 16 teeth in each jaw of
total 32
Upper jaw ……fixed
Crushing and grinding the
Lower jaw is movable
food
 Dentine , is less hared than enamel …( calcium salts )

Made of calcium salts

Can be dissolved by acids produced by
bacteria , that feeds on sugary food .

Pulp / pulp cavity

A) contain blood vessels ….to supply cytoplasm

in dentine with nutrients and oxygen
B) nerves …for pain detection and sensation

Cement
Gum Cover the junction between enamel and cement

Cover the root

Has collagen fibres growing out of cement to provide strength
For attachment of tooth to jaw + allow tooth to move slightly
while biting and chewing food .
Tooth decay

1. Particles of food containing sugars/ sugar remains

trapped in CRACKS in teeth / CERVICES of teeth
( grooves )

2. Bacteria in plaque will respire ( anaerobically ) and

break down sugar , releasing acid

3. Acid dissolve the enamel and then expose dentine

Acid dissolve dentine more rapidly then reach PULP
CAVITY reaching nerves so sever toothache .

Cervices / cracks /
j grooves
ju
Saliva + food remains +
bacteria = palque
Milk teeth

Start growing teeth frowm early months

By the time they reach around 21 to 22 months
…20 teeth …..no wisdom teeth / no larger
molars

Permenant teeth

From around 7 years , milk teeth pushed out by

permanent teeth .
Molar teeth have higher perecnatge of tooth decay

1. Many cusps and larger surface area Bristles

2. So more food trapped on CERvices of teeth

3. So formation of plaque
4. So more bacteria break down sugars
5. Producing more acid
6. Dissolve enamel
7. Besides harder for the tooth brush bristles to reach the molars
which are found at the very back of the jaw

Keeping your teeth healthy

1. Less sugary food

2. Regular visit to dentist
3. Use fluoride tooth paste to strengthen enamel
4. Regular brushing to your teeth……..to remove food remain , remove bacteria so less acid formed so lowering
chance of dissolving the enamel , plus helps remove the plaque before hardening forming tartar
5. Use tooth brush with small head that allow bristles to reach cervices between teeth or better use electronic
tooth brush to have times cycle for brushing
Check list :

1. Elements of each macromolecule

2. Importance of each macromolecule
3. Building unit of each macromolecules
4. Effect of excess fat intake ( important ) …atheroma
5. Mal nutrition ……deficiency of
Protein …..kwashiorkor , some protein molecules ( anti-bodies / haemoglobin )
Calcium ..rickets / osteoporosis
Vitamin c ….scurvy , bleeding gum
Vitamin A……night blindness
Iron ……anaemia
Vitamin D …..muscle cramps + same as calcium
6. Take care smoking , stress, high salt and fat , lack of excretes increase risk ( NOT CAUSE ) heart disease
7. Food test
A) DCPIP vitamin C …..titrant DCPIP ….end point remain blue
Titrant vitamin C ….end point colorless
B) benedict’s ….sample preparation …add reagent …..heat …mention color change
C) buiret ……..protein
D) ethanol emulsion test for fat

8. Experiment energy content …study all + 2 questions

9. Peristalsis
Definition
Effect of deficiency of fibres

10. Energy needed map ……protein for child vs old / carbohydrates male vs female / pregnant woman ..energy ,
protein , calcium .
11. Calculation of BMI

12. Digestion
Juices , and their site of production and site of action
Adaptation of ileum …very important

13. Teeth
Milk teeth vs permanent teeth
How to keep ur teeth healthy
Why molars at highe risk of experiencing tooth decay
Steps of tooth decay
 Independent Results

Controlled variables .
ble .

Controlled variable
Dependent

r
Temp in C
0
Time in S

ab
35 lG
40
iha
55
.N
Dr

Iodine solution.

077
 reliable
reproducible .

✗ gr-epe.at
another
→
repeated
person by same person

the similar results

more
reliable /
reproduce
Repeat several times -
ble
.

r
And compare the results ey

ab
The similar the results are , the more reliable they are .
lG
iha
1. Judging the time for the reaction to end using color change is
subjective
.N

Explain : time might be longer or shorter than actual time taken

2. Incorrect measurement of volume of starch / volume of
Dr

amylase enzyme
Explain : larger substrate concentration so will take longer time to
be digested .
Explain : faster rate of enzyme catalysed reaction so shorter time
for color change .
3. No equilibration for each solution ( starch and amylase ) at the
experimental temperature before mixing them together
Explain : so slower rate of reaction / starting exp at lower
temperature so slower rate of reaction , so taking a longer time for
mixture to lose the color . 078
17 Sample assessment 2 2019 Paper 2

r
ab
lG
iha
.N
Dr

079
 r
ab
:
Destruction of villi
lG
Less surface area
Les absorption of digested food molecules
Such as less glucose and lack of energy
iha
Less enzymes available for digestion .
So slowerv rate of digestion
.N

So nutrients remain large in size so cant pass through

small intestinal wall
Dr

I Less iron absorbed from small intestine

Into blood
Where iron is needed for making haemoglobin
Less haemoglobin made ..
And less oxygen transported/ carried to body cells

080
18 June 2019 Paper 2

r
ab
lG
Molar
iha
.N

X
Dr

081
 93
15 93-42=51
12 81-29=52

01

r
ab
42
lG Highest % was
is
observed for both in
iha
1983 / least was
observed in 2013
.N

I 15 years ild children always show a higher percentage of tooth decay

Dr

over the 12 years children

By time , both show a decrease in % of tooth decay .
12 years old children showed an over all greater decrease in % of tooth decay.

Less sugary food intake / regular visits to dentist / floss of teeth

more regularly / more regular brushing of teeth / fluoride tooth
paste .

082
19 June 2019 Paper 2

r
ab
lG
iha
.N
Dr

083
 toe .

] ve

r
-

ab
lG
Three
iha

Distilled water was contaminated with food samples containing

.N

protein / test tubes were not washed before use ..

Dr

Clear up the broken pieces using a dustpan and a brush

…keep them away from the edge of the bench

Wear goggles / wash hands with water after

use

084
20 Jan 2020 Paper 2

r
ab
lG
iha
.N
Dr

Adult has wisdom teeth while young children

don't have .

Adult has penchant teeth cos children

have milk teeth .

3 .
Adat has large teeth us children have smaller
ones .

085
 r
ab
lG
iha
.N
Dr

have crevices that trap food .

Many cusp with larger S. A to trap more food .

hard For tooth bush bristles to

reach Chach of jaw) .

086
 9 January 2013 Paper 1

r
ab
lG
Independent Get two different types of food , one rich in proteins and the other rich in
iha
carbohydrates
Constant variables Both food samples should be of same mass Repeat three
.N

Methodology Get two test tubes of same volume of water more times for
Measure initial temperature of water each food
Dr

And add solid sample of food in a mounted needle sample

pies
" Allow them to catch fire using a bunsen burner

÷¥÷ Allow them to haet up the water

Making sure that they are kept at same distance from boiling teact
s
tubes
Time interval
Allow the burning food samples to heat up the water for 5 mins
Dependent Measure the final temperature
And the greater the increase in temperature , the higher the energy content of
food sample . 113
21 January 2016 Paper 1

r
ab
lG
iha
.N
Dr

①More mass will release more energy so show a higher increase in

temperature.
① Increase in volume of water needs more heat energy so take a longer
time to increase in temperature.
① To have fair test and valid comparison .

Foody [ 29-20=904 .

126
 ① Contain higher energy content / more carbohydrates/ more fats.
① May be it has larger mass.
① The burning food sample was closer to the test tube containing water so
more heat directed to water.

① Prepare sample by crushing and grinding the food sample and add water
to make a solution.

r
① Add to the sample , benedict’s solution

ab
① Heat using a boiling water bath
If colour changes from blue to brick red then reducing sugars are
lG
① { present.
But if blue colour of benedict’s remain so no reducing sugars.
iha

goggles .
.N

tongs .
Dr

127
23 June 2015 Paper 1

r
ab
lG
iha
.N
Dr

130
 Dr
.N

131
iha
lG
ab
r
Butter has the highest energy content
As its a high source of fat .
Fat is source of stored energy …high energy content

Broccoli and orange are fruits and vegetables which are rich in fibres that are undigetable
with least amount of carbohydrates so they have low energy content.

Bread has a moderate energy content as its a source of carbohydrates, where

carbohydrates contain energy

r
Chicken has proteins which upon deamination of excess amino acids , the carbohydrate

ab
part can be stored as glycogen which is a source of energy
lG
Higher muscle to fat ration
Higher metabolic rate
iha
More active / more physical activity
.N
Dr

132
28 January 2017 Paper 1

r
Qualitative

ab
lG
i
5°C jfoo Brick red colour will
appear ..same results …
iha

2 2 I
?m longer time…
concentration of sugar
.N

2 I 2 lower

2 2 I
Dr

Concentration of maltose will

v
remain same ……after 30 mins

Mouth

138
 Blue black

20 mins

Salivary amylase is an enzyme

That catalyse the break down of starch in to glucose/ maltose
Starch broken by amylase in saliva

r
ab
lG
Repeat the same experiment with boiled enzyme / saliva
iha

Use of saliva
.N

Where saliva may have many pathogens so this might increase

risk of disease transmission. …such as influenza and TB
Dr

139
 Starch broken down by salivary amylase into glucose / maltose
Maltose is a reducing sugar

r
ab
lG
Body temperature
Optimum temperature for maximum enzymatic activity
iha
.N

Will take a longer time for iodine solution to stop turning into blue black as
Dr

the enzyme will work slower at lower temperature so slower break down of
starch

same results observed after 30.mins

As same concentration of maltose will be present

140
31 January 2018 Paper 1

r
ab
lG
iha
Small intestine
Maltase enzyme present
PH =8
.N

Partially permeable membrane

Dr

145
 r
ab
lG
iha
.N

①Visking tubing has Has no blood supply vs alimentary canal has

Dr

①No villi vs villi present in alimentary canal

① Not surrounded by muscles so no peristalsis vs peristalsis occurs in
alimentary canal
① No enzymes produced vs enzymes produced
① Smaller surface area vs alimentary canal has larger surface area

146
 January 2019 Paper 1

÷
34

É
§
r
ab
lG
iha
.N
Dr

149
 735×2

Ñ -
072
84×2
399
'
r
294-1273
8h

r
ab
lG
3360
iha
.N
Dr

Not suitable ..as no enough energy provided for neither person X nor Y
X is more active than Y so needed more energy input than 11000KJ
So this meal provides less energy to person Y by 3.3 times less
So they will feel tired and some fatigue .

150