Engineering Geology Formulae For more visit: https://geologyconcepts.

com

1. Soil:
𝜌𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑙
 𝑤𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑙 = 𝑉𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑙 × 𝜌𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑙 × 𝑔 ; 𝐺𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑙 (𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦) = 𝜌
𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟

 𝑤𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑙 = 𝑉𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑙 × 𝐺𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑙 × 𝛾𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 ; 𝛾𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 𝜌𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 × 𝑔;

 𝛾 𝑖𝑠 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
 𝛾𝑤𝑒𝑡 = 𝑊𝑇 /𝑉𝑇
 𝛾𝑑𝑟𝑦 = 𝑊𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑙 /𝑉𝑇
 𝐵𝑢𝑙𝑘 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑆𝑜𝑖𝑙, 𝑖𝑠 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑟𝑦 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑙 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑙
 𝑃𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑙, 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑟𝑦 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑙 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑
𝑊𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡, 𝑤 = 𝑊 × 100
𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒
𝑉𝑣𝑜𝑖𝑑𝑠
 𝑉𝑜𝑖𝑑 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜, 𝑒 = 𝑉𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑙
𝑉𝑣𝑜𝑖𝑑𝑠
 𝑃𝑜𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦, 𝜂 = 𝑉𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙
𝑉𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
 𝐷𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛, 𝛿 = × 100
𝑉𝑣𝑜𝑖𝑑𝑠
𝐷
 𝐶𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑦, 𝐶𝑢 = 𝐷60
10
𝐷30 2
 𝐶𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒, 𝐶𝑐 = 𝐷
10 𝐷60
𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑥 −𝑒𝑜
 𝑅𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦, 𝐷𝑅 = 𝑒 × 100
𝑚𝑎𝑥 −𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑤−𝑃𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡
 𝐿𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑥, 𝐿. 𝐼. = 𝐿𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡−𝑃𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡
𝐿𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡−𝑤
 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑥, 𝐶. 𝐼 =
𝐿𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡−𝑃𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡

 𝑃𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑥, 𝑃. 𝐼 = 𝐿𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡 − 𝑃𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡

 Activity(A) is ratio of Plasticity index (in %) to the % of clay fraction
2. Rock strength:
2.𝐹
 𝐵𝑟𝑎𝑧𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑎𝑛 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑙𝑒 𝑠𝑟𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ, 𝜎𝑡 = 𝜋𝐿𝐷 ;

𝐿 𝑖𝑠 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐷 𝑖𝑠 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒

𝐹
 𝑈𝑛𝑖𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ, 𝜎𝑐 = 𝐴
𝐹
 𝑃𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑥, 𝜎𝑐 = 𝐷2
𝐸𝑡50
 𝑀𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑠 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜, 𝑀. 𝑅. = ; 𝐸𝑡50 𝑖𝑠 𝑌𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑔′ 𝑠 𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑠 𝑎𝑡 50% 𝜎𝑐𝑠
𝜎𝑐𝑠
𝛴(𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝑝𝑖𝑒𝑐𝑒𝑠 > 10𝑐𝑚)
 𝑅𝑜𝑐𝑘 𝑄𝑢𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝐷𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛, 𝑅𝑄𝐷 = × 100
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝑟𝑢𝑛
 𝛴(𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝑝𝑖𝑒𝑐𝑒𝑠)
 𝐶𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑦 = 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝑟𝑢𝑛 × 100
 𝑅𝑄𝐷 = 115 − 3.5 𝐽𝑛
𝑅𝑄𝐷 𝐽 𝐽
 𝑅𝑜𝑐𝑘 𝑡𝑢𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑥, 𝑄 = × 𝐽𝑟 × 𝑆𝑅𝐹
𝑤
𝐽𝑛 𝑎

𝐽𝑛 = 𝐽𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑠𝑒𝑡 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 (1 − 20)

𝐽𝑟 = 𝐽𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 (1 − 20)
𝐽𝑎 = 𝑗𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑎𝑙𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟
𝐽𝑤 = 𝐽𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 (1 − 20)
SRF = stress reduction factor
𝑅𝑄𝐷 𝐽
 𝐺𝑒𝑜𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑥, 𝐺𝑆𝐼 = 9 log [ × 𝐽𝑟 ] + 44
𝐽𝑛 𝑎

 𝑅𝑀𝑖 = 𝜎𝑐 × 𝐽𝑝 ; 𝐽𝑝 = 𝑗𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟; 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑐𝑡 𝑟𝑜𝑐𝑘 = 1; 𝑐𝑟𝑢𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑑 𝑟𝑜𝑐𝑘 = 0

𝐶−𝐷
 𝑆𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑘 𝑑𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑥, 𝑆𝐷𝐼 = 𝐴−𝐷 × 100;

𝐷 = 𝑑𝑟𝑦 𝑑𝑟𝑢𝑚 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠; 𝐴 = 𝑑𝑟𝑢𝑚 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑟𝑜𝑐𝑘 𝑏𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝑟𝑢𝑛; 𝐶

= 𝑑𝑟𝑢𝑚 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑟𝑜𝑐𝑘 𝑎𝑓𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑟𝑢𝑛
 Geochemistry Formulae For more visit: https://geologyconcepts.com

1. Concentration:
𝑚𝑔 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 (𝑚𝑔)
 =
𝐿 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝐿)
𝑚𝑔 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 (𝑚𝑔)
 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝑝𝑝𝑚) = =
𝑘𝑔 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝑘𝑔)
𝑚𝑔 𝑚𝑔 1
 = ×
𝑘𝑔 𝐿 𝜌
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 (𝑚𝑔)
 𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑦 (𝑀) = 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝐿)
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 (𝑚𝑔)
 𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 (𝑚) = 1 𝑘𝑔 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑠
 𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝑋) = 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠
𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠
 = 𝑁𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 (𝑁) = 𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑦(𝑀) × 𝑛 − 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟
𝐿
2. Thermodynamics and other chemical formulae:
−∆ 𝐺°
 𝑟
log 𝐾𝑠𝑝 = 2.303𝑅𝑇
𝐼𝐴𝑃
 𝑆𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑥, 𝑆𝐼 = log (𝐾 ) ; 𝐼𝐴𝑃 𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡
𝑠𝑝

SI = 0 (water is saturated w.r.t. mineral)

SI < 0 (water is under-saturated w.r.t. mineral)
SI > 0 (water is super-saturated w.r.t. mineral)
∆𝑟 𝐻° 1 1
 𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑉𝑎𝑛′𝑡 𝐻𝑜𝑓𝑓 𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛, log 𝐾𝑇2 = log 𝐾𝑇1 + ( − )
2.303𝑅𝑇 𝑇1 𝑇2
0.0591
 𝑜
𝑁𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑠𝑡 𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛, 𝐸𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙 = 𝐸𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙 − log 𝑄 ; 𝑄 𝑖𝑠 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑞𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝑛
1
 𝐼𝑜𝑛𝑖𝑐 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ, 𝐼 = 2 ∑(𝑀𝑖 𝑍𝑖 2 ) ; 𝑀 𝑖𝑠 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑍 𝑖𝑠 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑛 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑠
−𝐴𝑍𝑖2√𝐼
 log 𝛾𝑖 = ; 𝛾𝑖 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡. 𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦, 𝑎𝑖 = 𝛾𝑖 𝑀𝑖
1+𝐵𝑎𝑜 √𝐼

𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑇 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑃, 𝑎𝑜 𝑖𝑠 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑎𝑐ℎ

 Work done relation:

Isobaric, W = -p∆V; Isochoric, W = 0;
Isothermal, W = -nRT ln(V2/V1) = -nRT ln(P1/P2);
(1−𝛾) (1−𝛾)
𝑃𝑉 𝛾 (𝑉𝑓 −𝑉𝑖 )
Adiabatic, 𝑊 = 1−𝛾

 Entropy relation:
Isobaric, S = Cp ln(T2/T1);
Isochoric, S = Cv ln(T2/T1);
 Isothermal, S = nR ln(V2/V1);
𝑉 𝑃
Adiabatic, 𝑆 = 𝐶𝑝 𝑙𝑛 (𝑉2 ) + 𝐶𝑣 𝑙𝑛 (𝑃2 )
1 1

3. Chemical kinetics:
𝑑𝐶
 𝑍𝑒𝑟𝑜𝑡ℎ − 𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒, − 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑘; 𝐶 = 𝑘𝑡
𝑑𝐶
 𝐹𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡 𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒, − 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑘𝐶; 𝐶 = 𝐶𝑜 𝑒 −𝑘𝑡 ;

0.693
𝑇1 = ; 𝑇1 𝑖𝑠 ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑓 − 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒, 𝑘 𝑖𝑠 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
2 𝑘 2

1
𝜏= ; 𝜏 𝑖𝑠 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
𝑘
𝐸𝑎
 𝑘 = 𝑘𝑜 𝑒 −𝑅𝑇 ; 𝐸𝑎 𝑖𝑠 𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦

4. Equilibrium and Fractional crystallization and melting

Equilibrium or Batch crystallization

𝐶𝑙 1
 = [𝐹(1−𝐾
𝐶𝑙 𝑜 𝑑 )+𝐾𝑑 ]
𝐶𝑠 𝐾𝑑
 = [𝐹(1−𝐾
𝐶𝑙 𝑜 𝑑 )+𝐾𝑑 ]

Fractional crystallization
𝐶𝑙
 = 𝐹 (𝐾𝑑−1)
𝐶𝑙 𝑜
𝐶𝑠
 = 𝐾𝑑 𝐹 (𝐾𝑑−1)
𝐶𝑙 𝑜

𝐹 𝑖𝑠 𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑒𝑙𝑡 𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔

𝐶𝑙 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑚𝑒 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑
𝐶𝑙 𝑜 𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑
𝐶𝑠 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑
𝐾𝑑 𝑖𝑠 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑏𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡

Equilibrium or Batch melting

𝐶𝑙 1
 = [𝐹(1−𝑃)+𝐷
𝐶𝑠 𝑜 𝑜]
𝐶𝑙 𝐷0
 = [𝐹(1−𝑃)+𝐷
𝐶𝑠 𝑜 𝑜]
 Fractional or Rayleigh melting
1
𝐶𝑙 1 [ −1]
 𝑀𝑜𝑑𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐. 𝑚𝑒𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔, = [𝐷 ] [1 − 𝐹] 𝐷𝑜
𝐶𝑠 𝑜 𝑜

𝐶𝑙 1 𝑃𝐹 1
 𝑁𝑜𝑛 − 𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐. 𝑚𝑒𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔, 𝑜 = [𝐷 ] [1 − 𝐷 ][𝑃−1]
𝐶𝑠 𝑜 𝑜

P = kda x (fraction of mineral a in melting assemblage) + kdb x (frac. of min. b in

in melting assemblage) + kdc x (frac. of min. c in melting assemblage) + …

Do = kda x (fraction of mineral a in unmelted source) + kdb x (frac. of min. b in

unmelted source) + kdc x (frac. of min. c in unmelted source) + …

For Modal melting, P = Do

For Non-Modal melting, P ≠Do

𝐹 𝑖𝑠 𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑 𝑚𝑒𝑙𝑡𝑒𝑑 or liquid formed

𝐶𝑙 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑚𝑒 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑
𝐶𝑙 𝑜 𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑
𝐶𝑠 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑
𝐾𝑑 𝑖𝑠 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑏𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡

5. Isotope Geology
 For a radioactive reaction, A → B, λ is the rate or decay constant
𝐵 𝐵 𝐴
( ′ ) = ( ′ ) + ( ′ ) (𝑒 𝜆𝑡 − 1); 𝐵′ 𝑖𝑠 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑛𝑜𝑛 − 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑜𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑖𝑐 𝑖𝑠𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑝𝑒
𝐵 𝑡 𝐵 𝑜 𝐵 𝑡
 K-Ar dating
∗
𝐴𝑟 40 ∗
𝑡 = 1.804 × 10 ln [9.540 40 + 1] ; 𝐴𝑟 40 𝑖𝑠 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑜𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑖𝑐 𝐴𝑟𝑔𝑜𝑛 − 40
9
𝐾
∗
10
𝐴𝑟 40
𝑡 ≈ 1.72 × 10
𝐾 40
 Stable isotope geology
𝑂18 𝑂18
( ) − ( )
𝑂16 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝑂16 𝑆𝑀𝑂𝑊
𝛿 18 𝑂𝑆𝑀𝑂𝑊 = × 103
𝑂18
( 16 )
[ 𝑂 𝑆𝑀𝑂𝑊
]
18 18
𝛿 𝑂𝑃𝐷𝐵 = 1.03086 𝛿 𝑂𝑆𝑀𝑂𝑊 + 30.86

 Fractionation factor, α = RA/RB ; R = 18O/16O

 Enrichment factor, ∆𝐴−𝐵 = 𝛿 18 𝑂𝐴 − 𝛿 18 𝑂𝐵
 ∆ ≈ (𝛼 − 1)103 ≈ 103 ln 𝛼
Geophysics Geology Formulae For more visit: https://geologyconcepts.com

1. Earth and planetary motion:

𝑇2 4𝜋2
 𝐾𝑒𝑝𝑙𝑒𝑟 ′ 𝑠 3𝑟𝑑 𝑙𝑎𝑤, 𝑎3 = ; 𝑇 = 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑, 𝑎 = 𝑜𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠
𝐺𝑀
𝐺𝑀
 𝐺𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙, 𝑈 = − 𝑟
𝑎−𝑐
 𝑃𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑓𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔, 𝑓 = ; 𝑎 𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑐 𝑖𝑠 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠
𝑐

2. Gravity and gravity correction:

 𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑎𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎, 𝑔𝑛 = 𝑔𝑒 (1 + 𝛽1 𝑆𝑖𝑛2 𝜆 + 𝛽2 𝑆𝑖𝑛4 𝜆)

𝛽1 = 5.30244 × 10−3 ; 𝛽2 = −5.8 × 10−6 ; 𝑔𝑒 = 9.780327 𝑚/𝑠 2

 𝑇𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛, ∆𝑔𝑇 = 𝐺𝜌𝜑𝑜 [(√𝑟 2 + ℎ2 − 𝑟1 ) − (√𝑟 2 + ℎ2 − 𝑟2 )]

𝑚𝑔𝑎𝑙
 𝐵𝑜𝑢𝑔𝑢𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛, ∆𝑔𝐵 = 2𝜋𝐺𝜌ℎ 𝑜𝑟 0.0419 × 10−3 × 𝜌 , 𝜌 𝑖𝑛 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3
𝑚
2𝑔 𝑚𝑔𝑎𝑙
 𝐹𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛, ∆𝑔𝐹 = 𝑜𝑟 0.3086
𝑟 𝑚
𝑚𝑔𝑎𝑙
 𝐿𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛, ∆𝑔𝐿 = 0.8140 𝑆𝑖𝑛(2𝜆) 𝑁 − 𝑆 𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝑘𝑚

3. Gravity anomaly:
4 𝑧
 Sphere: ∆𝑔𝑧 = 3 𝜋𝑟 3 𝐺 (∆𝜌) 3
(𝑥 2+𝑧 2)2
𝑧
 𝐻𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑧𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑦𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟, ∆𝑔𝑧 = 2𝜋𝑟 2 𝐺 (∆𝜌) (𝑥 2+𝑧 2)
𝑥2 𝑥1
 𝐻𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑧𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑙𝑎𝑏, ∆𝑔𝑧 = 2𝐺(∆𝜌)𝑡 (𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 − 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 ) , 𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑘𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠
𝑧 𝑧

4. Isostasy:
ℎ1 𝜌𝑐
 𝐴𝑖𝑟𝑦 ′ 𝑠 𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑒𝑙, 𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑡 𝑟1 = 𝜌
𝑚 −𝜌𝑐
𝜌𝑐 − 𝜌𝑤
𝐴𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑡 𝑟𝑜 = 𝑑
𝜌𝑚 − 𝜌𝑐
𝐷𝜌𝑐
 𝑃𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑡 ′ 𝑠 𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑒𝑙, 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑏𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 ℎ1, 𝜌𝑖 = ℎ ;
1+𝐷
𝐷𝜌𝑐 − 𝑑𝜌𝑤
𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑐𝑒𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑐 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ 𝑑, 𝜌𝑜 =
𝐷−𝑑
5. Seismic waves:
4
𝐾+ 𝜇 𝜆+2𝜇
 𝑃 − 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦, 𝑉𝑝 = √ 3
=√
𝜌 𝜌

𝜇
 𝑆 − 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦, 𝑉𝑠 = √𝜌
2
 𝜆 + 3 𝜇 = 𝐾; 𝜆 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜇 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑙𝑎𝑚𝑒 ′ 𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
4 𝐾
 𝑉𝑝 2 − 3 𝑉𝑠 2 = 𝜌
𝜇(3𝜆+2𝜇)
 𝐸= = 3𝐾(1 − 2𝜈) = 2𝜇 (1 + 𝜈);
𝜆+𝜇

𝐸 𝑖𝑠 𝑌𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑔′𝑠 𝑀𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑠, 𝐾 𝑖𝑠 𝐵𝑢𝑙𝑘 𝑀𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑠,

𝜇 𝑖𝑠 𝑆ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜈 𝑖𝑠 𝑃𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑜𝑛′ 𝑠 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜

𝜆
 𝑃𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑜𝑛′ 𝑠 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜, 𝜈 = 2(𝜆+𝜇) ; 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝜆 = 𝜇, 𝜈 = 0.25, 𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝑖𝑠 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑜𝑛′ 𝑠 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑
1 (𝑉𝑝 2 −2𝑉𝑠 2 )
 𝑃𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑜𝑛′ 𝑠 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜, 𝜈 = 2 (𝑉𝑝 2 −𝑉𝑠 2 )

 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑑𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝑍 = 𝜌 × 𝑉𝑝 ; 𝜌 𝑖𝑠 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦

𝑍2 −𝑍1 2𝑍1
 𝑅𝑒𝑓𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐶𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡, 𝑅𝐶 = ; 𝑇𝐶 = 1 − 𝑅𝐶 = 𝑍
𝑍2 +𝑍1 2 +𝑍1

 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑, 𝐸𝑟 = (𝑅𝐶) ; 𝐸𝑡 = 1 − 𝐸𝑟 2

 𝑉𝐿𝑅 = 0.92 × 𝑉𝑠 ; 𝑉𝐿𝑅 𝑖𝑠 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑅𝑎𝑦𝑙𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑠

 The velocity (β1) of S-waves in the near-surface layer must be lower than in
the underlying half-space (β2). The velocity of the Love waves (VLQ) lies
between the two extreme values: β1 < VLQ < β2. Love waves are always
dispersive.

6. Earthquake and its magnitude:

𝑉 1 1
 𝑡𝑠 − 𝑡𝑝 = 𝑡𝑝 ( 𝑉𝑝 − 1) = 𝐷 (𝑉 − 𝑉 ) ; 𝐷 𝑖𝑠 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑐𝑢𝑠 & 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛.
𝑠 𝑠 𝑝
𝑉𝑃
 𝐹𝑜𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ, ℎ = (𝑡𝑝𝑝 − 𝑡𝑝 )
2
 𝑅𝑖𝑡𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒, 𝑀𝐿 = log(𝐴𝑚𝑎𝑥 ) − 2.48 + 2.76 log(∆) ;

𝐴 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒, ∆ 𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑝𝑖𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒.

𝐴
 𝐵𝑜𝑑𝑦 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒, 𝑀𝐵 = log ( ) + 𝑞 (∆, ℎ)
𝑇 𝑚𝑎𝑥

𝑇 𝑖𝑠 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒, 𝑞(∆, ℎ) 𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑖𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

 𝐴
 𝑆𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒, 𝑀𝑆 = log (𝑇 ) + 1.66 log(∆) + 3.3
𝑚𝑎𝑥
 𝐸𝑎𝑟𝑡ℎ𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑘𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦, log(𝑁) = 𝑎 − 𝑏𝑀; 𝑀 𝑖𝑠 𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒, 𝑏 ≈ 1
 𝐸𝑎𝑟𝑡ℎ𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑘𝑒 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦, log(𝐸 ) = 4.8 + 1.5𝑀𝑆
 𝐸𝑎𝑟𝑡ℎ𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑘𝑒 𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦, 𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 1.5𝑀𝑆 − 1.8 log(ℎ) + 1.7; ℎ 𝑖𝑠 𝑓𝑜𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
 𝑆𝑒𝑖𝑠𝑚𝑖𝑐 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡, 𝑚𝑜 = 𝜇𝑆𝐷, 𝑆 − 𝑓𝑎𝑢𝑙𝑡 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎, 𝐷 − 𝑠𝑙𝑖𝑝 𝑎𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜇 −
𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑦
2
 𝑀𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒, 𝑚𝑤 = 3 (𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑚𝑜 − 9.1); 𝑖𝑛 𝑆𝐼 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠

7. Earth’s Magnetism:
 The Earth’s magnetic field, B, is much weaker; its maximum intensity is
reached near to the magnetic poles, where it amounts to about 6 x 10 -5 T.
 1 gauss = 10-4 T;
 More practical unit of geophysical exploration is gamma (γ) = 10-5 gauss =
10-9 T or nT.
 Velocity of solar wind relative to Earth is 450 km/s
 Polar angle, ϴ = 90° - λ (λ is magnetic latitude)
 tan(I) = 2 cot(ϴ) = 2 tan(λ); I is inclination of Magnetic field
 Two components of Earth’s total magnetic field, B t, radial component Br and
tangential component, Bϴ
𝜇 2𝑚 Cos(𝜃) 𝜇 2𝑚 Sin(𝜆)
 𝐵𝑟 = − 4𝜋𝑜 = − 4𝜋𝑜
𝑟3 𝑟3
𝜇𝑜 𝑚 Sin(𝜃) 𝜇𝑜 𝑚 Cos(𝜆)
 𝐵𝜃 = − 4𝜋 = − 4𝜋
𝑟3 𝑟3
𝜇𝑜 𝑚 √1+3𝐶𝑜𝑠 2(𝜃) 𝜇𝑜 𝑚 √1+3𝑆𝑖𝑛 2 (𝜆)
 𝐵𝑡 = √𝐵𝑟2 + 𝐵𝜃2 = = ;
4𝜋 𝑟3 4𝜋 𝑟3

 𝐵𝑡 = 30,000 𝑛𝑇 𝑎𝑡 𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟; 𝐵𝑡 = 60,000 𝑛𝑇 𝑎𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠

𝜕𝐵𝑡 3
 𝐴𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛, = − 𝑟 𝐵𝑡 ;
𝜕𝑟

𝐴𝑡 𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟, 0.015 𝑛𝑇𝑚−1 ; 𝐴𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 0.030 𝑛𝑇𝑚−1

𝜕𝐵 3𝐵𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜃)𝐶𝑜𝑠(𝜃)
 𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛, 𝑟𝜕𝜃𝑡 = ; 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜 𝑎𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟
𝑟(1+3𝐶𝑜𝑠 2(𝜃))

Maximum value of 5 nT / km at intermediate latitudes.

8. Magnetic anomaly:
1 (2𝑧 2+ 𝑥 2)
 𝑆𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒, ∆𝐵𝑧 = 3 𝜇𝑜 𝑅3 (∆𝑀𝑧 ) 5 ; ∆𝑀𝑧 = (𝑘 − 𝑘𝑜 )𝐹;
(𝑥 2+𝑧 2)2

𝑘 𝑖𝑠 𝑠𝑢𝑠𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦, 𝑘𝑜 𝑖𝑠 𝑠𝑢𝑠𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑟𝑜𝑐𝑘

1 (𝑧 2 −𝑥 2 )
 𝐻𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑧𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑦𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟, ∆𝐵𝑧 = 2 𝜇𝑜 𝑅2 (∆𝑀𝑧 ) (𝑥 2+𝑧 2)2
 Remote sensing / Geomorphology / Ore Formulae For more visit:
https://geologyconcepts.com

Remote sensing:

1. Energy and emission

𝑐
 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦, 𝐸 = ℎ𝜈 = ℎ 𝜆 ; 𝑐 − 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡, 𝜆 𝑖𝑠 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ, 𝜈 𝑖𝑠 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦
 𝐵𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑘 𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛, 𝑀𝐵 = 𝜎𝑇 4 ; 𝑇 𝑖𝑛 𝐾, 𝜎 𝑖𝑠 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑓𝑎𝑛 𝑏𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑧𝑚𝑎𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 =
5.6 × 10−8 𝑊𝑚−2 𝐾 −4
𝑀
 𝐸𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦, 𝜖 = 𝑀𝑅
𝐵
2898
 𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑛′ 𝑠 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑙𝑎𝑤, 𝜆𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝜇𝑚
𝑇(𝐾)

 𝑅𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦, 𝑄 = ℎ𝜈
𝑑𝑄
 𝑅𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥, 𝜑 = 𝑊 𝑜𝑟 𝐽𝑠 −1
𝑑𝑡
𝜑
 𝐼𝑟𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝐸 =
𝐴
𝜃 𝜃
2. Image calculation: 2 2
𝐷𝑁0 −𝐷𝑁𝑚𝑖𝑛
 𝐿𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑐ℎ, 𝐷𝑁 = 255 × (𝐷𝑁 )
𝑚𝑎𝑥 −𝐷𝑁𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝐻
 𝑆𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒 = 𝑓 ÷ 𝐻
𝑆𝑤𝑎𝑡ℎ 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝑠𝐷 = 2 × 𝐻 𝑡𝑎𝑛 ( 2 ) ; 𝜃 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒, 𝐻 𝑖𝑠 ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 2𝐻 tan (𝜃 )
𝜃

2
3. Scattering:

dp is partice size
λ is wavelngth

4. Band ratio
Band ratio (TM) Mineral
5/7 clay, carbonate, silica, mica group
3/1 heamtite goethite and jarosite
5/4 bare rock and soil
5. Important absorption windows
Geomorphology:

1. Fluvial Systems:
𝐿
 𝐷𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑑𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦, 𝐷 = 𝐴 ; 𝐿 𝑖𝑠 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑚𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐴 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎
𝑁
 𝑇𝑒𝑥𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜, 𝑇 = 𝑝 ; 𝑁 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑜𝑢𝑟
P is perimeter of basin in km
𝑁𝑢
 𝐵𝑖𝑓𝑢𝑟𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜, 𝑅𝑏 = 𝑁 𝑤𝑖𝑙𝑙 𝑏𝑒 𝑏𝑖𝑓𝑢𝑟𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑢𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑒𝑟
𝑢+1
𝐴
 𝐷𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑠𝑦𝑚𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑦, 𝐴𝐹 = 𝐴𝑟 × 100;
𝑡

𝐴𝐹 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑠𝑦𝑚𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑦 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟, 𝐴𝑟 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑚,

𝐴𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎
𝐴𝑡
 𝐷𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑝𝑒, 𝑅𝑓 = ; 𝐴𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐿𝑏 𝑖𝑠 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
𝐿2𝑏

 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒, 𝑄 = 𝑤. 𝑑. 𝑣; 𝑤 𝑖𝑠 𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ, 𝑑 𝑖𝑠 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣 𝑖𝑠 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦

 𝑀𝑒𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ, 𝐿 = 𝑘𝑄 𝑥 ; 𝑘 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑠
𝑉𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠
 𝜑 − 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑥 = ; 𝑡𝑟 𝑖𝑠 𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑓𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑑𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑡𝑟
𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑚 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑤𝑒𝑔 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑙 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑥, 𝑆 = = = 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑦 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑦 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ

2. Miscellaneous:
𝑟𝑖𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑟 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
 𝑅𝑖𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑥, 𝑅𝐼 = 𝑟𝑖𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑒 ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
 𝑆𝑦𝑚𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑦 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑥, 𝑆𝐼 = 𝑙𝑒𝑒 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
𝑎
 𝑅𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑥, 𝑅𝐷𝐼 =
𝑏

𝑄 ℎ2 −ℎ1
 𝐷𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑦 ′ 𝑠 𝑙𝑎𝑤, 𝑉 = 𝐴 = −𝑘 𝐿
;
𝑉 𝑖𝑠 𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑦 ′ 𝑠 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦, 𝑘 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑟 ℎ𝑦𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑢𝑙𝑖𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦

ℎ2 − ℎ1
𝑖𝑠 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡,
𝐿
𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑒𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 𝑗𝑢𝑠𝑡 𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑤𝑖𝑙𝑙 𝑜𝑐𝑐𝑢𝑟 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 ℎ𝑖𝑔ℎ 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑡𝑜𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑑𝑠 𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒

(𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 — ℎ𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑒𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 𝑖𝑛 𝐷𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑦′𝑠 𝑙𝑎𝑤)

 Iribarren number
tan(𝛼 )
∈= ; 𝛼 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑎𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒, 𝐻 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒 ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡,
𝐻
√𝐿
𝑜
𝐿𝑜 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑒𝑝 − 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ,
 Reynolds number
𝜌𝑢𝐿 𝑢𝐿
𝑅𝑒 = =
𝜇 𝜈
ρ is the density of the fluid (SI units: kg/m3)
u is the velocity of the fluid with respect to the object (m/s)
L is a characteristic linear dimension (m)
μ is the dynamic viscosity of the fluid (Pa·s or N·s/m2 or kg/m·s)
ν is the kinematic viscosity of the fluid (m2/s).
 Froude number
𝑢𝑜
𝐹𝑟 = ;
√𝑔𝑜 𝑙0

𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑢𝑜 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦, 𝑔𝑜 𝑖𝑠 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦,

𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑙𝑜 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ.

Ore geology:

1. Fuel Characterization

𝑷𝒓𝒐𝒙𝒊𝒎𝒂𝒕𝒆 𝒂𝒏𝒂𝒍𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒔

 𝐹𝑖𝑥𝑒𝑑 𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑏𝑜𝑛, 𝐹𝐶 = 100 − (%𝑀 + %𝐴 + %𝑉𝑀)

𝑀 𝑖𝑠 𝑚𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒, 𝐴 𝑖𝑠 𝐴𝑠ℎ 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡, 𝑉𝑀 𝑖𝑠 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑙𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑟

𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠
 %𝑀 = 𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒 × 100
𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑢𝑒
 %𝐴 = × 100
𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒

 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑙𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑏𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑛 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 1 𝑔𝑚 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑡

950°𝐶 𝑓𝑜𝑟 7 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑡𝑒𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑖𝑟.

 𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑉𝑀 = 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 − 𝑚𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒

𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑉𝑀
 %𝑉𝑀 = × 100
𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒

𝑼𝒍𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒂𝒕𝒆 𝒂𝒏𝒂𝒍𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒔

 %𝑂 = 100 − (%𝐶 + %𝐻 + %𝑁 + %𝑆 + %𝑎𝑠ℎ)

%𝐴 𝑜𝑟 %𝑉𝑀
 𝐴𝑛𝑎𝑙𝑦𝑠𝑖𝑠 𝑜𝑛 𝑑𝑟𝑦 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑠 = { } × 100
100−%𝑀
 %𝐹𝐶 𝑜𝑛 𝑑𝑟𝑦 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑠 = 100 − (%𝑀 + %𝐴)
%𝑉𝑀
 𝐴𝑛𝑎𝑙𝑦𝑠𝑖𝑠 𝑜𝑛 𝑑𝑟𝑦 𝑎𝑠ℎ 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑠 = {100−(%𝑀+%𝐴)} × 100
 %𝐹𝐶 𝑜𝑛 𝑑𝑟𝑦 𝑎𝑠ℎ 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑠 = 100 − (%𝑀 + %𝐴)
 𝐷𝑟𝑦 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑉𝑀 = 100 − (𝐷𝑟𝑦 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝐹𝐶 )
 𝑀𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 1.1 × 𝐴𝑠ℎ 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡

2. Metal content:
 Tonnage = Volume of ore-block X Specific gravity
 Metal content = tonnage X grade (or assay value)
Petrology Formulae For more visit: https://geologyconcepts.com

1. Lever rule
 Binary phase diagram:
𝑤𝑜 −𝑤𝑙
 % 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑 = × 100
𝑤𝑠 −𝑤𝑙
𝑤𝑠 −𝑤𝑜
 % 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 = × 100
𝑤𝑠 −𝑤𝑙

 Ternary phase rule, in the fig.

X is bulk composition
At point L
𝑎
 % 𝑐𝑟𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝑎+𝑏 × 100; 𝑎 = 𝐿𝑋 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏 = 𝑋𝐶
𝑏
 % 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 = 𝑎+𝑏 × 100; 𝑎 = 𝐿𝑋 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏 = 𝑋𝐶
At point M,
𝑀𝑋
 % 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑 = × 100
𝑀𝑁
𝑁𝑋
 % 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 = 𝑀𝑁 × 100
𝑁𝐶
 % 𝐴 𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑 = × 100
𝐴𝐶
𝐴𝑁
 % 𝐶 𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑 = × 100
𝐴𝐶

2. The Phase Rule for Metamorphism:

 F =C+2-P
where F = the variance of the system or number of degrees of freedom,

C = the number of components in the system,

and P = the number of phases (minerals) present.

the 2 stands for the two independent variables, Pressure and Temperature.
  For divariant assemblage, Area in P-T diagram, F = 2
 For univariant assemblage, Line in a P-T diagram, F = 1
 For invariant assemblage, point in a P-T diagram, F = 0

3. Thermodynamics:
 Clausius - Clapeyron Equation:

𝑑𝑃 ∆𝑆
( )=
𝑑𝑇 ∆𝑉

where ΔS = the change in Entropy of the reaction = ΣSproducts - ΣSreactants

and ΔV = the change in Volume of the reaction = ΣVproducts - ΣVreactants

𝐼𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑏𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑢𝑠𝑒 𝑖𝑡 𝑡𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑠 𝑢𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑏𝑟𝑖𝑢𝑚 𝑏𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑦

𝑜𝑟 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑏𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑜𝑛 𝑎 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑢𝑠 𝑇𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑚.

 ΔG = ΔH – TΔS

 ΔG = the change in Free Energy of the reaction = ΣGproducts - ΣGreactants

 ΔH = the change in Enthalpy of the reaction = ΣHproducts - ΣHreactants
 ΔS = the change in Entropy of the reaction = ΣSproducts - ΣSreactants

In general, ΔG, ΔH, ΔS, and ΔV are dependent of Pressure and Temperature, but
at any given T & P

 If ΔG < 0 (negative) the chemical reaction will be spontaneous and run to

the right,
 If ΔG = 0 the reactants are in equilibrium with products,
 and if ΔG > 0 (positive) the reaction will run from right to left.
Structural Geology Formulae For more visit - https://geologyconcepts.com

1. Mohr’ Circle:
(𝜎3+ 𝜎1) (𝜎1 − 𝜎3 )
 𝜎𝑛 = + 𝐶𝑜𝑠(2𝜃) (ϴ is the angle plane makes with σ3)
2 2
(𝜎1 − 𝜎3 )
 𝜏= Sin(2ϴ)
2
 Hydrostatic pressure (water) or lithostatic pressure (rock): σ1 = σ2 = σ3 = p
 Uniaxial stress: σ1 > 0; σ1 = σ2 = 0
 Biaxial stress: σ2 = 0; σ1 > 0 > σ3
 General tri-axial stress: σ1 > σ2 > σ3 ≠ 0
2. Mohr – coulomb fracture criteria:
 𝜏 = 𝜎𝑛 tan(𝜃) + 𝑐; 𝑐 = 𝑐𝑜ℎ𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛
3. Griffith’s tensional criteria:
 𝜏 2 + 4𝑇𝜎𝑛 − 4𝑇 2 ; 𝑇 = 𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
4. Stress and Strain:
 Stress and shear strain: 𝜏 = 𝜂 𝛾 (η = modulus of rigidity; γ = shear strain)
𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑢
 𝜏 = 𝜇 𝑑𝑦 ; 𝑑𝑦 𝑖𝑠 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 & 𝜇 𝑖𝑠 𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦
 Shear strain: γ = tan(ψ) [ψ = shearing angle]
 Stress and longitudinal strain: σ = Eε (E = Young’s modulus; ε = longitudinal
strain)
 Volumetric stress: σ = -Kϴ (ϴ = fraction change in volume; K = bulk modulus)
[Compressibility is K-1]
 σ = 2μė (μ = viscosity; ė = strain rate) [Newtonian viscous behavior]
 Elongation (engineer’s extension), e = (lf – lo)/lo
 Stretch: T = lf/lo = 1 + e
 Quadratic elongation: I = T2 = (1+e)2
 Natural strain (logarithmic strain): E = ln(1+e) = ln(T)
5. Folding:
 Biot-Ramberg equation:
L = 2πt(μ1/6μ2)1/3, where,
L = arc length or wavelength
t: strong layer thickness
(μ1/μ2): viscosity ratio of layers
 Contrast in viscosity controls fold wavelength
i. high viscosity contrast results in long wavelength (e.g. limestone in shale)
ii. low viscosity contrast results in short wavelength (e.g. silstone and shale).
Also produces layer thickening. Thicker layer also produces longer
wavelength.