Grammar Handbook continued

Points to remember
1. A participle is a verbal ending in -ing (present) or -ed, -en, -d, -t, or -n (past) that functions as
an adjective, modifying a noun or pronoun.
2. A participial phrase consists of a participle plus modifier(s), object(s), and/or complement(s).
3. Participles and participial phrases must be placed as close to the nouns or pronouns they
modify as possible, and those nouns or pronouns must be clearly stated.
4. A participial phrase is set off with commas when it:
(a) comes at the beginning of a sentence
(b) interrupts a sentence as a nonessential element
(c) comes at the end of a sentence and is separated from the word it modifies.

Part 7: Prepositions for Time, Place, and Introducing

Objects
One point in time
On is used with days:
• I will see you on Monday.
• The week begins on Sunday.
At is used with noon, night, midnight, and with the time of day:
• My plane leaves at noon.
• The movie starts at 6 p.m.
In is used with other parts of the day, with months, with years, with seasons:
• He likes to read in the afternoon.
• The days are long in August.
• The book was published in 1999.
• The flowers will bloom in spring.

Extended time
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To express extended time, English uses the following prepositions: since, for, by, from–to,
from–until, during, (with)in
• She has been gone since yesterday. (She left yesterday and has not returned.)
• I'm going to Paris for two weeks. (I will spend two weeks there.)
• The movie showed from August to October. (Beginning in August and ending in October.)
• The decorations were up from spring until fall. (Beginning in spring and ending in fall.)
• I watch TV during the evening. (For some period of time in the evening.)
• We must finish the project within a year. (No longer than a year.)

Place
To express notions of place, English uses the following prepositions: to talk about the point itself:
in, to express something contained: inside, to talk about the surface: on, to talk about a general
vicinity, at.
• There is a wasp in the room.
• Put the present inside the box.
• I left your keys on the table.
• She was waiting at the corner.

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Grammar Handbook continued

Higher than a point

To express notions of an object being higher than a point, English uses the following prepositions:
over, above.
• He threw the ball over the roof.
• Hang that picture above the couch.

Lower than a point

To express notions of an object being lower than a point, English uses the following prepositions:
under, underneath, beneath, below.
• The rabbit burrowed under the ground.
• The child hid underneath the blanket.
• We relaxed in the shade beneath the branches.
• The valley is below sea-level.

Close to a point
To express notions of an object being close to a point, English uses the following prepositions: near,
by, next to, between, among, opposite.
• She lives near the school.
• There is an ice cream shop by the store.
• An oak tree grows next to my house
• The house is between Elm Street and Maple Street.
• I found my pen lying among the books.
• The bathroom is opposite that room.

To introduce objects of verbs

English uses the following prepositions to introduce objects of the following verbs.

At: glance, laugh, look, rejoice, smile, stare

• She took a quick glance at her reflection.
(exception with mirror: She took a quick glance in the mirror.)
• You didn't laugh at his joke.

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• I'm looking at the computer monitor.
• We rejoiced at his safe rescue.
• That pretty girl smiled at you.
• Stop staring at me.

Of: approve, consist, smell

• I don't approve of his speech.
• My contribution to the article consists of many pages.
• He came home smelling of garlic.

Of (or about): dream, think

• I dream of finishing college in four years.
• Can you think of a number between one and ten?
• I am thinking about this problem.

For: call, hope, look, wait, watch, wish

• Did someone call for a taxi?
• He hopes for a raise in salary next year.
• I'm looking for my keys.
• We'll wait for her here.

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 Grammar Handbook continued

• You go buy the tickets and I'll watch for the train.
• If you wish for an “A” in this class, you must work hard.

Part 8: Identifying Independent and Dependent Clauses

When you want to use commas and semicolons in sentences and when you are concerned about
whether a sentence is or is not a fragment, a good way to start is to be able to recognize dependent
and independent clauses. The definitions offered here will help you with this.

Independent Clause
An independent clause is a group of words that contains a subject and verb and expresses a
complete thought. An independent clause is a sentence.
Jim studied in the Sweet Shop for his chemistry quiz.

Dependent Clause
A dependent clause is a group of words that contains a subject and verb but does not express a
complete thought. A dependent clause cannot be a sentence. Often a dependent clause is marked
by a dependent marker word.
When Jim studied in the Sweet Shop for his chemistry quiz . . . (What happened when he studied?
The thought is incomplete.)

Dependent Marker Word

A dependent marker word is a word added to the beginning of an independent clause that makes it
into a dependent clause.
When Jim studied in the Sweet Shop for his chemistry quiz, it was very noisy.
Some common dependent markers are: after, although, as, as if, because, before, even if, even
though, if, in order to, since, though, unless, until, whatever, when, whenever, whether, and while.

Connecting Dependent and Independent Clauses

There are two types of words that can be used as connectors at the beginning of an independent
clause: coordinating conjunctions and independent marker words.
© 2011 College Board. All rights reserved.

1. Coordinating Conjunction
The seven coordinating conjunctions used as connecting words at the beginning of an independent
clause are and, but, for, or, nor, so, and yet. When the second independent clause in a sentence
begins with a coordinating conjunction, a comma is needed before the coordinating conjunction:
Jim studied in the Sweet Shop for his chemistry quiz, but it was hard to concentrate because of the
noise.

2. Independent Marker Word

An independent marker word is a connecting word used at the beginning of an independent clause.
These words can always begin a sentence that can stand alone. When the second independent
clause in a sentence has an independent marker word, a semicolon is needed before the
independent marker word.
Jim studied in the Sweet Shop for his chemistry quiz; however, it was hard to concentrate because of
the noise.
Some common independent markers are: also, consequently, furthermore, however, moreover,
nevertheless, and therefore.

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