NOTES FOR CRIMINOLOGY ENHANCEMENT IN FORENSIC CHEMISTRY AND TOXICOLOGY

Area: Criminalistics
Subject: Forensic Chemistry and Toxicology
Content: Blood and Blood stain, Semen and Seminal Fluid, Gunshot Residue, Hair , Fiber, Chemical
Aspect of Questioned Document, Glass, Metallurgy, Petrography, Chemical Aspect of Fire Investigation
Toxicology, DNA

Forensic Chemistry is the application of chemistry in  Blood Platelets (Thrombocytes

the administration of justice, legal problems and/or  Plasma (55%)
court of law.  Water (90%)
 Solids(10%) includes proteins
Scope of Forensic Chemistry  Sources of Blood Specimen
It includes the chemical side of criminal At fluid form:
investigation  Victims of crime
It includes the analysis of material that give rise  Parents and child
to legal proceeding  Suspect(s)
It also invaded other forensic sciences  Sources of Blood Specimen

4 Stages of Forensic Chemist’s Work At dried state:

Collection or reception of the specimen to be  Smooth surface like walls
examined  Weapons’ edge
Actual examination of the specimen  Glazed surface like glass
Communication of examination results  Clothing
Court appearance  Blood absorbed by soil

Things to consider in receiving specimen 4 Tests for Blood

Sufficiency of samples  Preliminary Test
Standard specimen for comparison  Confirmatory Test
Maintenance of individuality  Precipitin Test
Labeling and sealing  Blood Grouping Test

Standard and Questioned Specimen Preliminary Tests for Blood

Standard specimen is a specimen in whereby
the source is known or the reagent is identified.
Questioned specimen is a specimen in which,
the source is known or the reagent is unknown
Reasons for Disaster of Evidence
Improper packing
Failure to identify specimen
Improper precaution in transmitting specimen
Improper preservation
Lack of precaution to prevent tampering
BLOOD AND BLOOD STAIN
Blood is the circulating tissue in the
body inside blood vessels. It is composed of
cells, enzymes, proteins, and inorganic
substances.
Contents of Blood
 Cells (45%)
 Red Blood Cells (Erythrocytes)
 White Blood Cells (Leukocytes)
 Benzidine Test- it is used to determine the
presence of blood
 Phenolphthalein Test (Kastle –Meyer Test)-
alternative to benzidine test to determine the
presence of blood
 Guaiacum Test- test used to show the presence
of fresh blood but not effective to old specimen
 Leucomalachite Test- a less effective test for
presence of blood
 Luminol Test- used to detect blood in dark areas
but can destroy other blood factors needed for
analysis
Confirmatory Tests for Blood
 Microscopic Test- used to determine the animal
origin of blood
 Microchemical Test- tests like Takayama or
Precepitin test is used to determine the
presence of hemoglobin
 Spectroscopic Test- test using spectroscope to
determine presence of blood
 Blood Grouping Test- used to determine the
antigen (agglutinogen) of blood.

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Types of Blood based on Antigen
A-B-O
 Group O
 Group A
 Group B
 Group AB
M-N System
 Type M
 Type N
 Type MN
SEMEN AND SEMINAL FLUID
Semen is a viscid whitish fluid of male
reproductive tract consisting of spermatozoa
suspended in secretion of accessory glands
Parts of Specimen
 Seminal Fluid
 Cellular Elements
 Spermatozoa (sperm cells) approx. 400-
500 million per ejaculation
 Epithelial
 Crystal of choline and lecithin
Sources of Seminal Stains
 Vaginal Content
 Rectal Content
 Hair
 Skin around the genital
 Underclothing (dry state)
 Bed clothing (dry state)
Collection, Preservation, packing and Transit of
Semen Samples
 Collect the apparel ASAP
 Avoid friction between apparel and stain
 Do not roll the garment before transit
 Specimen should be dried before packing
 Fluid semen should be placed in test tube; few
drops of 10% solution of formalin is suggested
during hot weather.
EXAMINATIONS OF SEMEN AND SEMINAL STAINS
 Physical Examination- determination of physical
characteristics such as odor and state
 Chemical Examination
 Florence Test- used as preliminary test
and confirms the seminal stain
 Barberio’s Test- test for human semen
only; 6 years specimen respond to this
test
 Acid Phosphate Test- used for primates’
semen due to its high acid phosphate
content
 Microscopic Examination- examination using
microscope to confirm presence of spermatozoa
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 Biological Examination- test to determine
whether the sperm is for humans or other
animals
GUNSHOT RESIDUE
Gunshot residues are particles left in the hands
after firearm discharge.
Gunshot residues analysis- it is the evaluation
made to a person to determine whether such
has discharged a firearm or not by establishing
the presence of gunshot residues in hands and
other body parts.
Gunshot Residues
 Gunpowder
 Black powder- composed of potassium
nitrate, sulfur and charcoal
 Smokeless powder- basically composed
of nitrocellulose and nitroglycerine; others have
additional chemicals for improvement
 Priming mixture- sensitive material inside
the primer composed of antimony sulfide,
mercury, lead and/or barium
Location of Gunshot Residues
 Barrel of the gun
 In and around the gunshot wound
 Clothing of a person at close range
 On the exposed surface of the hand of
shooter
Factors Affecting the Presence of GSR
 Type and Caliber of Ammunition
 Length of firearm barrel
 Distance of the muzzle to the target
 Humidity
 Wind velocity and direction
 Direction of firing
Types of GSR Analysis
 Dermal Nitrate Test (Paraffin Test)- a
test using paraffin wax as primary
reagent and detects the presence of
Nitrate Compounds
 Harrison and Gilroy Test- a test using
Dilute Hydrochloric Acid, and other
reagents to determine the presence of
priming mixtures like lead, mercury, and
barium.
EXPLOSIVES
Explosive is a substance that when
ignited produce sudden pressure, abrupt noise,
decomposition and combustion.
Typology of Explosives
Classification based on Chemical Composition
  Inorganic Compound such as Lead azide
and ammonium nitrate
 Organic Compound such as Trinitrotoluene
(TNT), picric acid (Trinitrophenol), nitrocellulose,
fulminate of mercury
 Mixture of oxidizable materials and
oxidizing agent such as black powder and
pyrotechnics
Classification According to Functioning
Characteristics
 Propellant or low explosives- it includes
gunpowder and other low explosive for
fireworks
 Primary explosive or initiators – explodes
when heated or shocked like fulminate of
mercury
 High explosives- it explodes when shocked
by primary explosives such as TNT etc.
Tests for Explosives
 Ion mobility spectrometer- used to sniff air
composed of suspected gas from explosives
 Taggant – tiny coded solid material that
survives and can be used to determine the
origin of the explosive material
 Color Test- chemical test used to determine
the type of explosive used
Reagents Used in Color Test
 Griess
 Diphenylamine
 Alcoholic KOH
HAIR
Hair is an epithelial outgrowth of skin
across all parts of the body except palms and
soles of the feet.
Kinds of Hair Among Mammals
 Real hair- hair that is long & stiff
 Fuzz hair- hair that is short, fine, and at
times curly and wooly
Hair According to the Region of Body
 Scalp Hair- acquire from top head
 Beard Hair- mustache and beard from
lower part of head surrounding the
mouth and the surface of the chin
 Hairs (other facial hairs) from eyebrow,
eyelid, nose, and ear
 Trunk hair- originated from torso or
body
 Limb hair- originated from arms and
legs
 Axillary hair- originated from armpits
 Pubic hair- hair from pubic region of
torso
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Parts of Hair
 Root- the submerged part of hair that is
embedded in the skin
 Shaft- the distinctive part of hair
outside the skin
 Tip- the end most part of hair
Parts of Shaft
 Cuticle- the outermost covering of hair
 Cortex- the thickest layer of hair
composed of protein granules
 Medulla or Core- the central canal of
hair
Collection and Preservation of Hair Samples
 All hairs in questioned specimen should
be submitted
 Representative samples of hair from
victim(s) and as well as suspect(s) must
be obtained
 Do not mix known (standard) samples
of hair from different body parts of the
body in a container
 Hair samples should be placed in a
folded paper or in a white mailing
envelope (corners of the envelope must
be sealed with a tape/plastics)
 Do not secure the hair in a paper with
tape because it will damage the samples
 Foreign debris must be removed from
the specimen before submission
 Fragmentary and undeveloped hairs are
not suitable for examination
 The container of the hair samples
should be protected with cellophane
before transmittal
Microscopic Examination of Human Hair
The following should be examine under the
microscope
 Examine the Color
 Length
 Characteristics (stiff, wiry, soft, etc.)
 Width
 Character of hair tip
 Manner of how it is had been cut
 Condition of root (living or dry)
 Characteristic of cuticle
 Characteristic of cortex
 Presence of dye in hair
 Determine if the hair is naturally or
artificially curled
 Characteristic of medulla
Examination of Cortex
 Determine the characteristic of cortex
 Observe the pigment granules as to its
color shape and distribution
  Individualities are established in
examining the cortex
Examination of Medulla
Medulla Index (M.I.) is the relationship
(ratio) between the diameter of medulla to the
diameter of the hair; human hair has a MI of
less than 0.5
Comparison Between Human and Other
Mammal Hair
Human
 MI is less than 0.5
 Medulla may not be present
 Medulla are often interrupted
 Scale pattern is fine and each overlaps the
other more than 4/5
 Pigment granules are present
Other Mammals
 MI is equal or above 0.5
 Medulla is always present
 Medulla is continuous most of the time
 Scale is coarse and overlaps less than ½
 Pigment granules are coarse
Other Aspects of Hair Examination
 Determination of Race
 Determination of Gender/sex
 Determination of the source of hair from
the region of the body
 Determination of approximate age of
individual
Characteristics of Hair Based on Race
NEGROID’S HAIR
 Contains heavy pigment that are
distributed uneven
 Cross section of hair is thin and oval
 Kinky and with varying diameter along the
shaft
MONGOLOID RACE
 It contains dense pigment distributed more
evenly than negroids’
 Cross section is round to oval
 Coarse and straight with very little
variation of diameter along the shaft
 Contains heavy black medulla
CAUCASIAN
 Contains very fine to coarse pigment &
more evenly distributed than negro or
MONGOLIAN
 Cross section is oval to round shape
 Usually straight or wavy but not kinky
 Characteristics of hair based on Gender
Comparison by Gender
Male
 With larger diameter (1/350 of an inch in
diameter)
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 Shorter in length
 Wiry in texture
Female
 With smaller diameter (1/450 of an inch in
diameter)
 Longer in length
 Smooth in texture
Characteristics of hair Based on Region of Body
it was Originated
 Scalp Hair- more mature than any hair
 Beard Hair- coarse, curved, stiff, often
triangular in cross section
 Other facial hairs from eyebrow, eyelid,
nose, and ear- short, stubby with wide
medulla; eyebrow and eyelashes are
usually very short and has sharp tip
 Trunk hair- immature than any other hair
but similar to head hair; fine and long tip
ends
 Limb hair- similar to trunk hair but not so
long or so coarse and contain less pigment
 Axillary hair- fairly long with uneven
distribution of pigment; with varying
diameter along shaft and frequently
bleached
 Pubic hair- similar to axillary but more
coarse, do not appear bleached, more
wiry; with more constrictions & twists &
have usually continuous broad medulla; it
has many broken ends because of the
clothing rubs
Characteristics of Hair Based on person’s Age
 Approximate Age of Individual based on
Hair Characteristics
 Infants’ hairs are fine, short, with fine
pigment and rudimentary in character
 Children’s & Adolescent hair is finer and
more immature than adults’ & cannot be
differentiated with certainty
 Adults’ hair has disappearing pigment or
missing; premature grey/white hair only in
scalp hair; roots may show degeneration
FIBERS AND TEXTILES
Fibers are filament thread like structure
that are twisted to convert it to yarns.
Yarns are continuous strand or thread made of
natural or synthetic fibers and used for knitting,
weaving or other purposes.
Textiles are any cloth or goods produced
by weaving, knitting, or felting.
Types of Fibers
  Natural Fibers- fibers from animal, vegetable or The fiber is stained with picric acid,
mineral source Millon’s reagent, stannic chloride or iodine
 Synthetic Fibers- fibers that are man made solution.

Types of Natural Fibers Dissolution Test

 Vegetable Fibers- fibers from vegetable like This test is for white or light colored
cotton and cellulose fibers only. In case dyed, it is decolorized by
 Animal Fibers- fibers from animas like silk and boiling in ether 1% HCl, acetic acid, or dilute
wool potassium hydroxide. The fiber shall be treated
 Mineral Fibers- fibers that are mined from earth with the following and the reaction shall be
like asbestos observed;
 10% NaOH
Types of Synthetic Fibers  5% oxalic acid
 Organic  Half saturated oxalic acid
 Cellulosic- fiber containing cellulose like  Concentrated sulfuric acid
rayon  Concentrated and dilute ammonium
 Non Cellulosic- fiber not containing hydroxide
cellulose like nylon, casein fiber and  Concentric nitric acid
resin
 Inorganic
 Mineral fiber- minerals from earth like CHEMICAL ASPECT OF QUESTIONED DOCUMENT
glass
 Metallic Fiber- fibers that are metals Scope of Chemical Aspect of Questioned
like filaments Documents
 Chemical Examination of Papers
Collection and Preservation of Textile  Chemical Examination of Ink
 Clothing of the victim must be obtained from
Preservation, Packaging, and Transportation of
hospital or morgue to avoid mishandling
 Place the clothing to re-sealable plastic Document Evidence
container.  Avoid folding the paper and must be intact
 In case the victim is alive and found after the in it is entirety
incident, cover the victim with a blanket to  If folding is necessary it should by folded
avoid contamination. on folding marks (old lines)
 Documents should be placed in between
Tests for Fibers plain white paper
 It should not be touched with pencils, pen
BURNING TEST or anything that can leave markings
It is used to determine if the fiber is mineral,
PAPER
animal or vegetable. A fiber’s end shall be applied
with flame and the following; It is a substance made from wood pulp,
 Manner of burning rags, straw, or other fibrous material, in thin
 Odor of fumes sheets, used to write or print on
 Appearance of burnt end
 Ashes’ color COMPONENTS OF PAPER
 Action of fumes on moistened red and blue
litmus paper  Fiber Composition
 Effects of fumes in a piece of paper moistened  Sizing material
with lead acetate  Loading Material

FLOURESCENCE TEST- used to determine the FIBER COMPOSITION

general group of fiber which it belongs and
 Mechanical pulp-ground wood sulfite
usually not reliable
mixture
 Soda-sulfite mixture
MICROSCOPIC EXAMINATION –examination using
 Rag sulfite
microscope and the most reliable means to
examine and compare fibers.
EXAMINATIONS OF PAPER
CHEMICAL TESTS FOR FIBERS
Preliminary test
Staining Test
 Observe folds and creases

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  Odor
 Impression caused by transmitted light
 Presence of discoloration in daylight and
UV light
Physical test causing no perceptible change are
determine by observing the following
 Measurement of length & width
 Measurement of thickness
 Measurement of density
 Color of the paper
 Texture
 Gloss
 Opacity
 Microscopic Examination
Physical examinations causing perceptible
change are observed using the following tests;
 Bursting strength test (pop test)
 Folding endurance test
 Accelerated aging test
 Absorption test
 Chemical tests
Determining the Fiber Composition
Microscopic examination is performed to
determine its natural composition
Determining the Loading Material
Burn a portion of paper and examine the ash
Determining the sizing materials
 Gelatin is extracted by boiling the paper to
water; the solution shall be treated w/ tannic
acid.
 Rosin is extracted by heating the paper w/ 95%
alcohol; the residue shall be treated w/ acetic
anhydride and sulfuric acid
 Starch is determined by adding dilute iodine
solution.
 Casein is determined by adding Millon’s reagent
 Starch is determined by adding dilute iodine
solution
 Casein is determined by adding Millon’s reagent
INK
It is a fluid or viscous substance used for writing
or printing
TYPES OF INK
 Gallotanic Ink (iron nutgall ink)- composed of
iron slat and nutgall.
 Logwood ink- made of saturated solution of
logwood with small amount of potassium
dichromate, hydrochloric acid, and phenol
 Nigrosine ink/ aniline ink- made of coal tar and
can be easily smudged of.
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 Carbon ink (China/India Ink)- made of
lampblack and can be easily washed off.
 Colored writing ink- composed of synthetic
aniline dyestuff dissolved in water with
additional ammonium vanadate.
 Ball point pen ink- made of fast light dyes
soluble in glycol solvents(carbitol, glycol or oleic
acid)
Tests for ink
 Physical Test- it is performed to determine the
physical characteristics of ink
 Chemical test /spot test- it is performed to
determine the chemical content of the ink
 Paper chromatography- it is used to determine
ballpoint inks
Physical test is used to determine the following
 Color
 Presence of alteration
 Erasures
 Microscopic examination
Chemical test is the application of following reagent
to determine ink’s reaction;
 5% HCl
 10% oxalic acid
 Tartaric acid
 2% NaOH
 Water
 And others
Paper chromatography is used to determine
examine ball point ink using methanol (methyl
alcohol)
GLASS
Glass is a super-cooled liquid that possesses
transparency, high viscosity and rigidity.
Composition of glass
 Silica / silicon dioxide
 Boric Acid
 Phosphorus pentoxide
Analyses of glass
 Spectrographic test is used to determine the
constituting elements of glass. Spectrographic
microscope is used in such test
 X ray diffraction analysis is used to determine
the type of glass’ pattern.
 Physical properties test is used to determine the
physical properties such as density, specific
gravity and refractive index.
 Ultra violet light examination is used to
determine the differences in the appearance of
their fluorescence that indicates physical and
chemical differences.
  Polish mark examination is used to analyze
polished glass; marks are left in the surface and
can be a basis for comparison.
GLASS FRACTURE
Glass Fracture- these are cracks created as a
result of impact or fluid pressure.
 Fractures due to projectile
 Bullet Hole
 Fractures
 Radial Fracture
(primary fracture)- fracture extending
from bullet hole towards
 Concentric Fracture
(secondary fracture)- fracture that
extends between two radial fractures
Glass reconstruction
 Place the pieces in the surface
of newspaper/ Manila Paper
 Place the peripheral parts and
adjoin them
 Place the smaller parts until you
reach the center.
 Photograph the reconstructed
glass
METALLURGY
Metallurgy is the art of extracting and working
on metals by application of physical and chemical
process.
Metallography- the study of microstructure of
metals and alloys
Applications of metallurgy
 Robbery
 Theft
 Hit and run cases
 Bomb explosions
 Nail examination
 Examination of counterfeited coins
 Restoration of tampered serial numbers
Counterfeit coins
Counterfeit coins are imitation of real and
genuine coin for the purpose of having a gain.
Types of counterfeit coins
 Cast coins- coins that are molded using clay,
plaster of Paris or bronze
 Struck coins- coins that are made by striking
and almost undetectable as a
counterfeit
Examination of counterfeit coins
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Suspected counterfeit coins shall be
compared to genuine coins under the
microscope. Similarities and differences shall be
looked to ascertain the result.
Restoration of tampered serial number
Application of restoration
 Restoration of vehicle serial number
 Restoration of firearms serial number
Etching fluids
These are chemicals used for
restoration of tampered serial numbers; the
type of fluid to be use varies in the kind of metal
it shall be applied.
PETROGRAPHY
Petrography is the branch of geology
that deals with the systematic identification and
classification of rocks, rocks forming minerals
and soil.
SOIL
Soil is a matter consisting of disintegrated rock
and humus (biodegraded materials)
Types of soil
 Alluvial soil- these were formed from soil
particles moved by gravity to land
 Colluvial soil- formed from decomposition
of igneous, metamorphic and sedimentary rocks
 Sedentary soil- these are inactive soils
Constituents of soil
 Primary minerals- undecomposed rock
fragments from stone down thru pebbles, sand
and silt. It includes quartz, calcite, feldspar,
dolomite and mica
 Clay minerals- product of primary
minerals’ decomposition that is responsible for
soils’ cohesion, plasticity and cause it to harden
when heated
 Organic constituents- composed of
biogenic particles form living matters
Collection and preservation
 If an object is found above the soil, the soil
should remain in place and the whole thing
should be submitted for test
 The object should be wrapped in paper and
placed in a box
 Known samples of soil should be taken in
different places around the point of
references
 Analyses of soil  Catalytic Combustion Detector- it is used to
 Test using Density gradient apparatus detect combustible gases
 X ray diffraction  Gas Chromatogram-Mass Spectrometer-it is
 Spectrographic analysis used to determine the presence of flammable
 Thermal analysis liquid from submitted ash or any specimen

Dusts and Dirt TOXICOLOGY

Dust – fine and dry matter
Mud – it is a dust mixed with water It is the branch of science which treats of
Grime- dust mixed with sweat and human body poisons including its origins, properties, and
grease physiological actions; it also treatment of effects and
methods of detection.
Classification of dust
 Dust deposited from air Poison- substance that cause noxious or
 Road and footpath dust adverse effect to human body upon its introduction
 Industrial dust
 Occupation dust Classifications of Poisons
According to kingdom
Collection and preservation  Animal- ex. cantharides
 Collection and preservation of dust is similar  Vegetables- ex. strychnine
to the process used in soil specimen  Mineral – ex. HCl
 If placed in an immovable large object, it
can be collected using mechanical means According to chemical properties
Inorganic poisons
Tests for dusts and Dirt  Volatile and non volatile-ex. Bromine,
In case the sample is very small the following chlorine, iodine
shall be utilized  Mineral acid-ex. HCL
 Micro chemical test  Mineral alkalie - NaOH
 Spectrographic test
Organic Poisons
If the samples are sufficient the following shall  Volatile- ex. Alcohol, chloroform
be made;  Alkaloids- ex. Strychnine
 UV light examination  Animal poison- ex. Snake venom
 Treatment using aqueous drop and litmus  Bacterial- ex. Ptomaine
paper  Inorganic acid- ex. Salicylic acid
 Test using NHCl  Glucosides- ex. Digitalisis
 Test using ethanol
According to physical actions
CHEMICAL ASPECT OF FIRE INVESTIGATION  Corrosives- these causes local destruction
of tissue
Products of Fire  Irritants- causes inflammation of mucous
 Fire Gases- gas produced by pyrolysis membrane
 Heat – agitation of temperature  Narcotics- causes stupor and loss of feelings
 Flames- light composed of combustible gases  Neurotics- acts on nervous system and
emitted by fire produces delirium, convulsion and
 Smoke- tiny solid particles of fire comatose
 Ashes- solid particles left by fire in the fire  Tetanics- these acts on spinal cord that
scene. result to spasm and contraction of muscle
as a result of stiffness and immobility.
Specimen to be collected at Fire Scene  Depressant- substance that slows down
 Ashes physiological action of organs
 Flammable liquids  Asthenics or exahustives- substance that
 Igniting devices causes exhaustion and loss of muscular
 Burnt Fuel power.
 Volatile material
 Gases Types of poisoning from medical view
 Acute poisoning- causes abrupt death of a
Equipment used to detect accelerants person
 Portable Hydrocarbon Detector- it is used to
detect hydrocarbon from flammable liquids

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  Sub acute poisoning- it results to short
duration and quite prolonged effect than
acute poisoning
 Chronic poisoning- poisoning that leads to
gradual deterioration of function of tissues.
Types of poisoning from the legal point of view
 Accidental poisoning
 Suicidal
 Homicidal
 Undetermined
Action of poisons to body
 Local – disturbance occurs only on affected
parts
 Remote- disturbance of the body parts
occurs on distant organs
 Combined – disturbance occurs both the
affected parts and other distant organs due
to the spread of poison to entire body
through the bloodstream
Specimen to be submitted for chemical and
toxicological analysis
During autopsy the body organs and
fluids are sent by physician to chemist for
toxicological analysis
Laboratory methods used in chemical
toxicological analysis
 Physical test- performed to determine
physical characteristics such as boiling
point etc.
 Crystalline test- performed by treating the
chemical with substance that precipitates
the crystal and shall examine the color,
shape and location using polarizing
microscope.
 Chemical test- treatment using reagent to
determine what kind poison is ingested
using color reaction to reagent
 Spectrophotometric test- used to
determine barbiturates and morphine
using UV and infra red color spectra of the
chemical
 Chromatographic test- used to identify
organic materials like soil, drugs and other
biological specimen
Interpretation of analysis
The analysis varies in circumstances;
toxicological result should be match to autopsy
examination result to avoid false result. Certain
physiological reactions are sometimes caused
by diseases the victim has and not by the
poison. Coordination should be made by
chemists, medico legal examiner and
investigator to determine the cause whether
death is poison related or by natural cause
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DNA
Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)- is a molecule that
carries body’s genetic information; it is double
stranded and shaped in double helix
Types of DNA
 Nuclear DNA- DNA found in cells’ nucleus
 Mitochondrial DNA- DNA found in cells’
mitochondria
Nature of DNA
DNA is a polymer, a large molecule
made by a linked series of repeating units
known as nucleotides. These nucleotides are
consists of bases associated to DNA and
attached to phosphate sugar in a helical strand.
Bases for dna
 Adenine (A)
 Guanine (G)
 Cytosine ( C)
 Thymine (T)
Sources of DNA
DNA can be found in every cell of living
organisms including humans. It can be found in
the following in human body specimen;
 Blood
 Semen
 Saliva
 Urine
 Epithelial cells (Hair and fingernails
 Other tissues (bones and organs)
Replication of DNA
It is the synthesis of new DNA from existing DNA
that can be made in natural (prior to cell division) or
artificial)
Recombinant DNA
It is the cutting and splicing of DNA using restriction
enzymes and recombine it to another to produce
massive copies of such.
DNA typing
It is the process of determining the individuality
of a person through DNA by identifying the
arrangement or sequences of bases (nucleotides)
Tandem repeat
It is the region of chromosome containing
multiple copies of core DNA sequence arranged in
repeating fashion.
Various DNA analyses
Restriction frequent length
polymorphism (RFLP) it is the DNA analyses
that whereby fragment repeats are cut off using
restricted enzymes and processed to produce
DNA fingerprint
Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) is a
DNA analyses that used to replicate a DNA
 portion outside living cells. It uses primer (short
strand of DNA) to target region of DNA for
replication.
Short tandem repeats (STR) analysis is
the analysis of DNA that uses short segment of
DNA consisting of 3 to 7 repeating base pairs. It
used TH01 a segment with repeating sequence
A-A-T-G; it contains 5 to 11 variants
Mitochondria (MT) DNA analysis is the
analysis of DNA found in mitochondria that is
being performed when nuclear DNA analysis is
not possible; the type of MT DNA can only be
inherited from the person’s mother and other
female ascendants.

References

Owen, David. Hidden Evidence, Revised 2nd Ed.

(2009). Firefly Books Inc. New York, USA

Philippine College of Criminology-Criminology

Department. Lecture Guide in Forensic
Chemistry and Toxicology.

Saferstein, Richard. Criminalistics: An

Introduction to Forensic Science, 9th Edition.
2007. Pearson Education Inc. Upper Saddle
River, New Jersey, USA

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