UNIT – 5 (Solid State Physics)

(Engineering Physics)
 Free electron theory

üFree electron theory is proposed to explain the properties of solid

material like electrical and thermal conductivity etc..

üFree electron theory is developed by Drude & Lorentz in 1900.

According to this theory, a metal consists of electrons (valence
electron) which are free to move in the crystal like molecules of a
gas in a container.
 Free electron theory
Valence electron ü A valence electron is an outer shell electron that
is associated with an atom. Rest electron are
known as core electrons.
= +
ü Metal crystal contains positive ion and free
electron (valence electron).

q Sea of floating free electron (Valence electron)

q Not attached to any atom

q Free to move like a gas molecule of a perfect gas

 Postulates (Free electron theory)
ü The valence electrons of metallic atoms are free to move about the whole volume of
the metals like the molecules of a gas in a container. The collection of valence
electrons from all the atoms in a given piece of metal forms electron gas. It is free to
move throughout the volume of the metal.
ü These free electrons move in random directions and make collisions with either
positive ions fixed in the lattice or other free electrons. All the collisions are elastic
i.e., there is no loss of energy.
ü The movements of free electrons obey the laws of the classical kinetic theory of gas.
ü The velocities of free electrons in a metal obey the classical Maxwell-Boltzmann law
of distribution of velocities
 Diffusion Current
v Diffusion is the movement of a substance from an area of high
concentration to an area of low concentration.
v Diffusion current is a current caused by the diffusion of charge carriers.
- diffusion current is due to the concentration gradient
- without biasing current in pn junction is diffusion current
 Drift Current
v The flow of charge carriers, which is due to the applied voltage or electric field is
called drift current.
v Electrons (negatively charged particle) & holes (positively charged particle) are
attracted towards the positive terminal of a battery and negative terminal
respectively.

+ -

!
Relationship between current, drift velocity & current density
Mean free path (λ):
v The average distance travelled by a free electron between any two successive
collisions in the presence of an applied electric field is known as mean free path. It is
the product of drift velocity vd of free electron and collision time ιc.

Collision time (ι):

v The average time taken by a free electron between any two successive collisions is
known as collision time. It is expressed mathematically as ιc = λ / vd

Relaxation time (ιr):

v The average time taken by a free electron to reach its equilibrium position from its
disturbed position due to the application of an external electrical field is called
relaxation time. It is approximately equal to 10-14 second.
Expression for conductivity from free electron theory
The measurement of how easily an
electron can move through a solid under
the influence of an external electric field
is known as electron mobility
 Wiedemann-Franz law

ü Wiedemann–Franz law describes the relationship between the electrical

conductivity and thermal conductivity of a metal. It quantifies the idea that
metals that are good electrical conductors are also good thermal conductors.
According to Wiedemann–Franz law
 Success (Free electron theory)

ü It was able to explain the properties of metals such as Electrical and thermal
conductivity.
ü Ohm’s law
ü Wiedemann-Franz law (relationship between electric and thermal conductivity)
ü Optical properties of metals like high luster.
 Failure (Free electron theory)

üIt could not explained the difference between conductors, insulators

and semiconductors
üIt is found that divalent and trivalent metals are not good conductors
even though the theory say the conductivity is proportional to the free
electron concentration. Rather monovalent metals Cu, Ag, Au, etc are
good conductors.
ü It fails to explain the concept of specific heat of metals.
üIt is failed to explain photoelectric effect, Compton Effect, Para
magnetism, ferromagnetism and black body radiation
 Quantum Free electron theory

Assumptions (Postulates) of Quantum free electron theory

1. The electrons move in a constant potential inside the metal.
2. The energies of free electrons are quantized.
3. Electrons have wave nature, the velocity and energy distribution of
the electron is given by Fermi-Dirac distribution function.
4. Electron’s distributed in various energy levels according to Pauli
Exclusion Principle.
Merits of quantum free electron theory
1. It explains temperature dependence of conductivity of metals.
2. It explains the specific heat of metals.
3. It explains magnetic susceptibility of metals.

Demerits of quantum free electron theory

1. This theory fails to distinguish between metal, semiconductor and Insulator.
2. It also fails to explain the positive value of Hall Co-efficient.
 Band Theory
Electrons move in a period potential inside the solid.

Kronig Penney
model
Energy E Vs Wave number K Diagram
Band Theory
 Band Theory

üEnergy gap between conduction band and valence band is known as

energy band gap or forbidden energy band gap
Classification of material based on Band Theory

Eg > 3 eV Eg < 3 eV Eg = 0
 Semiconductor

Based on doping Based on band gap

• Intrinsic – pure semiconductor • Direct bandgap

(without any doping) • Indirect bandgap
• Extrinsic (doped semiconductor)
 Extrinsic Semiconductor (doped semiconductor)

P-type Semiconductor N-type Semiconductor

• Doped with trivalent impurities e.g.
Indium , Gallium, Aluminium, Boron
• Majorities carriers - holes
• Minorities carriers - electron
• Impurities are acceptor
• Doped with pentavalent impurities e.g.
Phosphorus (P), Arsenic (As), Antimony
(Sb)
• Majorities carriers – electrons
• Minorities carriers - Holes
• Impurities are donor
 Direct band gap semiconductor

Direct band gap semiconductor are efficient photon emitters

(used for making optical device)
 Indirect band gap semiconductor

Indirect band gap semiconductor are not used for making optical device
Effective mass
 Hall Effect

• If a current carrying conductor placed in a perpendicular magnetic field, a

potential difference will generate in the conductor which is perpendicular to
both magnetic field and current. This phenomenon is called Hall Effect and
potential difference generated (voltage) is called Hall voltage. In solid state
physics, Hall effect is an important tool to characterize the materials
especially semiconductors.
• It directly determines both the sign and density of charge carriers in a given
sample.
Current (charges are in motion) is flowing
through sample. Charges will experience force
Fm due to magnetic field.

Where q is unit charge, v is drift velocity, B is applied magnetic field

Due to Fm charges will accumulate at the opposite

faces of the sample. As charges get separated
Voltage will developed (Hall voltage). Due to this
charges will experience force FE due to developed
electric field whose direction (FE) is opposite the Fm
.At equilibrium condition
FE = Fm
&!
!"# = !% %=
'
&! = "#' w is width of sample.
 ( (
"= = Since * = '+
)!* )!'+
I is current flowing in sample
Putting the value of drift velocity in Hall voltage expression n is charge concentration
A is cross sectional area
t is thickness of sample
#'( #(
&! = "#' = =
)!'+ )!+

,!#( 1
&! = ⟹ ,! =
+ )!

&!+
,! = RH is Hall coefficient
#(
RH unit (SI) is m3/c
If RH < 0 then electrons are majority charge carriers (n type semiconductor)

If RH > 0 then holes are majority charge carriers (p type semiconductor)

! = #$% 0 is conductivity
% 1 Mobility (drift velocity / electric field)
!=
&/ e is unit charge
% = &/ !
Fermi energy distribution function

Average kinetic energy at 0k = 3/5 (EF)

Fermi energy level in semiconductor
 Solar Cell
Solar cells, also called photovoltaic cells, convert the energy of light
into electrical energy using the photovoltaic effect

The photovoltaic effect occurs in solar cells. These solar cells are composed
of two different types of semiconductors - a p-type and an n-type - that are
joined together to create a p-n junction.

Incident photons are absorbed by a photovoltaic cell. When light of a suitable

wavelength is incident on these cells, energy from the photon is transferred to
an atom of the semiconducting material in the p-n junction (depletion region).
Specifically, the energy is transferred to the electrons in the material. This
causes the electrons to jump from valence band to conduction band. This
leaves behind a "hole" in the valence band. This movement of the electron as
a result of added energy creates two charge carriers, an electron-hole pair.