1. Which of the following can be used as a lubricant and why?

A
(A) Graphite powders, because of secondary bonding between graphene layers
(B) Carbon fibers, because they are cylinders acting like wheels
(C) Carbon dioxide, because it is a gas
(D) Diamond particles, because they are very hard
1.以下哪项可以用作润滑剂，为什么？

（A）石墨粉，由于石墨烯层之间的二次键合

（B）碳纤维，因为它们是像轮子一样的圆柱体

（C）二氧化碳，因为它是一种气体

（D）金刚石颗粒，因为它们非常坚硬

2. Which of the following is an amorphous material? D

(A) Quartz 错 (B) Bronze
(C) Iron (D) PMMA
以下哪项是无定形材料？ D
（A） 石英 （B） 青铜
（C） 铁 （D） PMMA
include rubber, plastic, and gels. Glass is a very important amorphous solid that is made by cooling

a mixture of materials in such a way that it does not crystallize. 包括橡胶、塑料和凝胶。玻璃是

一种非常重要的无定形固体，它是通过以不结晶的方式冷却材料混合物使其不结晶而制成的。

Poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA) is a particularly hard and transparent amorphous thermoplastic

polymer that is commonly used as an alternative to glass in optical product manufacturing.

聚甲基丙烯酸甲酯 (PMMA) 是一种特别坚硬且透明的无定形热塑性聚合物，通常用作光学

产品制造中玻璃的替代品。

3. What mechanical property of a material can be related to wear resistance? D

(A) Toughness (B) Plasticity
(C) Ductility (D) Hardness
材料的哪些机械性能与耐磨性有关？ D

（A） 韧性 （B） 塑性

（C） 延展性 （D） 硬度

4. Which of the following is not an attribute of ceramics? B

(A) Covalent bonding (B) Low melting point
(C) High hardness (D) Ionic bonding
4. 以下哪项不是陶瓷的属性？

（A） 共价键 （B） 低熔点

（C） 高硬度 （D） 离子键合

high hardness, high melting points, low thermal expansion, and good chemical resistance,
陶瓷的离子键和共价键使这些材料具有许多独特的特性，例如高硬度、高熔点、低热膨胀和

良好的耐化学性

5. Which of the following can be heated on a stove? D

(A) Carbon fiber reinforced polymers (B) Glass
(C) Magnesium alloy 错 (D) Glass-ceramics

5. 以下哪项可以在炉子上加热？ D
（A） 碳纤维增强聚合物 （B） 玻璃
（C） 镁合金 （D） 微晶玻璃

6. Bronze (alloy of copper and tin) is an example of A .

(A) Substitutional solid solution (B) Interstitial solid solution

(C) Intermetallic compounds (D) None of the above
.青铜（铜和锡的合金）是 A 的一个例子。
（A） 替代固溶体 （B） 间隙固溶体
（C） 金属间化合物 （D） 以上都不是
Substitutional solid solution strengthening occurs when the solute atom is large enough that it can
replace solvent atoms in their lattice positions.
Brass (alloy of copper and zinc) is an example of Substitutional solid solution.
当溶质原子大到足以取代其晶格位置中的溶剂原子时，就会发生替代固溶强化。
黄铜（铜和锌的合金）是置换固溶体的一个例子。
不锈钢是间隙合金和替代合金组合的一个例子，因为碳原子适合间隙，但一些铁原子被镍和
铬原子取代。
Tungseten carbide is an example of interstitial solid solution 碳化钨是间隙固溶体的一个例子

7. Which of the following determines the melting temperature of a polymer (e.g., nylon)? C
(A) Covalent bonding 错 (B) Ionic bonding
(C) Hydrogen bonding (D) Metallic bonding
以下哪项决定了聚合物（例如尼龙）的熔融温度？ C

（A） 共价键 （B） 离子键

（C） 氢键 （D） 金属键合

The melting temperature of a polymer is in part determined by the total strength of secondary
binding. Use your knowledge of chemical structure to predict which polymer has a higher melting
temperature: PP or PAN?
聚合物的熔化温度部分取决于二次结合的总强度。使用您的化学结构知识来预测哪种聚合物
具有更高的熔化温度：PP 还是 PAN？
Secondary binding in polymers: 聚合物中的二次结合：
Secondary binding in polymers are due to intermolecular forces of attraction. For example:
聚合物中的二次结合是由于分子间的吸引力。例如：
1. Hydrogen bonding 2. Dipole moment 3. London dispersion forces1.氢键 2.偶极矩 3.伦敦色散
力
These forces give extra stability to the polymer molecule and help in increasing its strength.
这些力为聚合物分子提供了额外的稳定性，并有助于增加其强度

8. Which of the following attributes is the reason that pure metals are generally not used in
engineering applications? A
(A) Softness (B) Brittleness
(C) Corrosion resistance (D) Luster
.以下哪些属性是纯金属一般不用于工程应用的原因？ 一个
（A） 柔软度 （B） 脆性
（C） 耐腐蚀性 （D） 光泽
Pure metals are soft and ductile, which is not ideal for most engineering applications. Therefore,
alloys are used to fulfill the requirements. This explains why pure gold is mixed with impurities to

make ornaments 纯金属柔软且具有延展性，这对于大多数工程应用来说并不理想。因此，使

用合金来满足要求。这就解释了为什么纯金要掺入杂质来制作饰品。

9. What is meant by ductility? A

(A) Metals can be drawn into wires
(B) Metals undergo elastic deformation under tensile loads
(C) Metals undergo plastic deformation under tensile loads 有点想选 c
(D) All of the above
延展性是什么意思？ 一个
（A） 金属可以被拉成电线
（B）金属在拉伸载荷作用下发生弹性变形
（C）金属在拉伸载荷作用下发生塑性变形
（D） 以上所有内容
The property of metal by which it can be drawn into wires is called ductility. Ductility is when a

solid material stretches under tensile stress. 金属可以拉成线的特性称为延展性。延展性是指固

体材料在拉伸应力下伸展。

10. Which of the following is a characteristic of quartz? D

(A) Poor wear resistance (B) Good toughness
(C) Good tensile strength (D) Excellent hardness
以下哪项是石英的特征？ D
（A）耐磨性差（B）韧性好
（C） 良好的抗拉强度 （D） 优异的硬度
Quartz is one of the hardest naturally occurring minerals and hence can not be corroded easily. It

has a very high melting point and can withstand critically high temperatures 石英是最坚硬的天然

矿物之一，因此不易被腐蚀。它具有非常高的熔点，可以承受极高的温度

11. Which of the following is the prime constitute of high-carbon steels? B

(A) Carbon (B) Iron
(C) Chromium (D) Nickel
以下哪项是高碳钢的主要构成？ B
（a） 碳 （b） 铁
（C） 铬 （D） 镍
it consists of 0.5% to 1.0% carbon and about 0.4% manganese, with the remaining materials being

mainly iron. 一般含 0.5%～1.0%的碳和 0.4%左右的锰，其余材料主要是铁

12. Which of the following has only one type of interatomic bonding? B
(A) Polyethylene (PE) (B) Sodium chloride (NaCl) 离子键
(C) Graphite (D) Water 共价键 氢键

以下哪项只有一种原子间键？ B

（a） 聚乙烯 （二） 氯化钠

（C） 石墨 （D） 水

Hydrogen Bonding 氢键

Hydrogen bonding can take place when the polymer molecule contains -OH or -NH groups.
Hydrogen bonding is the strongest of the intermolecular forces. Polymers such as poly(vinyl

alcohol) and polyamides are hydrogen bonded. 当聚合物分子包含 -OH 或 -NH 基团时，会发生

氢键。氢键是分子间作用力中最强的。聚（乙烯醇）和聚酰胺等聚合物是氢键结合的。
Polyethylene, one of the simplest polymer structures, has a repeating mer of two covalently bonded
carbon atoms having two hydrogen atoms each. The bonding between chains, however, is weak van

der Waals type. 聚乙烯是最简单的聚合物结构之一，具有两个共价键合的碳原子的重复基体，

每个碳原子具有两个氢原子。然而，链之间的结合是弱范德华力型的

Graphite has a giant covalent structure in which: each carbon atom is joined to three other carbon
atoms by covalent bonds. the carbon atoms form layers with a hexagonal arrangement of atoms. the

layers have weak forces between them.石墨具有巨大的共价结构，其中：每个碳原子通过共价

键与其他三个碳原子相连。碳原子形成具有六边形原子排列的层。这些层之间的力很弱。

Van der Waals forces 范德华力

In graphite, each carbon is bonded to three other carbons to form a flat sheets of carbon lattices
which are form layers. These layers, called graphene, are attracted to each other through Van der
Waals forces, a type of intermolecular force. Graphite is brittle because these intermolecular forces

are relatively weak.在石墨中，每个碳都与其他三个碳键合，形成一层扁平的碳晶格，这些碳

晶格是层状的。这些层称为石墨烯，通过范德华力（一种分子间力）相互吸引。石墨很脆，

因为这些分子间作用力相对较弱。

13. Al-Li alloys have higher strength than pure Al because mainly of B .
(A) Strain hardening (B) Precipitation hardening
(C) Grain size refinement (D) None of the above
Al-Li 合金比纯 Al 具有更高的强度，因为主要是 B.

（A） 应变硬化 （B） 沉淀硬化

（三）粒度细化 （四）以上都不是
Strain hardening is a process to promote the metal harder and stronger due to plastic deformation.
The dislocations are generated when plastic deformation occurs in the metal. The dislocations will

interact and become pinned or tangled 应变硬化是促使金属因塑性变形而变硬变强的过程。当

金属发生塑性变形时会产生位错。位错将相互作用并变得固定或缠结

什么是应变硬化的例子？
those which grow stronger with strain (strain harden)—for example, the copper-zinc alloy, brass,
used for cartridges and the aluminum-magnesium alloys in beverage cans, which exhibit greater

strain hardening than do pure copper or aluminum, respectively.那些随着应变（应变硬化）而变

强的材料——例如，用于墨盒的铜锌合金、黄铜和饮料罐中的铝镁合金，它们分别比纯铜或

纯铝表现出更大的应变硬化
Precipitation hardening is the hardening of a material due to the growth of precipitates that impede
dislocation motion. Basically, this process involves heating a mixture to a high temperature, then
cooling, then heating to a medium temperature, and finally cooling again.
沉淀硬化是由于阻碍位错运动的沉淀物的生长而导致的材料硬化。基本上，这个过程包括将

混合物加热到高温，然后冷却，然后加热到中等温度，最后再次冷却。
Precipitation hardening, also called age hardening or particle hardening, is a heat treatment
technique used to increase the yield strength of malleable materials, including most structural alloys
of aluminium, magnesium, nickel, titanium, and some steels, stainless steels, and duplex stainless
steel. In superalloys, it is known to cause yield strength anomaly providing excellent high-
temperature strength.
Precipitation hardening relies on changes in solid solubility with temperature to produce fine
particles of an impurity phase, which impede the movement of dislocations, or defects in a crystal's
lattice. Since dislocations are often the dominant carriers of plasticity, this serves to harden the
material.
沉淀硬化，也称为时效硬化或颗粒硬化，是一种用于提高可锻材料屈服强度的热处理技术，

包括大多数铝、镁、镍、钛结构合金，以及一些钢、不锈钢和双相不锈钢。 . 在高温合金中，

众所周知会导致屈服强度异常，从而提供出色的高温强度。

沉淀硬化依赖于固溶度随温度的变化来产生杂质相的细颗粒，这会阻碍位错或晶体晶格中的

缺陷的移动。由于位错通常是塑性的主要载体，这有助于使材料硬化。杂质在颗粒增强复合

材料中起着与颗粒物质相同的作用。

可以沉淀强化的合金包括 Al-Cu、Al-Mg-Si、Cu-Be 和 17-8 PH 钢

Grain refinement reduces grain size during the solidification phase of metal casting. The process
strengthens cast alloys and improves their mechanical properties, including strength, hardness and
elasticity. Refinement can also enhance surface finishes and improves tear resistance.
在金属铸造的凝固阶段，晶粒细化减小了晶粒尺寸。该工艺强化了铸造合金并提高了它们的

机械性能，包括强度、硬度和弹性。细化还可以增强表面光洁度并提高抗撕裂性。Grain
refinement of non-ferrous alloys — metal mixtures without significant amounts of iron content,
such as copper, aluminum and zinc — focuses on these types of metals and increases their strength,
resistance to tears and attractiveness. For example, aluminum grain refining can enhance traits like

malleability.有色金属合金（铜、铝和锌等不含大量铁的金属混合物）的晶粒细化专注于这
些类型的金属，并提高它们的强度、抗撕裂性和吸引力。例如，铝晶粒细化可以增强延展性

等特性。
14. Which of the following is NOT refereed as a polymer? A

(A) Wood (B) Carbon fiber (C) Polycarbonate (D) Protein

以下哪项不被视为聚合物？一个 （A） 木材 （B） 碳纤维 （C） 聚碳酸酯 （D） 蛋白质
是聚合物：Starch · Protein · Cellulose
不是：Glucose
Polycarbonate is a high-performance tough, amorphous, and transparent thermoplastic polymer. It
has organic functional groups linked together by carbonate groups (–O–(C=O)–O–). It offers a
unique combination of properties
聚碳酸酯是一种高性能坚韧、无定形和透明的热塑性聚合物。它具有通过碳酸酯基团 (–O–
(C=O)–O–) 连接在一起的有机官能团。它提供了独特的属性组合。
Carbon Fiber is a polymer and is sometimes known as graphite fiber. It is a very strong material
that is also very lightweight.
碳纤维是一种聚合物，有时也被称为石墨纤维。它是一种非常坚固的材料，也非常轻便。

15. chemically strengthened glass is a glass with D

(A) reinforcing fibers (B) color (C) crystals (D) invading ions
化学强化玻璃是具有 D

（A） 增强纤维（B）颜色（C）晶体（D）入侵离子

Chemically strengthened glass is much stronger than heat-treated glass and provides a higher
degree of break resistance. Durability. When compared with more conventional glass treatments,
chemically strengthened glass exhibits a higher degree of resistance to abrasion, impact, and
pressure. Greater Versatility.

化学强化玻璃比热处理玻璃坚固得多，并提供更高程度的抗碎性。耐用性。与更传统的玻璃

处理相比，化学强化玻璃表现出更高的耐磨性、抗冲击性和抗压性。更大的多功能性

Chemical strengthening is a process that toughens the surface of glass by replacing sodium ions
with larger potassium ions. The ion exchange creates a thin layer of high compression on the
surface which results in a layer of tension in the center. The process is performed by submerging

the glass in a molten salt bath. 化学强化是一种通过用较大的钾离子代替钠离子来强化玻璃表

面的过程。离子交换在表面产生一层薄薄的高压缩力，从而在中心产生一层张力。该过程是

通过将玻璃浸入熔盐浴中进行的。

Why is chemically strengthened glass stronger?为什么化学强化玻璃更坚固？

Also known as ion exchange, chemical strengthening treats glass by submerging it in a molten
potassium salt bath, causing sodium ions in the glass to be replaced by potassium ions from the
bath.
也称为离子交换，化学强化通过将玻璃浸入熔融钾盐浴中来处理玻璃，使玻璃中的钠离子被

浴中的钾离子取代。

Gorilla Glass is clear glass that has been chemically strengthened so it is stronger & safer than

regular glass. It's thinner, lighter, & damage resistant.大猩猩玻璃是经过化学强化的透明玻璃，

因此比普通玻璃更坚固、更安全。它更薄、更轻且抗损坏。

16. If a material has undergone extensive plastic deformation before fracture, the material has hig.C
(A) Yield strength (B) Ultimate tensile strength
(C) Ductility (D) Toughness

如果材料在断裂前经历了广泛的塑性变形，则该材料具有高

（A） 屈服强度 （B） 极限抗拉强度

（C） 延展性 （D） 韧性

Ductility is a measure of a material’s ability to deform plastically (permanently) before fracture. In

other words, it’s a measure of a material’s ability to stretch or bend without breaking. Ductile
materials, such as copper and aluminum, are able to deform a lot before breaking, while brittle
materials, such as glass or ceramics, tend to break with very little deformation.

延展性是材料在断裂前塑性（永久）变形能力的量度。换句话说，它是衡量材料拉伸或弯曲

而不断裂的能力的量度。延展性材料，例如铜和铝，在断裂前能够变形很多，而脆性材料，

例如玻璃或陶瓷，往往变形很小就断裂。

Strain is the deformation of a material per unit length caused by an applied stress. Strain can be
thought of as the “amount of stretching” of a material. It is usually expressed as a ratio of the
change in length to the original length.

应变是由施加的应力引起的每单位长度材料的变形。应变可以被认为是材料的“拉伸量”。

它通常表示为长度变化与原始长度的比值。

Toughness is a measure of a material’s resistance to fracture when subjected to stress. It’s defined
as the energy required to break a material and is typically measured in units of joules per cubic
meter (J/m^3). Materials with high toughness are able to absorb a large amount of energy before
breaking and are often used in applications where impact resistance is important, such as in
construction materials or safety equipment.
韧性是衡量材料在受到应力时抵抗断裂的能力的量度。它被定义为破坏材料所需的能量，通

常以每立方米焦耳 (J/m^3) 为单位进行测量。高韧性材料在断裂前能够吸收大量能量，通常

用于耐冲击性很重要的应用，例如建筑材料或安全设备。

简而言之，延展性是材料在断裂前变形能力的量度，应变是材料每单位长度的变形量，韧性

是材料在应力下抗断裂能力的量度。

17. Which of the following can soften when heated (harden when cooled back)? B
(A) Polycarbonate (PC) (B) Polyvinyl chloride (PVC)
(C) Both (A) and (B) (D) Neither (A) nor (B)

以下哪项在加热时会软化（冷却时会变硬）？ B

（A） 聚碳酸酯 （B） 聚氯乙烯

（c） （a）和（b）（d）既不是（a）也不是（b）

PC is classified as a “thermoplastic” (as opposed to “thermoset”), and the name has to do with the
way the plastic responds to heat. Thermoplastic materials become liquid at their melting point

Polythene, polyvinyls and polystyrene soften on heating and harden on cooling. PC 被归类为“热
塑性塑料”（与“热固性塑料”相对），这个名称与塑料对热的反应方式有关。热塑性材料
在其熔点（聚碳酸酯为 155 摄氏度）时变成液体。

聚乙烯、聚乙烯和聚苯乙烯在加热时软化并在冷却时硬化。

哪种树脂在加热时会软化并熔化并在冷却时再次凝固？

热塑性树脂 Thermoplastic resins

热塑性聚合物的特性

Thermoplastic polymers are the linear or slightly branched long-chain molecules capable of
repeatedly softening on heating and hardening on cooling. 热塑性聚合物是线性或轻微支化的长
链分子，能够反复加热软化和冷却硬化。

The polymers with this property can be collectively called plastics. 具有这种性质的聚合物统称
为塑料。

These polymers possess intermolecular forces of attraction intermediate between elastomers and
fibres. 这些聚合物具有介于弹性体和纤维之间的分子间吸引力。

Some common thermoplastics are polythene, polystyrene, polyvinyl etc.Structural similarities

between thermoplastics.

一些常见的热塑性塑料是聚乙烯、聚苯乙烯、聚乙烯等。热塑性塑料之间的结构相似性。
Polythene, polyvinyl and polystyrene are thermoplastic polymers and can be reused. 聚乙烯、聚乙
烯和聚苯乙烯是热塑性聚合物，可以重复使用。

Thermoplastic polymers do not have an extensive network structure. These are mostly chain type
polymers with some branching.On the other hand, polymers like Bakelite and urea-formaldehyde
resin are thermosetting polymers. 热塑性聚合物不具有广泛的网络结构。这些主要是具有一些
支化的链型聚合物。另一方面，电木和脲醛树脂等聚合物是热固性聚合物。

These polymers are cross-linked or heavily branched molecules, which on heating undergo
extensive cross linking in moulds and become infusible. They cannot be reused.

这些聚合物是交联或高度支化的分子，加热时会在模具中发生广泛的交联并变得不熔。它们
不能重复使用。

18. Which of the following correctly describes the ultimate tensile stress? C
(A) The stress at 0.2% strain (B) The stress at the elastic limit
(C) The maximum stress (D) The stress at the point of fracture

以下哪项正确描述了极限拉伸应力？ C

（A） 0.2%应变下的应力 （B） 弹性极限处的应力

（C） 最大应力 （D） 断裂点处的应力

题：给定材料在施加的力下可以承受的最大应力

A The 0.2% offset yield strength (0.2% OYS, 0.2% proof stress, RP0. 2, RP0,2) is defined as the
amount of stress that will result in a plastic strain of 0.2%. This is illustrated by the blue line in
Figure 1 below. This is the yield strength that is most often quoted by material suppliers and used
by design engineers. 0.2% 偏移屈服强度（0.2% OYS，0.2% 屈服应力，RP0.2，RP0,2）定义
为将导致 0.2% 塑性应变的应力大小。下面图 1 中的蓝线说明了这一点。这是材料供应商
最常引用和设计工程师使用的屈服强度。

B elastic limit, maximum stress or force per unit area within a solid material that can arise before
the onset of permanent deformation. 弹性极限，固体材料在永久变形开始之前可能出现的每单
位面积的最大应力或力。

C The maximum stress refers to the maximum tensile stress while the minimum stress refers to the
minimum compressive stress. The stress range was taken as the absolute difference between the
maximum and minimum stress. 最大应力是指最大拉应力，而最小应力是指最小压应力。应力
范围取为最大和最小应力之间的绝对差值。

D Fracture strength, also known as breaking strength, is the stress at which a specimen fails via
fracture. This is usually determined for a given specimen by a tensile test, which charts the stress-
strain curve. The final recorded point is the fracture strength. 断裂强度，也称为断裂强度，是试
样因断裂而失效时的应力。对于给定的样品，这通常是通过绘制应力-应变曲线的拉伸试验
来确定的。最后记录的点是断裂强度。
19. A metal becomes harder after cold rolling. The reason could be C .
(A) Solid solution hardening (B) Strain hardening
(D) Precipitation hardening (C) None of the above

金属在冷轧后变得更硬。原因可能是 C .

（A） 固溶硬化 添加不同可溶元素（B） 应变硬化 加工硬化 冷加工

（D） 沉淀硬化 热加工（C） 以上都不是

应变硬化，也称为冷加工或加工硬化，是金属通过永久变形变得越来越硬的过程。

，he cold rolling increases the hardness and strength due to increasing of dislocation density and
grain refinement. They also found that dislocation density increased with increasing stacking fault
probability 由于位错密度增加和晶粒细化，冷轧提高了硬度和强度。他们还发现位错密度随
着堆垛层错概率的增加而增加。

Cold working is a very important way of increasing the strength within metals. Cold rolling is a
type of cold work, which involves passing a metal through two rollers that impose a great pressure
on the metal. This deforms the metal and elongates the grains within, causing dislocations to pile up

and increasing the strength of the metal.冷加工是提高金属强度的一种非常重要的方法。冷轧

是一种冷加工，它涉及使金属通过两个对金属施加巨大压力的辊。这会使金属变形并拉长内

部的晶粒，导致位错堆积并增加金属的强度。

20. Which of the following is true about the great majority of polymers? D B
(A) High softening temperature (B) Good insulator of electricity
(C) Good ductility (C) Low coefficient of thermal expansion
以下哪项适用于绝大多数聚合物？ D

（A）软化温度高 （B）良好的电绝缘体

（C） 延展性好 （C） 热膨胀系数低

Polymers expand more than metals, and metals expand more than ceramics. The linear thermal
expansion coefficient of polymers is in the range of 20−100 ppm/°C, 1 that of metals is in the range

of 3−20 ppm/°C, 2,15 and that of ceramics is in the range of 3−5 ppm/°C.2007 年 12 月 29 日

聚合物比金属膨胀，金属比陶瓷膨胀。聚合物的线性热膨胀系数在 20−100 ppm/°C 范围内，

1 金属在 3−20 ppm/°C 范围内，2 , 15 陶瓷在 3 范围内-5 ppm/°C。

大多数聚合物——由长链状分子制成的材料——是非常好的热和电绝缘体。
For Q21 to Q28, type your answers in this question paper or write on a separate paper (40
marks).
21. Brief explain why fame polishing can improve toughness of a glass article? (5 marks) 21.简
要说明为什么名声抛光可以提高玻璃制品的韧性？（5 分）

Because flame polishing method can facilitate the glass sheet converting from cracked surface to
crack-free surface and minimize the surface cracks, thus improving the toughness of the glass
article.
因为火焰抛光方法可以促进玻璃片从裂纹表面转变为无裂纹表面，最大限度地减少表面裂纹，从而提高
玻璃制品的韧性。

！ Good brittleness means glass with cracks, under tension, and no internal barrier to stop crack
propagation.
A glass article with improved toughness is not so brittle, which means minimum cracks. As atoms
of glass are randomly arranged, it is an amorphous structure. Flame polishing is the process of
heating the glass. In the glass, the surface crack will be minimized under flame polishing as the
cracks will be sealed. Thus, fame polishing can improve the toughness of a glass article.
良好的脆性意味着玻璃有裂纹，在张力下，没有内部屏障来阻止裂纹的扩展。
韧性好的玻璃制品不那么脆，这意味着裂缝最少。由于玻璃的原子是随机排列的，它是一种
无定形结构。火焰抛光是对玻璃进行加热的过程。在玻璃中，在火焰抛光下，表面裂纹将被
最小化，因为裂纹将被密封。因此，火焰抛光可以提高玻璃制品的韧性。

22. What is glass-ceramics and how to make it? (5 marks) 什么是微晶玻璃以及如何制造？（5

分）
Glass-ceramics are polycrystalline materials produced through controlled crystallization of base
glass, producing a fine uniform dispersion of crystals throughout the bulk material. Crystallization
is accomplished by subjecting suitable glasses to a carefully regulated heat treatment schedule,
resulting in the nucleation and growth of crystal phases. The crystallization process can mainly
proceed to near completion, but in a small proportion of processes, the residual glass phase often
remains.
And the production procedure contains two steps: First, a glass is formed by a glass-manufacturing
process. The glass is cooled down and is then reheated in a second step. In this heat treatment the
glass partly crystallizes. And the heated part expands, leads to the tension of the cold top surface, it
is then cracked. In most cases nucleation agents are added to the base composition of the glass-
ceramic. These nucleation agents aid and control the crystallization process. Because there is
usually no pressing and sintering, glass-ceramics have no pores, unlike sintered ceramics. When a
crack propagates, it must encounter the boundaries of crystals. Atomic structures are so different in
the two sides of the boundary that the crack propagation becomes difficult.
微晶玻璃是通过基玻璃的受控结晶产生的多晶材料，在整个散装材料中产生精细均匀的晶体分散。结晶
是通过对合适的玻璃进行精心调节的热处理计划来完成的，从而导致晶相的成核和生长。结晶过程主要
可以进行到接近完成，但在一小部分过程中，残留的玻璃相通常仍然存在。
生产过程包含两个步骤：首先，通过玻璃制造工艺形成玻璃。玻璃被冷却，然后在第二步中重新加热。
在这种热处理中，玻璃部分结晶。并且加热部分膨胀，导致冷顶表面的张力，然后破裂。在大多数情况
下，成核剂被添加到微晶玻璃的基础成分中。这些成核剂有助于和控制结晶过程。由于通常没有压制和
烧结，因此与烧结陶瓷不同，微晶玻璃没有气孔。当裂纹扩展时，它必须遇到晶体的边界。边界两侧的
原子结构如此不同，以至于裂纹扩展变得困难。
！ Glass-ceramic is a material that combines two types of materials to form a product that is in a
class of its own, between glasses and polycrystalline ceramics. Glass ceramics combine the
properties of glasses with the benefits of conventional sintered ceramics. Most commonly they are
manufactured in a process in which a pre-manufactured glass is subjected to a specific heat
treatment. This treatment results in controlled nucleation and crystallization of the glass. Glass
ceramics are primarily produced in two steps. First, glass is formed by a glass manufacturing
process. The glass is cooled down and is then reheated in a second step. The glass partially
crystallizes, and the glass-ceramic develops a structure comprising an amorphous (glassy) phase
and at least one embedded crystalline phase. In most cases, nucleation agents are added to the base
composition of the glass ceramic.
In the glass, crystal precipitation toughens the glass by making cracks
propagation difficult. When a crack propagates, it may encounter the boundaries of crystals.
Differences in atomic structures on the two sides make crack propagation difficult.
玻璃陶瓷是一种结合了两种材料的材料，形成了一种介于玻璃和多晶陶瓷之间的产品。玻璃陶瓷结合了
玻璃的特性和传统烧结陶瓷的优点。最常见的是，它们是在一个过程中制造的，在这个过程中，预先制
造的玻璃要经过一个特定的热处理。这种处理导致了玻璃的可控成核和结晶。玻璃陶瓷主要分两步生产
首先，玻璃是由玻璃制造工艺形成的。玻璃被冷却，然后在第二个步骤中被重新加热。玻璃部分结晶，
玻璃陶瓷形成一个由无定形（玻璃质）相和至少一个嵌入的结晶相组成的结构。在大多数情况下，成核
剂被添加到玻璃陶瓷的基本成分中。
在玻璃中，晶体沉淀通过使裂缝难以扩展而使玻璃变得坚韧。传播的难度。当裂纹扩展时，它可能会遇
到晶体的边界。两边原子结构的差异使裂纹的传播变得困难。

23. Why bronze was used after copper smelting had started at the end of New Stone Age? (5
marks) 23. 为什么在新石器时代末期铜冶炼开始后使用青铜？（5 分）
Because pure copper is soft, while bronze is a copper-tin alloy, which is harder and suitable for
making weapons. Simultaneously, melting bronze requires a lower temperature than that of pure
copper, which is relatively more convenient and practical.
因为纯铜是软的，而青铜是铜锡合金，更硬，适合制造武器。同时，熔化青铜需要比纯铜更低的温度，
相对更方便实用。
This was a great advance because bronze wasn't only harder and stronger than either copper or tin,
but it was also much easier to melt, mould and shape.
这是一个很大的进步，因为青铜不仅比铜或锡更硬、更坚固，而且更容易熔化、成型和成型。
青铜到铁
Due to limitations in furnace designs, i.e., the maximum obtainable temperatures, the availability
and quality of iron varied greatly. As we’ll see in the next lesson’s video, Secrets of the Viking
Sword, throughout history there have been legendary quality swords, i.e., Damascus and Samurai to
name just a couple. These swords were produced using time-intensive and, many times, ritualistic
processes. These blades were produced in areas known in the modern day as Iran, Japan, and
China. Most of the iron used in weapons during the Iron Age, i.e., Roman swords, was a low-
density iron sponge-like material. This sponge-like iron was then pounded to shape, densify, and
remove impurities. Bronze was superior to the iron produced commonly, so why did iron ultimately
replace bronze?
由于炉子设计的限制，即可获得的最高温度，铁的可用性和质量差异很大。正如我们将在下
一课的视频中看到的那样，维京剑的秘密，纵观历史，有传说中的优质剑，即大马士革和武
士，仅举几例。这些剑是使用耗时且多次仪式化的过程制作的。这些刀片是在现代伊朗、日
本和中国等地区生产的。铁器时代用于武器的大部分铁，即罗马剑，是一种低密度的铁海绵
状材料。然后将这种海绵状的铁捣碎以成型、致密化和去除杂质。青铜优于通常生产的铁，
那么为什么铁最终会取代青铜呢？
Bronze weapons were indeed of higher quality than the common iron weapons typically produced.
However, tin, which is required for the production of bronze, is not abundantly available. As a
consequence, bronze weapons were the weapons utilized by nobles, royalty, pharaohs, etc. The
common foot soldier was not going to possess bronze weapons; there were not enough to go
around.
青铜武器的质量确实比通常生产的普通铁武器要高。然而，生产青铜所需的锡并不大量。因
此，青铜武器是贵族、皇室、法老等使用的武器。普通步兵不会拥有青铜武器;没有足够的
东西可以四处走动。
Unlike tin, iron ore is readily available. So, although inferior to bronze, an army of hundreds or
thousands could be equipped with iron weapons, which was not practical with bronze weapons. So,
the ability to produce large numbers of iron weapons overcame the advantages of bronze.
Eventually, time and further development allowed for the production of these so-called legendary
swords which supplanted bronze as the weapon material of choice for the nobility. But it wasn’t
until much later, during the advent of the Industrial Revolution, that advancements in furnace
design and process control enabled the reliable and massive production of the iron alloy known as
steel.
与锡不同，铁矿石很容易获得。因此，虽然不如青铜，但数百或数千人的军队可以配备铁制
武器，这对于青铜武器来说是不切实际的。因此，生产大量铁制武器的能力克服了青铜的优
势。最终，时间和进一步发展允许生产这些所谓的传奇剑，这些剑取代青铜成为贵族选择的
武器材料。但直到很久以后，在工业革命到来期间，熔炉设计和过程控制的进步才使被称为
钢的铁合金得以可靠和大规模生产

24. Why ancient church window wasr made of small pieces of glass? (5 marks)
Because early flat glasses are small pieces cut from a circular disk, which is the reason for mosaics
in church window and they can serve to tell the Biblical stories as well as beautifying the church.
24.为什么古代教堂的窗户是用小块玻璃制成的？（5 分）
因为早期的平板眼镜是从圆形圆盘上切下来的小块，这就是教堂窗户上马赛克的原因，它们可以讲述圣
经故事以及美化教堂。
As churches are usually historical and built in the ancient time when material science was not yet
developed to a great extent, flat glass in those times was made of flat glass by blowing. At the same
time, the church windows were designed to show pictures made of different colored glasses. The
flat glass, small pieces cut off the circular disk, could only produce the church windows. This is the
reason you see mosaics in church windows. The early flat glass was named “crown glass” owing to
the production method. Thus, church windows are made of small pieces of glass.
由于教堂通常是历史性的，建于古代，当时物质科学还没有发展到很高的程度，所以那个时
代的平板玻璃是由平板玻璃吹制而成。同时，教堂的窗户被设计成用不同颜色的玻璃来显示
图片。平板玻璃，从圆盘上切下的小块，只能制作教堂的窗户。这就是你在教堂窗户上看到
马赛克的原因。早期的平板玻璃因其生产方法而被命名为 "皇冠玻璃"。因此，教堂的窗户
是由小块的玻璃制成的。

25. Why polymers have lower thermal conductivity than ceramics do? (5 marks)
25. 为什么聚合物的导热系数低于陶瓷？（5 分）
Because ceramics has atomic waves or phonons to conduct heat, and polymers are good to conduct
heat in a single chain while it is hard to conduct heat between chains owing to the weak Von deer
Waals forces.
因为陶瓷具有原子波或声子来导热，聚合物在单链中导热很好，而由于冯鹿华力较弱，链之
间很难传导热量。
！Polymers with a lower bonding strength have a lower melting point, while ceramics with higher
bonding strength has a higher melting point.
Polymers have lower thermal conductivity than ceramics because a polymer is made of discrete
chains held together by weak intermolecular forces. The weak Von der Waals forces make it hard
to conduct heat between chains.
粘合强度较低的聚合物的熔点较低，而粘合强度较高的陶瓷的熔点则较高。
聚合物的导热性比陶瓷低，因为聚合物是由离散的链子组成的，被微弱的分子间力固定在一
起。微弱的冯德瓦尔斯力使得链与链之间很难传导热量。

26. If the Young’s modulus and yield stress of a material are 70 GPa and 300 MPa, respectively,
what should be the allowable force applied to a one-meter cylindrical bar with a diameter of 10 mm
considering the safety factor of 2. What is the elongation of the bar under this allowable force?
(5 marks)
The elongation D=10*(300/2/70000)=0.02mm
1 米=10 分米=100 厘米=1000 毫米

26. 如果材料的杨氏模量和屈服应力分别为 70 GPa 和 300 MPa，考虑到安全系数 2，施加在直径为 10 mm

的一米圆柱杆上的允许力是多少。在这个允许力下，棒材的伸长率是多少？
（5 分）
伸长率 D=10*（300/2/70000）=0.02mm

27. Explain how carbon fibers are made and why they are very strong? (5 marks)
27. 解释碳纤维是如何制造的，为什么它们非常坚固？（5 分）
Carbon fiber is strong simply because it is very thin, in the order of micrometers (10 -3 mm).
The atoms near crack tip is subjected to more force owing to the stretching from the atoms near the
crack surface, which leads to crack propagation.
The diameter of a carbon fiber is very small, which minimizes the chances to have crack on
surface.
Or, any surface crack break the fiber in production process. A continuous fiber finally obtained
generally does not have crack.
碳纤维之所以坚固，仅仅是因为它非常薄，大约为微米（10 -3 毫米）。
由于裂纹表面附近的原子拉伸，裂纹尖端附近的原子受到更大的力，从而导致裂纹扩展。
碳纤维的直径非常小，这最大限度地减少了表面出现裂纹的机会。
或者，在生产过程中，任何表面裂纹都会破坏纤维。最终得到的连续纤维一般没有裂纹

Carbon fiber is made from organic polymers, which consist of long strings of molecules held
together by carbon atoms. Most carbon fibers (about 90%) are made from the polyacrylonitrile
(PAN) process.
A small amount is manufactured from rayon or the petroleum pitch process. Carbon is left behind
after burning, which is called carbonization. Some carbon atoms may go in the form of CO or CO2
gases. Carbon atoms can join together at about 2000 °C, forming covalent bonds. Put polymers
with high carbon yield (e.g., many benzene rings) aligned. Then burn it (remove other atoms) and
heat it (form C-C bonds).
The products are aligned pitch molecules with many benzene rings and other stuff (Hydrogen,
Nitrogen, Oxygen, etc.) So you burn it at temperatures to drive off the other atoms and heat it in an
inert gas to a temperature over 2000 °C.
Carbon fibers will become very strong when it is thinner. The low density is straight; carbon has a
small atomic number (Z = 6). High strength is also linear; the CC covalent bond is strong. Carbon
fiber is vital simply because it is fragile, in the order of micrometers (10-3 mm), as skinny carbon
fiber has a minimal diameter which can minimize the chance of cracks on the surface.
Moreover, if a surface crack breaks the fiber in the production process, a continuous thread
obtained finally will not have gaps. Thus, carbon fibers are solid.
碳纤维是由有机聚合物制成的，它由碳原子固定在一起的长串分子组成。大多数碳纤维（约 90%）是由
聚丙烯腈（PAN）工艺制成的。
少量是由人造丝或石油沥青工艺制造的。燃烧后会留下碳，这被称为碳化。一些碳原子可能以 CO 或
CO2 气体的形式进入。碳原子在大约 2000℃时可以结合在一起，形成共价键。将具有高碳产量的聚合物
（例如许多苯环）排列起来。然后燃烧（去除其他原子）并加热（形成 C-C 键）。
产品是具有许多苯环和其他东西（氢气、氮气、氧气等）的排列的沥青分子。所以你在温度下燃烧它，
驱除其他原子，并在惰性气体中加热到 2000℃以上。
碳纤维变薄后会变得非常坚固。低密度是直的，碳的原子数很小（Z=6）。高强度也是线性的；CC 共价
键很强。碳纤维是至关重要的，只是因为它很脆弱，在微米（10-3 毫米）的数量级，因为瘦的碳纤维有
最小的直径，可以最大限度地减少表面裂缝的机会。
此外，如果在生产过程中出现表面裂纹使纤维断裂，最后得到的连续线就不会有缝隙。因此，碳纤维是
固体。

28. What are the key processes in making Gorilla glass for screen covers. (5 marks)
28. 制作屏幕盖用大猩猩玻璃的关键工艺是什么？（5 分）
Batching, batch melting, fining of melts, homogenization of melts and cooling at low rates.
配料、批量熔炼、熔体澄清、熔体均质化和低速冷却。
Gorilla glass is made of flat Glass by overflowing and ion exchange process. The Ion exchange
Process is a chemical strengthening process where large ions are “stuffed” into the glass surface,
creating a state of compression. Gorilla Glass is specially designed to maximize this behavior. The
glass is placed in a bath of molten salt at a temperature of approximately 400 degrees. These large
ions take up more room and are pressed together when the glass cools, producing a layer of
compressive stress on the surface of the glass. Gorilla Glass’ composition enables the potassium
ions to diffuse far into the surface, creating high compressive stress deep into the glass. This layer
of compression creates a surface that is more resistant to damage. This glass is claimed to be solid
and tough, and widely used for screen covers.
大猩猩玻璃是由平面玻璃通过溢出和离子交换工艺制成的。离子交换过程是一个化学强化过
程，大的离子被 "塞 "进玻璃表面，形成一种压缩状态。大猩猩玻璃是专门设计的，以使这
种行为最大化。玻璃被放置在温度约为 400 度的熔盐浴中。这些大离子占据了更多的空间，
在玻璃冷却时被压在一起，在玻璃表面产生了一层压缩应力。大猩猩玻璃的成分使钾离子能
够远远地扩散到表面，在玻璃深处产生高压缩应力。这层压缩应力创造了一个更耐破坏的表
面。这种玻璃号称坚实而坚韧，被广泛用于屏幕盖。

Exemplify metals with melting point below room temperature, between 900 – 1100 C, and
above 1500 C. (5 marks)
例如熔点低于室温的金属，介于 900 – 1100 C 之间，以及 1500 C 以上。
Only two elements on the periodic table are elements at room temperature. They are mercury (a metal)
and bromine (a halogen).
Four other elements are liquids slightly warmer than room temperature. They are francium, cesium,
gallium, and rubidium (all metals).
The reason these elements are liquids has to do with how tightly bound their electrons are to the
atomic nucleus. Basically, the atoms don't share their electrons with nearby atoms, so it is easy to
separate them from solids into liquids
元素周期表中只有两种元素在室温下是元素。它们是汞（一种金属）和溴（一种卤素）。
其他四种元素是比室温稍热的液体。它们是钫、铯、镓和铷（所有金属）。
这些元素是液体的原因与它们的电子与原子核的结合程度有关。基本上，原子不与附近的原子共享电
子，因此很容易将它们从固体分离成液体
Describe the difference between smelting and melting.
描述冶炼和熔炼之间的区别。
Melting is the process of liquefying a solid substance by heating. It is the process by which a substance
changes from the solid phase to the liquid phase. Smelting is the process by which a metal is obtained
at temperatures beyond the melting point from its ore. Both processes involve heating a substance to a
higher temperature. The main difference between melting and smelting is that melting converts a solid
substance into a liquid whereas smelting converts an ore to its purest form.
熔化是通过加热使固体物质液化的过程。它是物质从固相转变为液相的过程。熔炼是在超过 其矿石熔点
的温度下获得金属的过程 。这两个过程都涉及将物质加热到更高的温度。熔化和熔炼之间的主要区别在
于 熔化将固体物质转化为液体，而熔炼将矿石转化为最纯净的形式。
Smelting is done from basic metals like iron, copper, and silver where chemicals, such as reducing
agents, are used to wash out another element from ore into gas or slag.
冶炼是从铁、铜和银等基本金属中进行的，其中使用化学物质（如还原剂）将矿石中的另一种元素冲刷
成气体或炉渣。
Another way to look at it is that melting is a spontaneous process as opposed to smelting which is a
non-spontaneous process. Melting is mainly done to mold an element or substance into a particular
shape to use in various ways, whereas smelting is done for extracting metals like copper, iron, silver,
and gold. 另一种看待它的方式是，熔化是一个自发过程，而熔炼是一个非自发过程。熔化主要是为了将
一种元素或物质塑造成特定的形状，以便以各种方式使用，而熔炼是为了提取铜、铁、银和金等金属。
20. Why a carbon fiber is very strong
为什么碳纤维非常坚固

How to improve the toughness of ceramic products? (5 marks)

如何提高陶瓷制品的韧性？（5 分）
High thermal consistency, abrasion resistance, and remarkable tensile characteristics are some of
the advantages that ceramics have over other materials. These characteristics make them the
preferred material for cutting-edge structural and functional applications such as high-speed milling
equipment, medical instruments and systems, gasoline components, aviation components, and high-
voltage batteries. Ceramics are also used in mass transit systems and for power storage.
高热一致性、耐磨性和显着的拉伸特性是陶瓷相对于其他材料的一些优势。这些特性使它们
成为尖端结构和功能应用的首选材料，例如高速铣削设备、医疗仪器和系统、汽油部件、航
空部件和高压电池。陶瓷还用于公共交通系统和电力储存。

However, there is still a mismatch between the qualities of commercially available ceramics and
the attributes required for next-generation applications. Ceramics are likely to crack because of
their ionic and, or, covalent bonding, leading to high defect sensitivity and low durability. As a
result, the ceramic industry requires more damage-resistant materials, making the development of
advanced ceramic materials critical.
然而，市售陶瓷的质量与下一代应用所需的属性之间仍然存在不匹配。陶瓷由于其离子键
和/或共价键而可能破裂，从而导致高缺陷敏感性和低耐久性。因此，陶瓷行业需要更多的
抗损伤材料，这使得先进陶瓷材料的开发变得至关重要。

When it comes to advanced ceramic composites, toughening is always needed to increase

efficiency and durability. Toughening techniques can be divided into two categories: internal and
external. Internal processes have the most significant effect on fracture onset toughness because
they work ahead of the crack tip. In contrast, external mechanisms greatly impact crack growth
resistance because they work behind the crack tip.
对于高级陶瓷复合材料，始终需要增韧以提高效率和耐用性。增韧技术可分为内外两类。内
部过程对断裂起始韧性的影响最显着，因为它们在裂纹尖端之前起作用。相反，外部机制会
极大地影响裂纹扩展阻力，因为它们在裂纹尖端后面起作用。
Particulate-dispersion toughening, phase transition toughening, whisker toughening, and synergic
toughening are some of the traditional ceramic toughening techniques used in the industry.
Toughening by particle-dispersion is done by inhibiting crack initiation and propagation through
proper distribution of second-phase nanoparticles, including metal matrix phase and ceramic phase
particulates.
颗粒分散增韧、相变增韧、晶须增韧和协同增韧是工业中使用的一些传统陶瓷增韧技术。颗
粒分散增韧是通过第二相纳米颗粒（包括金属基体相和陶瓷相颗粒）的适当分布来抑制裂纹
的萌生和扩展来实现的。

Transformation toughening improves the hardness of ceramic materials by fine-tuning the ceramic
structure to produce stress-induced transitions at ambient temperatures. Whisker/fiber toughening
increases the matrix's toughness by incorporating high-modulus whiskers into the ceramic phase.
相变增韧通过微调陶瓷结构以在环境温度下产生应力诱导转变来提高陶瓷材料的硬度。晶
须/纤维增韧通过将高模量晶须结合到陶瓷相中来增加基体的韧性。

It is argued that copper smelting started at the end of the new-stone age. Why? (5 marks)
有人认为，铜冶炼始于新石器时代末期。为什么？（5 分）
In a dead body man called Otzi , who lived between 3400 - 3100 BC , in his possessions people
found an axe with a wooden handle of yew that had a small blade of copper , but not bronze , as
copper is produced by smelting , people argue that copper smelting started before the usage of
bronze . Moreover , as there is hypothesis that in the late Neolithic age , clay forming was invented
and they tried to colour their pottery by firing metal ores . For example , burning copper oxide yield
a blue colour .
人们争辩说，在一个名叫奥茨的尸体上，他生活在公元前 3400 - 3100 年之间，人们在他的
遗物中发现了一把带有紫杉木柄的斧头，上面有一个小铜刃，但不是青铜，因为铜是通过熔
炼生产的。铜冶炼开始于青铜的使用。此外，据推测，在新石器时代晚期，发明了粘土成形
术，他们试图通过烧制金属矿石来给陶器上色。例如，燃烧氧化铜会产生蓝色。
The idea that there was a Copper Age in Europe between the Neolithic and Bronze Age was
inspired by the discovery of the use of native copper in prehistoric North America. Its currency in
European prehistory owes much to the 1861 observations by William Wilde that copper artefacts
preceded bronze tools in Ireland, though he himself did not postulate a Copper Age per se.
Acceptance of the existence of the Copper Age was a long process, because it was perceived to
imply local development of metallurgy and to undermine acceptance of the Three Age System, but
the 1876 and 1880 international congresses of anthropology and prehistoric archaeology were key
moments in the adoption of the term.
欧洲在新石器时代和青铜时代之间存在铜器时代的想法是受到史前北美发现原生铜的启发。它在欧洲史
前时期的流行很大程度上归功于 1861 年威廉·王尔德 (William Wilde) 的观察，即在爱尔兰，铜制品先于
青铜工具，尽管他本人并没有假设铜器时代本身. 接受铜器时代的存在是一个漫长的过程，因为它被认为
暗示着当地冶金的发展并破坏了对三个时代体系的接受，但 1876 年和 1880 年的国际人类学和史前考古
学大会是这个过程中的关键时刻采用该术语。

Why polymers are generally electric insulator. (5 marks)

为什么聚合物一般是电绝缘体。（5 分）
Polymers are organic macromolecules, a long carbonic chain composed of structural repeat entities
called mer. These smallest units, for instance, are bonded by covalent bonds, repeating successively
along a chain. A monomer, a molecule composed of one mer, is the raw material to produce a
polymer. Most polymers are insulators due to the unavailability of free electrons to create
conductivity. In a covalent bond, the electrons are locked in these strong and directional bonds, so
when an electric field is applied, electrons cannot drift. Therefore, these types of materials do not
show a high conductivity.
聚合物是有机大分子，长碳链，由结构重复实体组成，称为 mer。例如，这些最小的单元通过共价键连
接，沿着一条链连续重复。单体，分子由一个聚体组成，是生产聚合物的原料。由于无法利用自由电子
来产生导电性，因此大多数聚合物都是绝缘体。在共价键中，电子被锁定在这些强而定向的键，因此当
施加电场时，电子无法漂移。因此，这些类型的材料不具有高导电性。

Why do nanograined metals have high yield strength? (5 marks)

为什么纳米晶金属具有高屈服强度？（5 分）
In grain-boundary strengthening, the grain boundaries act as pinning points impeding further
dislocation propagation. Since the lattice structure of adjacent grains differs in orientation, it
requires more energy for a dislocation to change directions and move into the adjacent grain. The
grain boundary is also much more disordered than inside the grain, which also prevents the
dislocations from moving in a continuous slip plane. Impeding this dislocation movement will
hinder the onset of plasticity and hence increase the yield strength of the material.
在晶界强化中，晶界充当阻止进一步位错传播的钉扎点。由于相邻晶粒的晶格结构取向不
同，位错改变方向并移动到相邻晶粒中需要更多的能量。晶界也比晶粒内部更无序，这也阻
止了位错在连续滑移平面中移动。阻止这种位错运动将阻碍塑性的发生，从而增加材料的屈
服强度。
Under an applied stress, existing dislocations and dislocations generated by Frank–Read sources
will move through a crystalline lattice until encountering a grain boundary, where the large atomic
mismatch between different grains creates a repulsive stress field to oppose continued dislocation
motion. As more dislocations propagate to this boundary, dislocation 'pile up' occurs as a cluster of
dislocations are unable to move past the boundary. As dislocations generate repulsive stress fields,
each successive dislocation will apply a repulsive force to the dislocation incident with the grain
boundary. These repulsive forces act as a driving force to reduce the energetic barrier for diffusion
across the boundary, such that additional pile up causes dislocation diffusion across the grain
boundary, allowing further deformation in the material. Decreasing grain size decreases the amount
of possible pile up at the boundary, increasing the amount of applied stress necessary to move a
dislocation across a grain boundary. The higher the applied stress needed to move the dislocation,
the higher the yield strength.
在外加应力下，Frank–Read 源产生的现有位错和位错将穿过晶格直到遇到晶界，不同晶粒
之间的大原子失配会产生排斥应力场以反对持续的位错运动。随着更多的位错传播到该边
界，位错簇无法越过边界，位错就会“堆积”。由于位错产生排斥应力场，每个连续的位错都
会对入射到晶界的位错施加排斥力。这些排斥力作为一种驱动力来减少跨边界扩散的能量势
垒，这样额外的堆积会导致跨晶界的位错扩散，从而使材料进一步变形。减小晶粒尺寸会减
少边界处可能堆积的数量，增加使位错穿过晶界所需的施加应力。移动位错所需的施加应力
越高，屈服强度就越高。因此，晶粒尺寸和屈服强度之间存在反比关系

Why nylon is a strong polymer? (5 marks)

为什么尼龙是一种强力聚合物？（5 分）
Nylon is a lightweight synthetic polymer that also has long strands and hydrogen bonds, but it has a
more ordered molecular structure than the cellulose in cotton, which gives it higher tensile strength.
Like rungs of a ladder, the hydrogen bonds lock the rigid molecules into a tight formation.
尼龙是一种轻质合成聚合物，也具有长链和氢键，但它的分子结构比棉花中的纤维素更有序，这使其具
有更高的拉伸强度。就像梯子的横档一样，氢键将刚性分子锁定在一个紧密的结构中。

20. In making the HSLA steel, why it must be rolled at a high temperature? (5 marks)
在制造 HSLA 钢时，为什么必须在高温下轧制？（5 分）
HSLA stands for high-strength low-alloy steel. It is a type of carbon steel that has small amounts of
alloying elements added to its chemical composition. The alloying elements are used primarily to
increase the strength of the steel. In addition to being able to provide increased strength over carbon
steel, HSLA steel can also be made to have higher toughness and be more responsive to heat
treatment. The alloying elements can also be used to increase the corrosion resistance of the steel.
HSLA 代表高强度低合金钢。它是一种碳钢，其化学成分中添加了少量合金元素。合金元素
主要用于增加钢的强度。除了能够提供比碳钢更高的强度外，HSLA 钢还可以使其具有更高
的韧性，并且对热处理的反应更灵敏。合金元素也可用于增加钢的耐腐蚀性。

How Is HSLA Steel Made? HSLA 钢是如何制造的？

HSLA steel is made in a fashion similar to other types of steel. Iron ore and coal are combined in a
furnace which melts materials burns away some of the impurities. Varying amounts and types of
alloying elements are then added to the molten mixture, depending on the grade of HSLA steel.
Once the proper chemical composition has been achieved, several other steps are performed to
ensure there is a minimal level of contaminants in the HSLA steel. The steel is then allowed to
solidify into the form of a large rectangular ingot. The HSLA steel ingot is then worked down to
the final dimensions.
HSLA 钢的制造方式与其他类型的钢相似。铁矿石和煤在熔炉中结合，熔化材料会燃烧掉一
些杂质。然后根据 HSLA 钢的等级，将不同数量和类型的合金元素添加到熔融混合物中。
一旦达到适当的化学成分，就会执行其他几个步骤，以确保 HSLA 钢中的污染物水平最
低。然后让钢凝固成大矩形锭的形式。然后将 HSLA 钢锭加工到最终尺寸。

The heat treated low alloy steels and the as rolled HSLA steels also provide lower ductile-to-brittle
transition temperatures than do C steels.
热处理的低合金钢和轧制 HSLA 钢也提供比 C 钢更低的延展性到脆性转变温度。

HSLA steels are an attractive alternative in structural. High strength steels are used to reduce
section sizes for a given design load, which allows weight savings. Reductions in section size are
also beneficial in obtaining the desired strength level during the production of structural steel.
Whether steels are furnished in the as hot rolled or heat-treated condition, the strength levels tend to
decrease as section size increases. In as hot rolled or normalized steel, this results from the coarser
microstructure (larger grains and coarser pearlite) that develops from the slower cooling rates on
the rolling mill for the thicker sections. In quenched and tempered steels, the lower strengths result
since the transformation temperature increases as section thickness increases and the amount of
martensite (strongest microstructural constituent) progressively decreases. Thus, as the section size
increases, it becomes more difficult to obtain the strength levels characteristic of a particular alloy.
HSLA 钢在结构上是一种有吸引力的替代品。高强度钢用于减小给定设计载荷的截面尺寸，
从而减轻重量。减小截面尺寸也有利于在结构钢生产过程中获得所需的强度水平。无论钢是
在热轧还是热处理条件下，强度水平都会随着截面尺寸的增加而降低。在热轧钢或正火钢
中，这是由于较粗的微观结构（较大的晶粒和较粗的珠光体）是由轧机较慢的冷却速度发展
而来的较厚截面。在淬火和回火钢中，由于转变温度随着截面厚度的增加而升高，并且马氏
体（最强的微观结构成分）的数量逐渐减少，因此强度较低。因此，随着截面尺寸的增加，
获得特定合金的强度水平变得更加困难。

If the Young’s modulus and yield stress of a material are 200 GPa and 300 MPa, respectively,
what should be the allowable force applied to a one-meter bar with the cross-sectional area of
10 mm2 considering the safety factor of 2. What is the elongation of the bar under this
allowable force? (5 marks)
如果材料的杨氏模量和屈服应力分别为 200 GPa 和 300 MPa，则考虑到安全系数为 2，施加
在横截面积为 10 mm2 的一米杆上的允许力应该是多少。在这个允许力下，棒材的伸长率是
多少？（5 分）

Why the current smartphone screen can survive from drop tests?
为什么目前的智能手机屏幕可以在跌落测试中幸存下来？

Why symbols such as should be printed onto a plastic? (5 marks)

为什么要将诸如此类的符号印在塑料上？（5 分）
The On-Pack Recycling Label is designed to help consumers to correctly recycle or reuse packaging
correctly. It provides clear and simple advice to help you understand if the packaging can be recycled,
collected from your household recycling bins or if it can be taken to your local recycling centre.
包装上的回收标签旨在帮助消费者正确回收或正确重复使用包装。它提供了清晰而简单的建议，以帮助
您了解包装是否可以回收，是否可以从您的家庭回收箱中收集，或者是否可以带到当地的回收中心。

Describe two flat glass manufacturing technologies. (5 marks)

描述两种平板玻璃制造技术。（5 分）

Flat Glass Manufacturing

Float Glass and Rolled Glass 浮法玻璃和压延玻璃
Float Glass 浮法玻璃
The float process, invented by Sir Alastair Pilkington in 1952, makes flat glass. This process allows
the manufacture of clear, tinted and coated glass for buildings, and clear and tinted glass for
vehicles.
浮法工艺由 Alastair Pilkington 爵士于 1952 年发明，用于制造平板玻璃。该工艺允许制造用
于建筑物的透明、有色和镀膜玻璃，以及用于车辆的透明和有色玻璃。

There are around 260 float plants worldwide with a combined output of about 800,000 tonnes of
glass a week. A float plant, which operates non-stop for between 11-15 years, makes around 6000
kilometres of glass a year in thicknesses of 0.4mm to 25mm and in widths up to 3 metres.
全球约有 260 家浮法工厂，每周总产量约为 80 万吨玻璃。一个连续运行 11 到 15 年的浮法
工厂每年生产约 6000 公里厚度从 0.4 毫米到 25 毫米、宽度达 3 米的玻璃。

A float line can be nearly half a kilometre long. Raw materials enter at one end and from the other
plates of glass emerge, cut precisely to specification, at rates as high as 6,000 tonnes a week. In
between lie six highly integrated stages.
漂浮线可以长达近半公里。原材料从一端进入，然后从另一块玻璃板出来，按照规格精确切
割，速度高达每周 6,000 吨。中间有六个高度集成的阶段。

Stage 1: Melting and Refining 第一阶段：熔化和精炼

Fine-grained ingredients, closely controlled for quality, are mixed to make a batch, which flows
into the furnace which is heated to 1500°C.
细粒度的原料经过严格的质量控制，混合制成一批，流入加热至 1500°C 的熔炉。

Float today makes glass of near optical quality. Several processes – melting, refining,
homogenising – take place simultaneously in the 2,000 tonnes of molten glass in the furnace. They
occur in separate zones in a complex glass flow driven by high temperatures, as the diagram shows.
It adds up to a continuous melting process, lasting as long as 50 hours, that delivers glass at
1,100°C, free from inclusions and bubbles, smoothly and continuously to the float bath. The
melting process is key to glass quality; and compositions can be modified to change the properties
of the finished product.
今天的 Float 制造出接近光学质量的玻璃。在熔炉中的 2,000 吨熔融玻璃中同时进行几个过
程——熔化、精炼、均化。如图所示，它们出现在高温驱动的复杂玻璃流中的不同区域。它
加起来是一个持续长达 50 小时的连续熔化过程，在 1,100°C 下将玻璃平稳、连续地输送到
浮槽中，没有夹杂物和气泡。熔化过程是玻璃质量的关键；可以修改成分以改变成品的特
性。

Stage 2: Float Bath 第 2 阶段：浮浴

Glass from the melter flows gently over a refractory spout on to the mirror-like surface of molten
tin, starting at 1,100°C and leaving the float bath as a solid ribbon at 600°C.
来自熔化器的玻璃在 1,100°C 的温度下轻轻地流过耐火喷嘴，流到镜面般的熔融锡表面，然
后在 600°C 的温度下以固体带状形式离开浮槽。

The principle of float glass is unchanged from the 1950s but the product has changed dramatically:
from a single equilibrium thickness of 6.8mm to a range from sub-millimetre to 25mm; from a
ribbon frequently marred by inclusions, bubbles and striations to almost optical perfection. Float
delivers what is known as fire finish, the lustre of new chinaware.
从 1950 年代开始，浮法玻璃的原理没有改变，但产品却发生了巨大变化：从 6.8 毫米的单
一平衡厚度到亚毫米到 25 毫米的范围；从经常被夹杂物、气泡和条纹损坏的色带到近乎完
美的光学效果。Float 提供所谓的火饰面，即新瓷器的光泽。

Stage 4: Annealing 第 4 阶段：退火

Despite the tranquility with which float glass is formed, considerable stresses are developed in the
ribbon as it cools. Too much stress and the glass will break beneath the cutter. The picture shows
stresses through the ribbon, revealed by polarized light. To relieve these stresses the ribbon
undergoes heat-treatment in a long furnace known as a lehr. Temperatures are closely controlled
both along and across the ribbon.
尽管浮法玻璃形成时很平静，但在玻璃带冷却时会产生相当大的应力。压力太大，玻璃会在
切割器下方破裂。图片显示通过带的应力，由偏振光显示。为了减轻这些应力，带材会在称
为退火炉的长炉中进行热处理。色带沿线和横跨色带的温度都受到严密控制。

Stage 5: Inspection 第五阶段：检查

The float process is renowned for making perfectly flat, flaw-free glass. But to ensure the highest
quality, inspection takes place at every stage. Occasionally a bubble is not removed during refining,
a sand grain refuses to melt, a tremor in the tin puts ripples into the glass ribbon. Automated on-line
inspection does two things. It reveals process faults upstream that can be corrected enabling
computers downstream to steer cutters round flaws. Inspection technology now allows more than
100 million measurements a second to be made across the ribbon, locating flaws the unaided eye
would be unable to see.
浮法工艺以制造完美平整、无瑕疵的玻璃而闻名。但为确保最高质量，每个阶段都会进行检
查。偶尔在精炼过程中气泡没有被去除，沙粒拒绝熔化，锡的震颤在玻璃带上产生涟漪。自
动在线检查做两件事。它揭示了上游的过程故障，这些故障可以得到纠正，使下游的计算机
能够引导切割机绕过缺陷。现在的检测技术每秒可以在色带上进行超过 1 亿次测量，定位肉
眼无法看到的缺陷。
The data drives ‘intelligent’ cutters, further improving product quality to the customer.
数据驱动“智能”切割机，进一步提高客户的产品质量。

Stage 6: Cutting to order 第 6 阶段：按订单切割

Diamond wheels trim off selvedge – stressed edges – and cut the ribbon to size dictated by
computer. Float glass is sold by the square meter. Computers translate customers’ requirements into
patterns of cuts designed to minimize wastage.
金刚石砂轮修整边缘 - 受压边缘 - 并将色带切割成计算机指定的尺寸。浮法玻璃按平方米出
售。计算机将客户的要求转化为旨在最大限度减少浪费的切割模式。

Rolled Glass 压延玻璃

The rolling process is used for the manufacture of solar panel glass, patterned flat glass and wired
glass. A continuous stream of molten glass is poured between water-cooled rollers.
Rolled glass is increasingly used in PV modules and thermal collectors because of its higher
transmittance. There is little cost difference between rolled and float glass.
Rolled glass is special due to its macroscopic structure. The higher the transmittance the better and
today high performance low iron rolled glass will reach typically 91% transmittance.
It is also possible to introduce a surface structure on the surface of the glass. Different surface
structures are chosen depending on the intended application.
压延工艺用于制造太阳能电池板玻璃、压花平板玻璃和夹丝玻璃。连续的熔融玻璃流倒入水
冷辊之间。压延玻璃因其较高的透光率而越来越多地用于光伏组件和集热器。压延玻璃和浮
法玻璃之间几乎没有成本差异。压延玻璃因其宏观结构而具有特殊性。透光率越高越好，如
今高性能低铁压延玻璃的透光率通常会达到 91%。也可以在玻璃表面引入表面结构。根据
预期应用选择不同的表面结构。

A burred surface structure is often used to enhance adhesive strength between EVA and glass in PV
applications. Structured glass is used in both PV and thermo solar applications.
带毛刺的表面结构通常用于增强 PV 应用中 EVA 和玻璃之间的粘合强度。结构化玻璃用于
光伏和太阳能热应用。
Patterned glass is made in a single pass process in which glass flows to the rollers at a temperature
of about 1050°C. The bottom cast iron or stainless steel roller is engraved with the negative of the
pattern; the top roller is smooth. Thickness is controlled by adjustment of the gap between the
rollers. The ribbon leaves the rollers at about 850°C and is supported over a series of water cooled
steel rollers to the annealing lehr. After annealing the glass is cut to size.
压花玻璃采用单程工艺制成，其中玻璃在约 1050°C 的温度下流向滚筒。底部铸铁或不锈钢
滚轮刻有图案的底片；上辊光滑。厚度通过调节辊之间的间隙来控制。条带在大约 850°C
的温度下离开滚筒，并通过一系列水冷钢滚筒支撑到退火炉。退火后，玻璃被切割成一定尺
寸。

Wired glass is made in a double pass process. The process uses two independently driven pairs of
water cooled forming rollers each fed with a separate flow of molten glass from a common melting
furnace. The first pair of rollers produces a continuous ribbon of glass, half the thickness of the end
product. This is overlaid with a wire mesh. A second feed of glass, to give a ribbon the same
thickness as the first, is then added and, with the wire mesh “sandwiched”, the ribbon passes
through the second pair of rollers which form the final ribbon of wired glass. After annealing, the
ribbon is cut by special cutting and snapping arrangements.
夹丝玻璃采用双程工艺制成。该工艺使用两对独立驱动的水冷成型辊，每个辊从普通熔化炉
供给单独的熔融玻璃流。第一对辊生产连续的玻璃带，其厚度是最终产品的一半。这是用金
属丝网覆盖的。然后添加第二次玻璃进料，使玻璃带与第一次进料具有相同的厚度，并且在
金属丝网“夹在中间”的情况下，玻璃带通过第二对辊子，形成最终的夹丝玻璃带。退火后，
通过特殊的切割和折断装置切割带。

Why a Corning-war cookware can be fired but normal glass containers cannot? (5 marks)
为什么康宁皿炊具可以烧制，而普通玻璃容器不能？（5 分）
Glass materials are generally transparent and very brittle (when not heat treated). The transparency
is a result of the lack of grain boundaries and pores in the structure of the glass. This lack of grain
boundaries also leads to the brittleness, as cracks can propagate unhindered.
玻璃材料通常是透明的并且非常脆（未经热处理时）。透明度是玻璃结构中缺乏晶界和孔隙
的结果。缺乏晶界也会导致脆性，因为裂纹可以不受阻碍地传播。
Glass ceramic materials have the same chemical compositions as glasses but differ from them in
that they are typically 95-98% crystalline by volume, with only a small percentage vitreous. The
crystals themselves are generally very small, less than 1µm and most often very uniform in size.
Furthermore, due to their crystallinity and network of grain boundaries, they are no longer
transparent.
玻璃陶瓷材料具有与玻璃相同的化学成分，但与玻璃的不同之处在于它们通常有 95-98% 的
体积结晶，只有一小部分玻璃质。晶体本身通常非常小，小于 1µm，而且通常尺寸非常均
匀。此外，由于它们的结晶度和晶界网络，它们不再透明。
Glass-ceramics are polycrystalline materials produced through controlled crystallization of base
glass, producing a fine uniform dispersion of crystals throughout the bulk material. Crystallization
is accomplished by subjecting suitable glasses to a carefully regulated heat treatment schedule,
resulting in the nucleation and growth of crystal phases.
玻璃陶瓷是通过基础玻璃的受控结晶生产的多晶材料，在整个块状材料中产生精细均匀的晶
体分散。结晶是通过对合适的玻璃进行仔细调节的热处理计划来实现的，从而导致晶相的成
核和生长。在许多情况下，结晶过程可以进行到接近完成，但在一小部分过程中，残留的玻
璃相通常会保留下来。
properties can be tailored by controlling the base-glass composition and by controlled heat
treatment/crystallization of base glass.可以通过控制基础玻璃成分和控制基础玻璃的热处理/结
晶来定制。
"new basic material" called Pyroceram which was touted as light, durable, capable of being an
electrical insulator and yet thermally shock resistant.
称为 Pyroceram 的“新基础材料”，这种材料被吹捧为轻便、耐用、能够成为电绝缘体并且具
有耐热冲击性

diamond is valued by “cut”, “clarity”, “carat” and “color”, which of them can be regarded as
property and why? (5 marks)
钻石的价值在于“切工”、“净度”、“克拉”和“颜色”，其中哪一个可以被视为财产，为什么？
（5 分）
Their price depends on a number of variables—weight is just one of them.
Carat is also called carat weight because it refers to how much a diamond weighs rather than how
big the diamond is. A one-carat diamond weighs 0.2 grams. Because diamond carat refers to how
much a diamond weighs and not the size of the diamond, the carat weight is the least important of
the 4 C’s of diamonds. Two diamonds with the same diamond carat weight but different shapes can
be significantly different in size.
它们的价格取决于许多变量——重量只是其中之一。
克拉也称为克拉重量，因为它指的是钻石的重量，而不是钻石的大小。一克拉钻石重 0.2
克。因为钻石克拉是指钻石的重量而不是钻石的大小，所以克拉重量是钻石 4 C 中最不重要
的。两颗钻石克拉重量相同但形状不同的钻石在尺寸上可能明显不同。

As we mentioned above, diamonds are all priced per carat.

Diamond prices per carat increase as you jump up to higher weight categories. In short, the higher
the diamond’s carat weight, the higher the total amount you’ll need to pay per carat to purchase the
diamond.
正如我们上面提到的，钻石都是按克拉计价的。假设一颗 0.50 克拉的钻石的价格为每克拉
1400 美元。这颗钻石的价格为 1400 美元 * 0.50，即 700 美元。或者，假设一颗 1 克拉的钻
石的价格为每克拉 4,100 美元。这颗很容易计算——因为钻石是 1 克拉，所以这颗钻石的价
格完全相同——4,100 美元。
每克拉钻石价格随着您跳到更高重量类别而增加。简而言之，钻石的克拉重量越高，您购买
钻石每克拉需要支付的总金额就越高。
What is the density of a fictive FCC pure material with atomic radius 100 pm (1 pm= 10-12
m) and atomic mass 100 g/mol? (5 marks)
原子半径为 100 pm（1 pm= 10-12 m）且原子质量为 100 g/mol 的虚构 FCC 纯材料的密度是
多少？（5 分）

Why a thermos with metallic shell can insulate heat? (5 marks)

37. 为什么金属外壳的保温瓶可以隔热?(5 分)
You can wrap the hot thing up in a material that doesn't conduct heat well. Then the soup won't be
able to cool off easily, because the heat can't escape into its surroundings. 绝缘。您可以将热的东
西包裹在导热性能不佳的材料中。这样汤就不容易冷却，因为热量无法散失到周围环境中。
Air is, in fact, a pretty good insulator, which is why styrofoam keeps things hot. It's full of air.
事实上，空气是一种很好的绝缘体，这就是为什么聚苯乙烯泡沫塑料能使物体保持高温的原
因。它充满了空气。

But even better than that would be a vacuum. Because there's nothing in it to heat up, heat can't
conduct through it. A vacuum is the best insulator of all, and that's the principle behind a thermos.
但比这更好的是真空。因为里面没有任何东西可以加热，所以热量无法通过它传导。真空是
最好的绝缘体，这就是热水瓶背后的原理。

A Vacuum
A thermos is a flask with a double-walled container inside it. Air is removed from the space in-
between the walls. Now heat can't escape from the soup; it's surrounded by a vacuum.
真空
热水瓶是一个烧瓶，里面有一个双层壁容器。空气从壁之间的空间中移除。现在热量无法从
汤中逸出；它被真空包围。

为什么塑料不做热水瓶
trength:
Thermose get their insulative ability from the vacuum between the inner and outer layers. A thin
shell of stainless steel can withstand the considerable forces trying to crush the vacuum chamber.
I'm sure you could make a plastic thermos, but it would take a lot more plastic, be heavier, and
probably cost more. Plastic also has a bad habit of gradually "flowing" to relieve stress. In the
engineering world we call this "creep," and it could mean that after a few years (less if you
consistently put hot liquids in your thermos), the thermos would have permanently deformed to the
point where it was unable to perform well.
热水瓶（的绝缘能力来自内层和外层之间的真空。薄的不锈钢外壳可以承受试图压碎真空室
的相当大的力量。我相信你可以制造一个塑料热水瓶，但它需要更多的塑料，更重，而且可
能成本更高。塑料还有一个坏习惯，就是逐渐“流动”以缓解压力。在工程界，我们称之为
“蠕变”，这可能意味着几年后（如果您一直将热液体放入热水瓶中则更少），热水瓶将永
久变形到无法正常工作的程度。
Thermal emissivity:
Of the 3 modes of heat transfer (conduction, convection, and radiation) the vacuum chamber is
exceptionally effective at preventing only the first two. Radiation on the other hand has no problem
moving through a vacuum (fortunately so for all life on Earth). A polished metallic surface is very
good at minimizing the heat flow due to radiation, plastics are not.
热发射率：
在 3 种热传递模式（传导、对流和辐射）中，真空室仅在防止前两种模式方面特别有效。另
一方面，辐射在真空中移动没有问题（幸运的是地球上的所有生命都是如此）。抛光的金属
表面可以很好地减少辐射引起的热流，而塑料则不然。查看此表中的值：
Diffusion:
I suspect this may be the biggest reason. As a general rule, plastics are not really "air tight" in the
long term. Most plastics will allow at least some common gasses to diffuse right through them over
time. Oxygen for example is quite good at diffusing through plastic, which presents a challenge
when packaging food in plastic. (Milk jugs are made of HDPE specifically because it's pretty good
at blocking oxygen). For a thermos, you have a relatively small volume at near vacuum with a very
large surface area, even a slow diffusion of gas through these walls would quickly negate the
vacuum and render your thermos ineffective.
扩散：
我怀疑这可能是最大的原因。一般来说，从长远来看，塑料并不是真正的“气密”。随着时
间的推移，大多数塑料至少会允许一些常见气体通过它们扩散。例如，氧气非常善于通过塑
料扩散，这在用塑料包装食品时提出了挑战。（牛奶罐是由 HDPE 制成的，因为它非常擅
长阻隔氧气）。对于热水瓶，在接近真空的情况下体积相对较小，表面积非常大，即使气体
通过这些壁缓慢扩散也会迅速抵消真空并使热水瓶失效。

7.Why it was argued that copper smelting started before the usage of bronze?(5 marks)
为什么有人认为铜冶炼在使用青铜之前就开始了？
The earliest current evidence of copper smelting, dating from between 5500 BC and 5000 BC, has
been found in Pločnik and Belovode, Serbia.[12][13] A mace head found in Turkey and dated to
5000 BC, once thought to be the oldest evidence, now appears to be hammered, native copper.[14]
目前最早的铜冶炼证据可追溯到公元前 5500 年至公元前 5000 年，发现于塞尔维亚的
Pločnik 和 Belovode。[12] [13]一个在土耳其发现的锤头，可追溯到公元前 5000 年，曾经被
认为是最古老的证据，现在看来是用天然铜锤打的。[14]
Combining copper with tin and/or arsenic in the right proportions produces bronze, an alloy that is
significantly harder than copper. The first copper/arsenic bronzes date from 4200 BC from Asia
Minor.
将铜与锡和/或砷以正确的比例结合会产生青铜，这是一种比铜坚硬得多的合金。第一批铜/
砷青铜器可追溯到公元前 4200 年的小亚细亚。

Native copper was likely used first, as it did not require any process to purify it. It could have been
hammered into shapes although it would have been very brittle. Annealing was the first step toward
true metallurgy, when people discovered that copper became more flexible and easy to work with
when it was heated before hammering. Next, casting of molten copper into molds was developed.
At some point humans discovered copper ore and — possibly by accident — that the ore could be
heated to very high temperatures in a low-oxygen environment to melt out the pure copper, a
process known as smelting. This lent more flexibility to copper crafting; no longer was native
copper the only kind of useful copper if copper could be extracted from ores.
很可能首先使用天然铜，因为它不需要任何工艺来提纯。它可以被锤打成形状，尽管它会非
常脆弱。退火是迈向真正冶金学的第一步，当时人们发现铜在锤击前加热后会变得更加柔韧
且易于加工。接下来，开发了将熔融铜浇铸到模具中的方法。在某个时候，人类发现了铜矿
石——可能是偶然的——矿石可以在低氧环境中被加热到非常高的温度以熔化出纯铜，这一
过程被称为熔炼。这为铜工艺提供了更大的灵活性；如果可以从矿石中提取铜，天然铜不再
是唯一有用的铜。

8.How to make strong thermoplastics?(5 marks

如何制作坚固的热塑性塑料？

玻璃纤维 Glass fibers

Glass fibers are the most common type of thermoplastic

additive used for injection molding. Glass fibers significantly
improve the strength and rigidity of the plastic to which they
are added, but the fibers also make the plastic more brittle. As
such, glass fibers are only recommended for applications in
which the part will not have to endure high-impact stress or
deflection.
玻璃纤维是用于注塑成型的最常见的热塑性塑料添加剂。
玻璃纤维显着提高了添加它们的塑料的强度和刚度，但纤
维也使塑料更脆。因此，仅建议将玻璃纤维用于零件不必
承受高冲击应力或挠曲的应用。

However, adding glass fibers to a thermoplastic resin will

impact the molding and design process in various ways. For
example, glass fibers can restrict the shrink rate of the base
resin, which creates a nonlinear shrink pattern and increases
the risk of warp. When resins shrink in an uneven fashion,
holes, unanticipated changes in flow and shape, and changes
in wall thickness can occur. Engineers must keep these risks in
mind when considering glass fibers.
然而，将玻璃纤维添加到热塑性树脂中会以各种方式影响
成型和设计过程。例如，玻璃纤维会限制基础树脂的收缩
率，从而产生非线性收缩模式并增加翘曲的风险。当树脂
以不均匀的方式收缩时，可能会出现孔洞、流动和形状的意外变化以及壁厚的变化。工程师
在考虑玻璃纤维时必须牢记这些风险。

Ceramic fillers 陶瓷填料

Ceramic fillers can be added to a thermoplastic to make the part more heat-resistant. Ceramic fillers
are similar to glass fibers in that they both lend strength to a part — unfortunately, they share the
same limitations. Parts featuring ceramic fillers can be brittle and are more susceptible to chipping
or cracking upon impact. 可以将陶瓷填料添加到热塑性塑料中，使零件更耐热。陶瓷填料与
玻璃纤维相似，因为它们都为零件提供强度——不幸的是，它们具有相同的局限性。采用陶
瓷填料的零件可能很脆，更容易在撞击时碎裂或开裂。
Fiber orientation and shape play an important role when it comes to employing ceramic fillers and
glass fibers. Fibers, flakes, powders, and beads are all dimensionally different and can therefore
affect certain properties of the part.
在使用陶瓷填料和玻璃纤维时，纤维取向和形状起着重要作用。纤维、薄片、粉末和珠子在
尺寸上都是不同的，因此会影响零件的某些特性。

For example, beads are uniform, stackable, and increase the thermal deflection of the thermoplastic.
Also, beads minimize the impact of any internal stressors caused by the filler. Unfortunately, beads
don’t increase the strength of a material very much. Once engineers choose the best-suited additive
or filler material for their needs, they must also consider the shape of that filler or additive.
例如，珠子是均匀的、可堆叠的，并增加了热塑性塑料的热变形。此外，珠子可最大限度地
减少由填料引起的任何内部应力源的影响。不幸的是，珠子不会增加材料的强度。一旦工程
师选择了最适合他们需要的添加剂或填料材料，他们还必须考虑该填料或添加剂的形状。

增稠剂 Thickeners
工程师经常向树脂基液体聚合物中添加增稠剂，以使其更粘稠。大多数增稠添加剂来自成盐
或亲水性聚合物组，因为它们形成三维键，可在低剪切速率下减慢塑料的运动。增稠剂存在
于粘合剂、密封剂、涂料和一些个人护理产品中。
Engineers often add thickeners to resin-based liquid polymers to make them more viscous. Most
thickening additives come from groups of salt-forming or hydrophilic polymers because they form
three-dimensional bonds that slow down the motion of the plastic at low shear rates. Thickeners can
be found in adhesives, sealants, coatings, and some personal care products.

Antioxidants 抗氧化剂
When a polymer reacts with oxygen, the material can lose its strength and elongation. Also,
oxidation can cause discoloration and cracks in the part’s surface finish. Antioxidants are added to
thermoplastics to prevent oxidation and slow down degradation in the presence of excessive heat,
ozone, and radiation. Antioxidants also protect the part from free radicals and UV light, making it
ideal for applications in which the part will come into contact with potentially harmful weather
conditions.
当聚合物与氧气发生反应时，材料会失去强度和伸长率。此外，氧化会导致零件表面光洁度
变色和开裂。抗氧化剂被添加到热塑性塑料中，以防止氧化并减缓在过热、臭氧和辐射存在
下的降解。抗氧化剂还可以保护零件免受自由基和紫外线的伤害，使其成为零件会接触潜在
有害天气条件的应用的理想选择。

9. Why some ductile metals become stronger after cold working?(5 marks)
为什么有些延展性金属在冷加工后会变得更强？
cold working causes the crystal grains and inclusions to distort following the flow of the metal;
which may cause work hardening and anisotropic material properties. Work hardening makes the
metal harder, stiffer, and stronger 冷加工会导致晶粒和夹杂物随着金属的流动而变形；这可能
会导致加工硬化和各向异性材料特性。加工硬化使金属更硬、更坚硬、更坚固
In cold rolling, the grains become elongated in the rolling direction. This increases the strength
through work hardening, but ductility decreases. The higher the % cold work (ie % reduction in
thickness), the lower the ductility. Because the grains are elongated in one direction they develop a
preferred orientation.在冷轧中，晶粒在轧制方向上变长。这通过加工硬化增加了强度，但延
展性降低了。冷加工百分比（即厚度减少百分比）越高，延展性越低。因为晶粒在一个方向
上被拉长，所以它们会形成一个优先方向。
When these metals are cold worked, permanent defects change their crystalline makeup. These
defects reduce the ability of crystals to move within the metal structure and the metal becomes
more resistant to further deformation.当这些金属被冷加工时，永久性缺陷会改变它们的晶体
结构。这些缺陷降低了晶体在金属结构内移动的能力，并且金属变得更能抵抗进一步变形

10.Dupont introduce an ionomer to the laminate glass industrywhich is named

SentryGlasPlus(SGP).It is claimed that this ionomer can achieve much higher adhesive
strength than conventional polymer interlayers.The following figure shows an ionomer. Based
on this figure what is your best guess of the reason for the strong adhesion between SGP and
oxide glass?(5 marks)
杜邦将一种离聚物引入夹层玻璃行业，名为 SentryGlasPlus（SGP）。据称，这种离聚物可
以实现比传统聚合物中间膜高得多的粘合强度。下图显示了电离物。根据这个数字，您对
SGP 和氧化物玻璃之间具有强粘附力的原因的最佳猜测是什么？（5 分）

11.In making the HSLA steel, why a small amount of Niobium(Nb) is added?(5 marks)
11.In 制造 HSLA 钢，为什么要添加少量铌（Nb）？（5 分）
In HSLA steel niobium is often less than 0.1% of the total alloy, but its role as a grain refiner
makes a significant difference by increasing strength, weldability, ductility, and toughness of the
steel.在 HSLA 钢中，铌的含量通常低于总合金的 0.1%，但其作为晶粒细化剂的作用通过提
高钢的强度、可焊性、延展性和韧性产生了显着差异。

The addition of niobium to stainless steel generally forms carbide precipitates, which bring about a
beneficial dispersion hardening effect in the matrix; at the same time, it prevents the formation of
chromium carbide, which would have a detrimental embrittling effect on the material.不锈钢中加
入铌一般会形成碳化物析出物，在基体中带来有益的弥散硬化作用；同时，它可以防止碳化
铬的形成，碳化铬会对材料产生不利的脆化影响
By an addition of niobium, the yield point and Charpy impact value of steel material are
remarkably improved and the ratio of yield point to tensile strength increases.添加铌后，钢材的
屈服点和夏比冲击值显着提高，屈服点与抗拉强度之比增加。
The ability of Nb to maintain fine grain sizes in steels at higher temperatures 铌在较高温度下保持
钢中细晶粒尺寸的能力

Influence of Nb on steelsNb 对钢的影响

Nb also depresses the g – d transformation temperature, which contributes to the formation of
extremely fine acicular ferrite or bainite grains with high dislocation densities. Such
microstructures result in steels with high strength and good notch toughness. Since C content in
these steels can be quite low, weldability is normally very high in these high strength steels. The
ferrite in micro alloyed steels can be further strengthened by precipitation of extremely small Nb
carbonitride particles during transformation. Nb 还降低 g-d 转变温度，这有助于形成极细的针
状铁素体或具有高位错密度的贝氏体晶粒。这种微观结构导致钢具有高强度和良好的缺口韧
性。由于这些钢中的 C 含量可能非常低，因此这些高强度钢的可焊性通常非常高。相变过
程中极小的 Nb 碳氮化物颗粒析出可进一步强化微合金钢中的铁素体。

Normalized as well as quenched and tempered steels utilize the grain growth inhibiting effect of Nb
during normalizing or austenitizing. The finer grains that result from Nb additions increase strength
and toughness at constant CEV levels, or permit constant strength and toughness levels to be
maintained at lower CEV levels. Other benefits that are obtained from Nb additions include the
development of favourable crystallographic textures and elimination of strain aging, with improved
formability. This depends on the degree to which C and N (nitrogen) are combined as Nb
carbonitrides. Sufficient removal of C and N from solid solution in ferrite results in the production
of (interstitial-free) steels. 正火钢和调质钢在正火或奥氏体化过程中利用 Nb 的晶粒生长抑制
作用。由添加 Nb 产生的更细的晶粒在恒定的 CEV 水平下增加了强度和韧性，或者允许在
较低的 CEV 水平下保持恒定的强度和韧性水平。添加 Nb 获得的其他好处包括形成有利的
晶体结构和消除应变时效，并提高可成形性。这取决于 C 和 N（氮）结合为 Nb 碳氮化物的
程度。从铁素体固溶体中充分去除 C 和 N 会导致生产（无间隙）钢。

In low C alloy steels, Nb lowers the transition temperature and aids in a fine grain structure. Nb
retards tempering and can decrease the hardenability of steel because it forms very stable carbides.
This can mean a reduction in the amount of C dissolved into the austenite during heat treating.
在低 C 合金钢中，Nb 降低转变温度并有助于形成细晶粒结构。Nb 会延迟回火并降低钢的
淬透性，因为它会形成非常稳定的碳化物。这可能意味着在热处理过程中溶解到奥氏体中的
C 量减少。

12.If the Young’s modulus and yield stress of a material are 70 GPa and 200
MPa,respectively what should be the allowable force applied to a 500-mm bar with the cross-
sectional area of 10 mm considering the safety factor of2.What is the elongation of the bar
under this allowable force?(5 marks)
12.如果材料的杨氏模量和屈服应力分别为 70 GPa 和 200 MPa，则考虑安全系数 2，施加在
横截面积为 10 mm 的 500 mm 棒材上的允许力是多少。在这个允许力下，棒材的伸长率是
多少？（5 分）

13.Why flame polishing can improve toughness ofglass but generally not effective for
ceramics?
13.为什么火焰抛光可以提高玻璃的韧性，但通常对陶瓷无效？
Flame polishing is a method used to shine the edge of a plastic material by exposing it to a
flame or heat. By melting the surface of the material, surface tension smooths out the surface.
火焰抛光是一种通过将塑料材料暴露在火焰或热量中来使塑料材料的边缘发光的方法。通过
熔化材料的表面，表面张力使表面光滑。

14. What is the role of recycling symbols like PET?(5 marks)

14. PET 等回收符号的作用是什么？（5 分）
These symbols help consumers to identify different types of plastic resin used to make the
product. They were applied to help assist with the sorting of plastics. Like many materials
plastics should be recycled separately, so the value of the of the recycled material is
preserved.

15.Why are many church windows made of small pieces of glass?(5 marks
15.为什么许多教堂的窗户都是用小块玻璃做的？（5 分
16. Explain the rectification effect of a diode?(5 marks)
16. 解释二极管的整流效果？（5 分）
An ideal p-n junction diode has zero resistance in forward direction and infinite resistance in
reverse bias. This can be used to eliminate the negative cycles in an AC voltage waveform and
allow only the positive cycles. This process is called rectification and is useful in many
applications like AC to DC conversion.理想的 pn 结二极管正向电阻为零，反向电阻为无穷
大。这可用于消除交流电压波形中的负循环并仅允许正循环。这个过程称为整流，在交流到
直流转换等许多应用中都很有用。

A characteristic of diodes is that current flows (forward direction) or current does not flow
(reverse direction) depending on the direction of applied voltage. Utilizing this property, the
diode works to rectify the AC voltage. 二极管的特性是电流流动（正向）或电流不流动（反
向）取决于施加电压的方向。利用此特性，二极管可对交流电压进行整流

17.Knowing that a fictive pure material ofFCC structure has a density of29.35 g/cm3what is
the atomic radius and the atomic mass of100g/molwhat is the atomic radius?(5 marks)
17.知道 FCC 结构的虚构纯材料密度为 29.35 g/cm3 什么是原子半径和原子质量 100g/mol 什
么是原子半径？（5 分）

18. Why down-filled jackets can keep warm?(5 marks) 18. 为什么羽绒夹克可以保暖？（5
分）
Down feathers and other insulation keep you warm through trapping heat from your body in tiny air
pockets within the insulation, so higher fill ratings mean more trapped air, which translates to more
warmth per ounce of down.羽绒和其他保暖材料通过将身体的热量收集在保暖材料内的微小
气穴中来保持温暖，因此更高的填充率意味着更多的空气，这意味着每盎司羽绒的保暖性更
高
The way in which a jacket is sewn matters. In short, so-called “sewn through” construction stitches
the outer, shell fabric to the inner, liner fabric, creating pockets of down, but also creating cold
spots at seams where there’s effectively no insulation. This method reduces a jacket’s weight and
often its cost,夹克的缝制方式很重要。简而言之，所谓的“缝合”结构将外层面料缝合到内
层面料上，形成羽绒袋，但也在实际上没有隔热效果的接缝处形成冷点。这种方法减轻了夹
克的重量，通常也降低了成本

19.Aluminum and iron are much more abundant than copper in the earth crust.For each of
them explain why they were not used in the bronze age?
19.地壳中的铝和铁比铜丰富得多。对于他们每个人解释为什么它们在青铜时代没有使用？

2. Exemplify metals with melting point(a)belowroom temperature(b)between500-700℃and

above 2000℃ and address one application of each of them.(5 marks)
2. 举例说明熔点（a）低于室温（b）在 500-700°C 之间和高于 2000°C 的金属，并解决每种
金属的一种应用。（5 分）

3.What will happen inside rubber if it is exposed to sunlight for a long time?(5 marks)
3.橡胶内部长时间暴露在阳光下会发生什么？（5 分
Ultraviolet light from sunlight and fluorescent lighting also has a seriously detrimental effect on
rubber because it accelerates rubber deterioration by producing photochemical reactions that
promote the oxidation of the rubber surface resulting in a loss in mechanical strength. This is
known as ‘UV degradation’. In belts that are not fully resistant, the combined effect of ozone and
ultraviolet not only dramatically reduce operational lifetime, they also cause significant
environmental and health and safety problems because fine particles of dust penetrate the cracks
which are then discharged (shaken out) on the return (underside) run of the belt.
来自太阳光和荧光灯的紫外线对橡胶也有严重的不利影响，因为它通过产生光化学反应加速
橡胶劣化，从而促进橡胶表面的氧化，从而导致机械强度损失。这被称为“紫外线降解”。
在不完全耐受的皮带中，臭氧和紫外线的综合作用不仅会大大缩短使用寿命，还会造成严重
的环境、健康和安全问题，因为细小的灰尘颗粒会穿透裂缝，然后在皮带上排出（抖落）皮
带返回（底部）运行。
A loss of elasticity and flexibility – exposure to UV radiation is a sure-fire way to eliminate the
usefulness of this material. In destroying the monomer chains, the properties that make NR so
favourable are removed.
失去弹性和柔韧性——暴露于紫外线辐射是消除这种材料效用的必经之路。在破坏单体链的
过程中，使天然橡胶如此受欢迎的特性被去除。
A loss of mass – an IOP Science study highlighted the correlation between UV exposure and
weight reduction when dealing with varying rubbers. The study subjecting varying rubber materials
to two separate conditions of extreme heat – including UV weathering aging and being placed
within an oven. Recording the effect on weight periodically across two weeks, NR experienced
significant shrinkage in both environments.
质量损失——IOP Science 的一项研究强调了在处理不同橡胶时，紫外线照射与重量减轻之
间的相关性。该研究将不同的橡胶材料置于两种不同的极端高温条件下——包括紫外线风化
老化和放置在烤箱中。在两周内定期记录对体重的影响，NR 在两种环境中都经历了显着的
收缩。
The forming of cracks – this is commonly found when UV radiation meets a stretched rubber
surface. While in some cases this isn’t an instant death sentence for your product, it does have the
potential to be.裂纹的形成——当紫外线辐射遇到拉伸的橡胶表面时，通常会发现这种情况。
虽然在某些情况下，这不会立即宣判您的产品死刑，但它确实有可能成为死刑。

4.Describe the difference between crystal precipitation in glass and in metals in terms of their
purposes.(5 marks)
4.描述玻璃和金属中晶体析出的区别。（5 分）
5. How to make carbon fibers strongfor reinforcing applications?(5 marks5. 如何使碳纤维在
增强应用中变得坚固？（5 分

6. What is steel and why steel can have high strength?(5 marks
6.什么是钢，为什么钢可以具有高强度？（5 分
What is Steel?
Steel is an alloy, or a combination of different metals, or of a metal with a nonmetal. We
make steel by combining iron with carbon (which is a nonmetal), and sometimes other
materials too. Usually, we create alloys because they have better properties than the
individual metals would on their own. Steel has better strength, durability, low cost, high
density, and high melting point than iron—all of which make it a very practical material for
building and for creating everyday objects.
什么是钢？
钢是一种合金，或不同金属的组合，或金属与非金属的组合。我们通过将铁与碳（一种非金
属）结合来制造钢，有时也包括其他材料。通常，我们制造合金是因为它们比单独的金属具
有更好的性能。与铁相比，钢具有更好的强度、耐用性、低成本、高密度和高熔点——所有
这些都使其成为一种非常实用的建筑材料和日常用品。

Why is Steel So Strong?

In iron, the structure of the actual atoms of the material are flexible, so the material gives
away under pressure relatively easily. Atoms can glide around in many materials, even
metals. This phenomenon is called dislocation. But, add a bit of carbon, and the iron
molecules cannot move as easily. The material is hardened and can withstand much more
pressure. In short, steel is so strong because the carbon atoms stop the iron atoms from
moving past one another. The compromise is that steel is more rigid and less flexible than
iron as a result.
为什么钢铁如此坚固？
在铁中，材料的实际原子结构是灵活的，因此材料在压力下相对容易释放。原子可以在许多
材料中滑动，甚至是金属。这种现象称为错位。但是，添加一点碳，铁分子就不能轻易移动
了。该材料经过硬化处理，可以承受更大的压力。简而言之，钢之所以如此坚固，是因为碳
原子阻止了铁原子相互移动。折衷方案是钢比铁更硬，更不灵活。

Polymer 强化聚合物
Polymers fracture via breaking of inter- and intra molecular bonds; hence, the chemical structure of
these materials plays a huge role in increasing strength. For polymers consisting of chains which
easily slide past each other, chemical and physical cross linking can be used to increase rigidity and
yield strength. In thermoset polymers (thermosetting plastic), disulfide bridges and other covalent
cross links give rise to a hard structure which can withstand very high temperatures. These cross-
links are particularly helpful in improving tensile strength of materials which contain much free
volume prone to crazing, typically glassy brittle polymers.[8] In thermoplastic elastomer, phase
separation of dissimilar monomer components leads to association of hard domains within a sea of
soft phase, yielding a physical structure with increased strength and rigidity. If yielding occurs by
chains sliding past each other (shear bands), the strength can also be increased by introducing kinks
into the polymer chains via unsaturated carbon-carbon bonds.[8]
聚合物 通过分子间和分子内键的断裂而断裂；因此，这些材料的化学结构在增加强度方面
起着巨大的作用。对于由容易相互滑过的链组成的聚合物，可以使用化学和物理交联来增加
刚性和屈服强度。在热固性聚合物（热固性塑料）中，二硫键和其他共价交联键产生可以承
受非常高温度的硬结构。这些交联特别有助于提高含有大量易于开裂的自由体积的材料的拉
伸强度，通常是玻璃状脆性聚合物。[8]在热塑性弹性体中，不同单体成分的相分离导致软
相海中硬域的结合，产生强度和刚度增加的物理结构。如果屈服是由于链条相互滑动（剪切
带）而发生的，则还可以通过不饱和碳-碳键在聚合物链中引入扭结来提高强度。[8]

Adding filler materials such as fibers, platelets, and particles is a commonly employed technique
for strengthening polymer materials. Fillers such as clay, silica, and carbon network materials have
been extensively researched and used in polymer composites in part due to their effect on
mechanical properties. Stiffness-confinement effects near rigid interfaces, such as those between a
polymer matrix and stiffer filler materials, enhance the stiffness of composites by restricting
polymer chain motion.[9] This is especially present where fillers are chemically treated to strongly
interact with polymer chains, increasing the anchoring of polymer chains to the filler interfaces and
thus further restricting the motion of chains away from the interface.[10] Stiffness-confinement
effects have been characterized in model nanocomposites, and shows that composites with length
scales on the order of nanometers increase the effect of the fillers on polymer stiffness dramatically.
[11 添加填充材料，如纤维、薄片和颗粒是增强聚合物材料的常用技术。粘土、二氧化硅和
碳网络材料等填料已被广泛研究并用于聚合物复合材料，部分原因在于它们对机械性能的影
响。刚性界面附近的刚度限制效应，例如聚合物基体和较硬的填充材料之间的刚度限制效应，
通过限制聚合物链运动来增强复合材料的刚度。[9]这尤其存在于填料经过化学处理以与聚
合物链发生强烈相互作用的情况下，增加了聚合物链与填料界面的锚定，从而进一步限制了
链远离界面的运动。[10]刚度限制效应已在模型纳米复合材料中得到表征，并表明具有纳米
级长度尺度的复合材料显着增加了填料对聚合物刚度的影响。[11]

Increasing the bulkiness of the monomer unit via incorporation of aryl rings is another
strengthening mechanism. The anisotropy of the molecular structure means that these mechanisms
are heavily dependent on the direction of applied stress. While aryl rings drastically increase
rigidity along the direction of the chain, these materials may still be brittle in perpendicular
directions. Macroscopic structure can be adjusted to compensate for this anisotropy. For example,
the high strength of Kevlar arises from a stacked multilayer macrostructure where aromatic
polymer layers are rotated with respect to their neighbors. When loaded oblique to the chain
direction, ductile polymers with flexible linkages, such as oriented polyethylene, are highly prone
to shear band formation, so macroscopic structures which place the load parallel to the draw
direction would increase strength.[8]
通过引入芳环增加单体单元的体积是另一种强化机制。分子结构的各向异性意味着这些机制
在很大程度上取决于施加应力的方向。虽然芳环大大增加了链条方向的刚度，但这些材料在
垂直方向上可能仍然很脆。可以通过调整宏观结构来补偿这种各向异性。例如，Kevlar 的高
强度源于堆叠的多层宏观结构，其中芳族聚合物层相对于相邻层旋转。当加载倾斜于链方向
时，具有柔性连接的延展性聚合物，例如定向聚乙烯极易形成剪切带，因此将载荷平行于拉
伸方向放置的宏观结构会增加强度。[8]

Mixing polymers is another method of increasing strength, particularly with materials that show
crazing preceding brittle fracture such as atactic polystyrene (APS). For example, by forming a
50/50 mixture of APS with polyphenylene oxide (PPO), this embrittling tendency can be almost
completely suppressed, substantially increasing the fracture strength.[8]
混合聚合物是另一种提高强度的方法，特别是对于在脆性断裂前会出现裂纹的材料，例如无
规立构聚苯乙烯(APS)。例如，通过将 APS 与聚苯醚 (PPO) 形成 50/50 的混合物，几乎可以
完全抑制这种脆化趋势，从而显着提高断裂强度。[8]

Interpenetrating polymer networks (IPNs), consisting of interlacing crosslinked polymer networks

that are not covalently bonded to one another, can lead to enhanced strength in polymer materials.
The use of an IPN approach imposes compatibility (and thus macroscale homogeneity) on
otherwise immiscible blends, allowing for a blending of mechanical properties. For example,
silicone-polyurethane IPNs show increased tear and flexural strength over base silicone networks,
while preserving the high elastic recovery of the silicone network at high strains.[12] Increased
stiffness can also be achieved by pre-straining polymer networks and then sequentially forming a
secondary network within the strained material. This takes advantage of the anisotropic strain
hardening of the original network (chain alignment from stretching of the polymer chains) and
provides a mechanism whereby the two networks transfer stress to one another due to the imposed
strain on the pre-strained network.[13]
互穿聚合物网络(IPN) 由相互未共价键合的交联交联聚合物网络组成，可提高聚合物材料的
强度。IPN 方法的使用对其他不混溶的混合物施加了相容性（以及宏观均匀性），从而允许
混合机械性能。例如，有机硅-聚氨酯 IPN 显示出比基础有机硅网络更高的撕裂强度和弯曲
强度，同时保持有机硅网络在高应变下的高弹性恢复。[12]还可以通过预应变聚合物网络然
后在应变材料内依次形成二次网络来实现增加的刚度。这利用了原始网络的各向异性应变硬
化（聚合物链拉伸产生的链对齐），并提供了一种机制，由于预应变网络上施加的应变，两
个网络可以将应力相互转移。[13]

强化 Glass 玻璃
Many silicate glasses are strong in compression but weak in tension. By introducing compression
stress into the structure, the tensile strength of the material can be increased. This is typically done
via two mechanisms: thermal treatment (tempering) or chemical bath (via ion exchange).
许多硅酸盐玻璃的抗压能力强但抗拉能力弱。通过在结构中引入压应力，可以提高材料的抗
拉强度。这通常通过两种机制完成：热处理（回火）或化学浴（通过离子交换）。

In tempered glasses, air jets are used to rapidly cool the top and bottom surfaces of a softened (hot)
slab of glass. Since the surface cools quicker, there is more free volume at the surface than in the
bulk melt. The core of the slab then pulls the surface inward, resulting in an internal compressive
stress at the surface. This substantially increases the tensile strength of the material as tensile
stresses exerted on the glass must now resolve the compressive stresses before yielding.
在钢化玻璃中，空气喷射器用于快速冷却软化（热）玻璃板的顶面和底面。由于表面冷却得
更快，因此表面的自由体积比整体熔体中的自由体积大。然后板的核心将表面向内拉，导致
表面产生内部压应力。这大大提高了材料的抗拉强度，因为施加在玻璃上的拉应力现在必须
在屈服之前解决压应力。

Alternately, in chemical treatment, a glass slab treated containing network formers and modifiers is
submerged into a molten salt bath containing ions larger than those present in the modifier. Due to
a concentration gradient of the ions, mass transport must take place. As the larger cation diffuses
from the molten salt into the surface, it replaces the smaller ion from the modifier. The larger ion
squeezing into surface introduces compressive stress in the glass's surface. A common example is
treatment of sodium oxide modified silicate glass in molten potassium chloride. Examples of
chemically strengthened glass are Gorilla Glass developed and manufactured by Corning, AGC
Inc.'s Dragontrail and Schott AG's Xensation.
或者，在化学处理中，将经过处理的含有网络形成剂和改性剂的玻璃板浸入含有比改性剂中
存在的离子大的离子的熔盐浴中。由于离子的浓度梯度，必须发生传质。当较大的阳离子从
熔盐扩散到表面时，它会取代来自改性剂的较小离子。挤入表面的较大离子会在玻璃表面引
入压应力。一个常见的例子是在熔融氯化钾中处理氧化钠改性硅酸盐玻璃。化学强化玻璃的
例子有康宁开发和制造的大猩猩玻璃、AGC Inc.的 Dragontrail 和 Schott AG 的 Xensation。

Composite strengthening 复合强化

Many of the basic strengthening mechanisms can be classified based on their dimensionality. At 0-
D there is precipitate and solid solution strengthening with particulates strengthening structure, at
1-D there is work/forest hardening with line dislocations as the hardening mechanism, and at 2-D
there is grain boundary strengthening with surface energy of granular interfaces providing strength
improvement. The two primary types of composite strengthening, fiber reinforcement and laminar
reinforcement, fall in the 1-D and 2-D classes, respectively. The anisotropy of fiber and laminar
composite strength reflects these dimensionalities. The primary idea behind composite
strengthening is to combine materials with opposite strengths and weaknesses to create a material
which transfers load onto the stiffer material but benefits from the ductility and toughness of the
softer material.[14]
许多基本强化机制可以根据其维度进行分类。在 0-D 处有析出和固溶强化，具有颗粒强化
结构，在 1-D 处有工作/森林硬化，以线位错作为硬化机制，在 2-D 处有晶界强化，具有颗
粒界面的表面能提供力量提升。复合材料增强的两种主要类型，纤维增强和层状增强，分别
属于一维和二维类。纤维和层状复合材料强度的各向异性反映了这些维度。[14]

Fiber reinforcement 纤维增强

Fiber-reinforced composites (FRCs) consist of a matrix of one material containing parallel
embedded fibers. There are two variants of fiber-reinforced composites, one with stiff fibers and a
ductile matrix and one with ductile fibers and a stiff matrix. The former variant is exemplified by
fiberglass which contains very strong but delicate glass fibers embedded in a softer plastic matrix
resilient to fracture. The latter variant is found in almost all buildings as reinforced concrete with
ductile, high tensile-strength steel rods embedded in brittle, high compressive-strength concrete. In
both cases, the matrix and fibers have complimentary mechanical properties and the resulting
composite material is therefore more practical for applications in the real world.
纤维增强复合材料 (FRC) 由一种包含平行嵌入纤维的材料构成。纤维增强复合材料有两种
变体，一种具有刚性纤维和韧性基体，另一种具有韧性纤维和刚性基体。前一种变体的例子
是玻璃纤维，它包含非常坚固但脆弱的玻璃纤维，嵌入到较软的塑料基质中，可以抵抗断裂。
后一种变体在几乎所有建筑物中都可以找到，如钢筋混凝土，在脆性、高抗压强度混凝土中
嵌入具有延展性、高抗拉强度的钢筋。在这两种情况下，基质和纤维都具有互补的机械性能，
因此所得复合材料在现实世界中的应用更加实用。