Diagnostic and Therapeutic Equiments I

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DIAGNOSTIC AND THERAPEUTIC EQUIMENTS -I
Biomedical engineering (Anna University)
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Biomedical Engineering
Syllabus
BM8601 DIAGNOSTIC AND THERAPEUTIC EQUIPMENT- I L T P C

3003
OBJECTIVES: The student should be made to:

∙ Understand the devices for measurement of parameters related to cardiology.
∙ Illustrate the recording and measurement of EEG
∙ Demonstrate EMG recording unit and its uses.
∙ Explain diagnostic and therapeutic devices related to respiratory parameters.
∙ Understand the various sensory measurements that hold clinical importance.
UNIT I CARDIAC EQUIPMENT
Electrocardiograph, Normal and Abnormal Waves, Heart rate monitor, Holter Monitor,
Phonocardiography, ECG machine maintenance and troubleshooting, Cardiac Pacemaker
Internal and External Pacemaker, Batteries, AC and DC Defibrillator, Internal and External,
Defibrillator Protection Circuit, Cardiac ablation catheter.
UNIT II NEUROLOGICAL EQUIPMENT
Clinical significance of EEG, Multi-channel EEG recording system, Epilepsy, Evoked

Potential, Visual, Auditory and Somatosensory, MEG (Magneto Encephalo Graph). EEG Bio
Feedback Instrumentation. EEG system maintenance and troubleshooting.
UNIT III MUSCULAR AND BIOMECHANICAL MEASUREMENTS
Recording and analysis of EMG waveforms, fatigue characteristics, Muscle stimulators,

nerve stimulators, Nerve conduction velocity measurement, EMG Bio Feedback
Instrumentation. Static Measurement Load Cell, Pedobarograph. Dynamic Measurement
Velocity, Acceleration, GAIT, Limb position.
UNIT IV RESPIRATORY MEASUREMENT SYSTEM
Instrumentation for measuring the mechanics of breathing Spirometer, Lung Volume and
vital capacity, measurements of residual volume, Pneumotachometer, Airway resistance
measurement, Whole body Plethysmograph, Intra-Alveolar and Thoracic pressure
measurements, Apnoea Monitor. Types of Ventilators
Pressure, Volume, and Time controlled. Flow, Patient Cycle Ventilators, Humidifiers,
Nebulizers, Inhalators.
UNIT V SENSORY MEASUREMENT
Psychophysiological Measurements polygraph, basal skin resistance (BSR), galvanic skin

resistance (GSR), Sensory responses, Audiometer-Pure tone, Speech, Eye Tonometer,
Applanation Tonometer, slit lamp, auto refractometer.

Question bank-Two marks with answer BM8601/Diagnostic & Therapeutic Equipment - I
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OUTCOMES
At the end of the course, the student should be able to:
● Describe the working and recording setup of all basic cardiac equipment.
● Understand the working and recording of all basic neurological equipment‘s.
● Discuss the recording of diagnostic and therapeutic equipment‘s related to EMG.
● Explain about measurements of parameters related to respiratory system.
● Describe the measurement techniques of sensory responses.
TEXT BOOKS
1. John G. Webster, “Medical Instrumentation Application and Design”, 4th edition,

Wiley India Pvt Ltd,New Delhi, 2015.
2. Joseph J. Carr and John M. Brown, “Introduction to Biomedical Equipment
Technology”, Pearson education, 2012.
REFERENCES
1. Myer Kutz, “Standard Handbook of Biomedical Engineering & Design”, McGraw

Hill, 2003.
2. L.A Geddes and L.E.Baker, “Principles of Applied Biomedical Instrumentation”, 3rd
Edition, 2008
3. Leslie Cromwell, “Biomedical Instrumentation and Measurement”, Pearson
Education, New Delhi, 2007.
4. Antony Y.K.Chan,“Biomedical Device Technology, Principles and design”, Charles
Thomas Publisher Ltd, Illinois, USA, 2008.
5. B H Brown, R H Smallwood, D C Barber, P V Lawford and D R Hose, “Medical
Physics and Biomedical Engineering”, 2nd Edition, IOP Publishers. 2001.

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Dr.N.G.P. Institute of Technology Biomedical Engineering
UNIT I: CARDIAC EQUIPMENT

1. Draw the normal ECG wave pattern and label its parts. May/June 2012)
NORMAL ECG WAVEFORM
Normal value - 1mV, 0.05-120Hz
2. Brief about electrocardiograph. (April/May 2011)
Electrocardiography is the process of recording the electrical activity of the heart

over period of time using electrodes placed on a patient's body. Normal value - 1mV,
0.05-120Hz. It is used to
Assess your heart rhythm.
Diagnose poor blood flow to the heart muscle (ischemia)
Diagnose a heart attack.
Diagnose abnormalities of your heart, such as heart chamber enlargement
and abnormal electrical conduction.
3. Name the natural pacemaker and give the normal rate of the heart .
Sino-atrial node is the natural pace maker of the heart and the narmal heart rate is
72beats/min.
The sinoatrial node is composed of a group of specialised cells positioned in the wall
of the right atrium just lateral to the junction where the superior vena cava enters the right
atrium, The sinoatrial node (often abbreviated SA node; also commonly called the sinus

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node and less commonly the sinuatrial node) is the pacemaker of the heart and is responsible
for the initiation of the heart beat. It spontaneously generates an electrical impulse, which
after conducting throughout the heart, causes the heart to contract.
4. How will you calculate heart rate from an ECG wave form?
Heart rate can be calculated from a ECG wave form using the formula
1500
Heart rate =
RR
5. Draw Einthoven triangle and label. (Nov/Dec 2014)

Einthoven's triangle is an imaginary formation of three limb leads in a triangle used
inelectrocardiography, formed by the two shoulders and the pubis. The shape forms an
inverted equilateral triangle with the heart at the center that produces zero potential when the
voltages are summed. It is named after Willem Einthoven, who theorized its existence.
6. Define arrhythmia simulator.
Arrythmia simulators are designed to mimic a set of abnormal electrocardiographic

signals (e.g bradycardia, tachycardia).These simulators can also generate waveforms to check
the performance of the device being tested including sine, square, triangular and pulse
waveform, simulate pace maker signals. Also used to test complex functions of arrhythmia
monitoring, recording devices and to train healthcare personnel ,check patient lead continuity
and alarm conditions
7. Name the different types of cardiac arrhythmias.
Cardiac arrhythmia, also known as cardiac dysrhythmia or irregular heartbeat, is a

group of conditions in which the heartbeat is irregular, too fast, or too slow. A heartbeat that
is too fast ie, above 100 beats per minute in adults is called tachycardia and a heartbeat that is
too slow ie, below 60 beats per minute - is called bradycardia.
Examples:Atrial fibrillation, Ventricular fibrillation, atrial flutter, Myocardial infarction,

coronary insufficiency.

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8. What is ventricular fibrillation?
Ventricular fibrillation (V-fib or VF) is a condition in which there is uncoordinated

contraction of the cardiac muscle of the ventricles in the heart, making them quiver rather
than contract properly. Ventricular fibrillation is the most commonly identified arrhythmia in
cardiac arrest patients. Such an arrhythmia is only confirmed by electrocardiography.
Ventricular fibrillation is a medical emergency that requires prompt Advanced Life Support
interventions If the patient is not revived after a sufficient period (within roughly 5 minutes at
room temperature), the patient could sustain irreversible brain damage and possibly become
brain-dead, due to the effects of cerebral hypoxia.
9. What is Holter monitor? Mention any two application of it.
A Holter monitor ( simply "Holter" or occasionally ambulatory electrocardiography

device) is a portable device for continuously monitoring various electrical activity of the

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cardiovascular system for at least 24 hours (often for two weeks at a time). The Holter
monitor is named after physicist Norman J. Holter, who invented telemetric cardiac
monitoring in 1949.
The Holter's most common use is for monitoring heart activity

(electrocardiography or ECG), but it can also be used for monitoring brain
activity (electroencephalography or EEG) or arterial pressure.
It is to used for continuous recording and monitoring of electrical activity of

heart without interference with the spontaneous activities of the subjects. Ambulatory
purpose(24-72 hr information), ever day stress activity as well as during the periods of sleep.
10. What is heart rate monitor? (April/May 2011)

A heart rate monitor is a personal monitoring device that allows one to measure one's
heart rate in real time or record the heart rate for later study. It is largely used by performers
of various types of physical exercise. Monitoring in ICU in critical care condition, ICCU
after cardiac surgery, Athletes while practicing.
11. What are heart sounds?
Heart sounds are the noises generated by the beating heart and the resultant flow of
blood through it. Produced by the mechanical events that occur during the heart cycle. Can
be from the closure and opening of the heart valves, turbulance of the blood for circulation.A
stethoscope is used to listen these unique and distinct sounds that provide important auditory
data regarding the condition of the heart.
12. What are murmurs?
Heart murmurs are generated by turbulent flow of blood, which may occur inside or
outside the heart. Murmurs may be physiological (benign) or pathological (abnormal).
Abnormal murmurs can be caused by stenosis restricting the opening of a heart valve,
resulting in turbulence as blood flows through it. Abnormal murmurs may also occur with
valvular insufficiency (regurgitation), which allows backflow of blood when the incompetent
valve closes with only partial effectiveness. Different murmurs are audible in different parts
of the cardiac cycle, depending on the cause of the murmur.
13. Mention the importance of phonocardiography. (April/May 2011)

The phonocardiograph is an instrument used for recording the sounds and murmurs
connected with the pumping of the heart. These sounds provide an indication of the heart rate
and its rhythmicity. They also give useful information regarding effectiveness of the blood
pumping and valve action.

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In healthy adults, there are two normal heart sounds often described as a lub and
a dub (or dup), that occur in sequence with each heartbeat. These are the first heart
sound (S1) and second heart sound (S2), produced by the closing of the AV
valves and semilunar valves, respectively. In addition to these normal sounds, a variety of
other sounds may be present including heart murmurs, adventitious sounds, and gallop
rhythms S3 and S4.
14. What is use of plethysmography?
Instruments used for to detect the arterial pulse and pulse pressure waveforms in the
extremities are called plethysmograph . For measuring changes in volume within an organ or
whole body (usually resulting from fluctuations in the amount of blood or air it contains).
The pulse pressure and the waveform are the indicators for blood pressure and flow.
15. What is a cardiac pacemaker?
Cardiac pacemaker is an electronic instrument to produce external electrical

stimulationimpulses to the heart muscles to regulate the heart rate when the natural
pacemaker SA node) fails to generate pulses. The cardiac pacemaker is an electrical
stimulator that produces periodic electric pulses that are conducted to the electrodes
located on the
a.surface of the heart(the epicardium) or
b. within the heart muscle(the myocardium) or
c.within the cavity of heart or the lining of the heart(the endocardium)
16. Mention the radioactive isotopes used in nuclear powered pacemaker batteries.
(May/June 2012)
Nuclear batteries work due to a nonstop radioactive decay of certain elements. They
can last for incredibly long times. Agreed these batteries were costly and weighed a lot, but
that was not the problem. The big problem was that they contained hazardous material which
had to be recovered once a patient died.
Example: Plutonium238 with a half life of 87 years.
17. Differentiate external pacemaker and internal pacemakers.

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External pacemaker Internal pacemakers
External pace makers are used when Inte Internal pacemakers are used in cases
the heart block presents as an requiring long-term pacing because of
emergency and when it is expected to permanent damage that prevents normal
be present for a short time. self-triggering of the heart.
Transcutaneous external cardiac Cardiac resynchronization therapy (CRT)
pacing (TEP) employs an external requires an internal pacemaker, which

pacemaker, which cardiologists generally consists of a pulse

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might use temporarily to generator about the size of a matchbox that

adjust bradycardia, sinus bradycardia, contains a battery and a microcomputer.
or atrioventricular node blocks. They The programmable circuitry within the
might also be used to
device senses and times the heart rhythm. It
regulate tachycardia.
can also emit electrical impulses to initiate
a muscle contraction.
18. Define cardiac fibrillation.
The cardiac fibrillation is a condition wherein the individual myocardial cells contract
asynchronously (continuously stimulated by the adjacent cells) with only very local pattern
relating the contraction of one cell and that of the other. During defibrillation the normal
rhythmic contraction of either the atria or the ventricles are replaced by rapid irregular
twitching of the muscular wall. Fibrillation of atrial muscles is called atrial fibrillation.
Fibrillation of ventricles is known as ventricular fibrillation.
19. Differentiate atrial fibrillation and ventricular fibrillation.
Atrial fibrillation Ventricular fibrillation.
Atrial fibrillation occurs when the upper Ventricular fibrillation (V-fib or VF) is
chambers of the heart, or atria, fibrillate. a condition in which there is
This means that they beat very rapidly uncoordinated contraction of the cardiac
and irregularly. muscle of the ventricles in the heart,
Blood is not pumped efficiently to the making them quiver rather than contract
properly.
rest of the body which may cause you to
Ventricular fibrillation is the most
feel weak or tired, or to experience
commonly identified arrhythmia in
uncomfortabl heart sensations like a
cardiac arrest patients. Such an
e
racing or irregular heartbeat.
arrhythmia is only confirmed
This may cause symptoms like heart by electrocardiography.
palpitations, fatigue and shortness of Ventricular fibrillation is a medical
breath.traeting atrial fibrillation is emergency that requires prompt
important because it my cause a stroke. advanced life support interventions. If
the patient is not revived after a
sufficient period (within roughly 5
minutes at room temperature), the
patient could sustain irreversible brain
damage and possibly become brain-
dead, due to the effects of

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cerebral hypoxia.

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20. What is defibrillation?
Electric shock to the heart can be used to re-establish a more normal cardiac rhythm.
Ventricular fibrillation can be converted into a more efficient rhythm by applying high energy
shock to the heart.By applying sudden surge across the heart which causes all the heart muscle
fibres to contract simultaneously there by cardiac fibrillation can be converted to normal
rhythm.
21. What is a cardiac Defibrillator? Mention the difference between external and internal
defibrillators. (Nov/Dec 2014)
A cardiac defibrillator is a device that delivers high energy shock to the heart
muscle undergoing a fatal arrhythmia, so as to convert them into normal rhythm.
This high energy shock depolarizes a critical mass of the heart muscle, terminates the
dysrhythmia and allows normal sinus rhythm to be reestablished by the body's natural
pacemaker, in the sinoatrial node of the heart.
In external defrillation the shock is delivered to the heart by means of electrodes

placed on the chest of the patient.
In internal defibrillation, the electrodes may be held directly against the heart when
the chest is open.
Higher voltages are required for external defrillation than the internal defibrillation.
22. What are the drawbacks of AC defibrillator? (May/June 2012)

A defibrillator is a device that delivers high energy shock to the heart
muscle undergoing a fatal arrhythmia, so as to convert them into normal
rhythm. The success rate for AC defibrillators is rather low, as it was useful for
correcting atrial fibrillation. In attempting to correct atrial fibrillation using AC
defibrillator often resulted in producing ventricular fibrillation, a much more serious
arrthythmia.
23. Differentiate synchronized and unsynchronized defibrillators.
Synchronized defibrillators Unsynchronized dfibrillators

In unsynchronized Whereas in synchronized defibrillators
defibrillator, defibrillation is a ( cardioversion), is the delivery of energy
nonsynchronized delivery of that is synchronized to the large R waves or
energy during any phase of the QRS complex. For the termination of
cardiac cycle which is used to restore ventricular tachycardia, atrial fibrillation
synchronised working of the heart and other arrhythmias it is essential to use a
with the pacemaker of the body defibrillator with synchroniser circuit.

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Dr.N.G.P. Institute of Technology
Biomedical Engineering
24. What is a cardiac ablation?

Catheter ablation is a procedure that uses energy to make small scars in your heart tissue
to prevent abnormal electrical signals from moving through your heart.
25. Mention the energy requirements of pacemaker?
Heart can be stimulated with electric shock
Min Energy required – 10µJ
Typically a pulse of 5V, 10mA, 2ms is used
More than 400µJ causes ventricular fibrillation

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UNIT II NEUROLOGICAL EQUIPMENT
1. Define EEG.
Electroencephalography (EEG) is a non-invasive method to record electrical

activity of the brain along the scalp. EEG measures voltage fluctuations resulting from
ionic current within the neurons of the brain.
2. Give the frequency and amplitude range of EEG.
The peak to peak amplitude of the waves that can be picked up from the scalp is
usually 10-200µV or less while that on the exposed brain is 10-20 times greater, 1mV.
The frequency content ranges from 1-60Hz.
3. Classify EEG based on frequency.

Alpha – 8-13Hz
Beta - 14-30Hz
Theta – 4-7Hz
Delta – 0.5-3.5 Hz
4. What type of diseases can be detected using an EEG signal?
EEG is most often used to diagnose epilepsy, which causes abnormalities in EEG
readings. It is also used to diagnose sleep disorders, coma, encephalopathies, and brain
death. EEG used to be a first-line method of diagnosis for tumors, stroke and other focal
brain disorders.
5. Name the basic blocks of an EEG.
The basic blocks of an EEG data acquisition system
The essential components of an EEG machine include electrodes, amplifiers, a

computer control module, and a display device.
EEG Electrode EEG signal EEG recording EEG signal

system conditioning and display Analysis
6. Draw and label the neuron membrane potential .

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7.What are the different types of EEG lead system ?

Different types of EEG lead system
Unipolar
Bipolar
10-20 Electrode system
8.What is the difference between unipolar and Bipolar electrode system?
Unipolar electrode system Bipolar electrode system

Both the electrodes are placed over the One electrode is placed on the scalp
scalp and a record of potential (recording electrode) and another n the
difference between the two adjacent distal part of the body (neck, chin, back
electrodes is obtained of the neck)
9. Why we have to connect the electrodes through large equal resistances?
The reason to connect the electrodes through large equal resistances is that to create
the indifferent electrode as in the case of Wilson electrode system.
10. Draw the 10-20 electrode system.
11. Draw the EEG waves for different level of consciousness. (May/June 2012).

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12. Explain the significance of EEG. (April/May 2011)
Help to detect and localize cerebral brain lesions
Aid in studying epilepsy
Assist in diagnosing mental disorders
Assist in studying sleep patterns
Allow observation and analysis of brain responses to sensory stimuli
13. What do you mean by montages?
The pattern of electrodes on the head and the channel they are connected to is called
montage. Montages are always symmetrical. The representation of the EEG channels is
referred to as a montage.
14. What do you mean by alpha blocks & when does it occur?
Alpha blocks are blocking of alpha rhythm and replacement of beta waves. It occurs
when a person is concentrating on problem or mathematical work.
15. How do EEG vary with age?
● The new born shows slow irregular large waves -0.5-2Hz
● As the child grows the waves become more irregular and faster
● The EEG pattern in the resting adult is alpha rhythm of 8-13 Hz
16. What is Epilepsy? (April/May 2011)
Epilepsy is a common serious neurological condition where there is a tendency to

have seizures that start in the brain. Epilepsy is usually only diagnosed after a person has had
more than one seizure.
17. We need an amplifier with more gain for EEG than that of ECG justify.
The biosignal obtained for ECG processing is in the order of 1mV whereas the EEG
signal obtained from the scalp is in the order of 100 µV. Hence an amplifier with more gain
is preferred for EEG processing than for ECG processing.

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18.Differenciate EEG and ECoG.
EEG ECoG.
Electroencephalography (EEG) is a non- Electrocorticography (ECoG), or
invasive method to record electrical activity intracranial EEG (EEG), is the practice of
of the brain along the scalp. EEG using electrodes placed directly on the
measures voltage fluctuations resulting exposed surface of the brain to record
from ionic current within the neurons of the electrical activity from the cerebral
brain. cortex.
Amplitude:10-100µV Amplitude:1mv

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20. Which part of the cerebral cortex is involved in Electrogenesis?
The apical dendrites of pyramidal cells which are densely packed in the superficial
layers of the cortex are actively responsible for the Electrogenesis. As the excitatory and
inhibitory synaptic endings on the dendrites of each cell become active, current flows into
and out of these current sinks and sources from the dendritic processes and the cell body.
21. What is meant by evoked response? (May/June 2012, Dec 2016)

Evoked potentials studies measure electrical activity in the brain in response to
stimulation of sight, sound, or touch. Stimuli delivered to the brain through each of these
senses evoke minute electrical signals. These signals travel along the nerves and through the
spinal cord to specific regions of the brain and are picked up by electrodes, amplified, and
displayed for a doctor to interpret.
22. What are the different types of evoked potentials studies?
Evoked potentials studies involve three major tests that measure response to
visual, auditory, and electrical stimuli.
23. What is visual evoked response?
Visual evoked response (VER) test can diagnose problems with the optic nerves that
affect sight. Electrodes are placed along the scalp. The patient is asked to watch a
checkerboard pattern flash for several minutes on a screen, and the electrical responses in the
brain are recorded.
24. What is Brainstem auditory evoked response (BAER) test?
Brainstem auditory evoked response (BAER) test can diagnose hearing ability and
can indicate the presence of brain stem tumors and multiple sclerosis. Electrodes are placed
on the scalp and earlobes. Auditory stimuli, such as clicking noises and tones, are delivered
to one ear.
25. What is Somatosensory evoked response (SSER) test?
Somatosensory evoked response (SSER) test. This test can detect problems with the
spinal cord as well as numbness and weakness of the extremities. For this test, electrodes are
attached to the wrist, the back of the knee, or other locations. A mild electrical stimulus is
applied through the electrodes. Electrodes on the scalp then determine the amount of time it
takes for the current to travel along the nerve to the brain.
26. What is MEG?
Magnetoencephalography (MEG) is a functional neuroimaging technique for

mapping brain activity by recording magnetic fields produced by electrical currents
occurring naturally in the brain, using very sensitive magnetometers.

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27. What is the principle of MEG? (April/May 2011)

Magnetoencephalography (MEG) is a functional neuroimaging technique for
mapping brain activity by recording magnetic fields produced by electrical currents occurring
naturally in the brain, using very sensitive magnetometers. Arrays of SQUIDs
(superconducting quantum interference devices) are currently the most common
magnetometer, while the SERF (spin exchange relaxation-free) magnetometer is being
investigated for future machines.
28. Mention few application of MEG.
Applications of MEG include basic research into perceptual and cognitive brain
processes, localizing regions affected by pathology before surgical removal, determining the
function of various parts of the brain, and neurofeedback. This can be applied in a clinical
setting to find locations of abnormalities as well as in an experimental setting to simply
measure brain activity
29. Mention the biasing methods of SQUID.

Superconducting Quantum Interference
Device Biasing methods of SQUID
By using direct current
By radiofrequency current
30. What is EEG biofeedback instrumentation?
Biofeedback is any technique that increases the ability of a person to control

voluntarily physiological activities by providing information about those activities. EEG
Biofeedback (or neurofeedback) is a learning strategy that works to improve the brain's
ability to produce certain brainwaves.

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UNIT III MUSCULAR AND BIOMECHANICAL MEASUREMENTS
1. Draw the fundamental structure of the skeletal muscle in resting and contracted state.
2. What are the different types of muscles and mention basic functions?
Skeletal muscles: Create the propulsive force responsible for human movement and
positioning of the bony segments of the body.Give shape to body segments.Form
supportive walls.
Cardiac muscle: tissue plays the most important role in the contraction of the
atria and ventricles of the heart. It causes the rhythmical beating of the heart,
circulating the blood and its contents throughout the body as a consequence.
Smooth muscle is responsible for the contractility of hollow organs, such as

blood vessels, the gastrointestinal tract, the bladder, or the uterus.
3. Mention the properties of skeletal muscles.
Irritability : is the ability of the muscle to respond to stimulus.
Contracility: is the capacity of the muscle to produce tension between it’s ends.
Relaxation: is the opposite of contraction and is the giving up of tension.

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Distensibility: is the ability of the muscle to be stretched or lengthened up to a

certain limit by an outside force; e.g. pull of an antagonist muscle, of gravity or by
an opponent.
Elasticity: is the ability of the muscle to recoil to its original length when an
outside force is removed unless it has been overstretched.
4. What is Sarcomere?
Sarcomere is the structural and functional unit of the muscle cells. Resting
state-2.2µ and contraction shortens to 1.6µ
In the human body, each muscle is made up of multiple bundles of muscle fibers. These
muscle fibers, in turn, are comprised of numerous finer strands called myofibrils. It’s usually
not obvious unless looking under an electron microscope, but each myofibril is primarily
composed of two kinds of filaments, termed “thick” and “thin,” and each of these is
organized into regular, repeating sub-units. Each sub-unit individually is known as a
sarcomere, it is their patterned arrangement that gives striated muscle its characteristic
banded appearance.
5. Draw the structure of sarcomere.
6. Name the two contractile proteins with their functions.
Muscles contract through the action of two proteins called actin and myosin.
Actin filaments, usually in association with myosin, are responsible for many types of cell
movements.

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Myosin is the prototype of a molecular motor—a protein that converts chemical energy in
the form of ATP to mechanical energy, thus generating force and movement.
7. What is sliding theory of contraction? (April/May 2011)
The sliding filament hypothesis (or sliding filament theory) is a scientific hypothesis
that explains the process of muscle contraction. Cross-bridge theory which explains the
molecular mechanism of sliding filament. Cross-bridge theory states that actin and myosin
form a protein complex (classically called actomyosin) by attachment of myosin head on the
actin filament, thereby forming a sort of cross-bridge between the two filaments. The two
complementary hypotheses turned out to be the correct description, and became a universally
accepted explanation of the mechanism of muscle movement.
++
8.What is the role of Ca in the activation of contaction ?
The main feature of muscle contraction is the interaction of actin, myosin and ATP.
2+
This fundamental process of contraction is regulated by the tropomyosin-troponin-Ca
system.
9. What is the role of acetylcholine in muscle contraction?
Acetylcholine is a chemical messenger, a neurotransmitter, released by nerve cells in

many parts of the peripheral nervous system. It controls the contraction of all skeletal or

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voluntary muscles, for instance. It also affects the contraction of smooth and cardiac muscle.
Acetylcholine is held in synaptic vesicles in nerve terminals until an electrical signal causes
its release onto a specialized portion of a muscle cell membrane equipped with receptors that
recognize the neurotransmitter.
Acetylcholine signals sodium channels to open in the muscle tissue, causing an influx
of sodium. The Na+ ions are necessary for muscle contraction to occur.
10. What is isotonic contraction?
In isotonic contraction, the tension in the muscle remains constant despite a change in
muscle length. This can occur only when a muscle's maximal force of contraction exceeds
the total load on the muscle. Most gym exercises are isotonic exercises. Simple exercises
such as pushups, squats, lunges and situps are all isotonic. Any weight machine that involves
movement is also isotonic, such as lat pulldowns, chest presses and leg extensions
11. What is isometric contraction?
In isometric contraction, the muscle remains the same length. Isometric muscle
contractions do not involve any movement. An example would be holding an object up without
moving it; the muscular force precisely matches the load, and no movement results.
12. Define EMG.
Electromyography (EMG) is an electrodiagnostic medicine technique for evaluating

and recording the electrical activity produced by skeletal muscles. EMG is performed using
an instrument called an electromyograph, to produce a record called an electromyogram.
13. Draw and give the typical values of a EMG signal.

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14.Mention the medical application of EMG. (May/June 2012).

An electromyograph detects the electrical potential generated by muscle cells when
these cells are electrically or neurologically activated. The signals can be analyzed to detect
medical abnormalities, activation level, or recruitment order or to analyze the biomechanics
of human or animal movement.
15.What are the fatigue characteristics? (April/May 2011, Dec 2016)
When there is a repeated contractions of the muscle, after sometime, the muscle loses
it elasticity and fails to contract. This is called fatigue and it is reversible effect. The
accumulation of the acid metabolite such as lactc acid is said to be responsible for fatigue.
16.What do you mean by stimulation of muscles?
If a normal muscle or motor nerve is stimulated with a current of adequate intensity, it

results in its contraction. When there is a disease or injury of a motor nerve or muscle,
alterations are liable to occur in their response to electrical stimulation. It is therefore
possible to determine the degeneration and regeneration processes in nerves and the muscle
system by the use of the stimulation current technique.
17.Define Latency.
The nerve conduction velocity performed by electrical stimulation of a peripheral

nerve and recording from a muscle supplied by this nerve. The time it takes for the electrical
impulse to travel from the stimulation to the recording site is measured. This value is called
the latency and is measured in milliseconds (ms).
18. Define action potential.
A momentary change in electrical potential on the surface of a cell, especially of a

nerve or muscle cell, that occurs when it is stimulated, resulting in the transmission of an
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electrical impulse due to a localized change in electrical potential, from about -70 mV to +30
mV and back again, that occurs across a nerve fibre during transmission of a nerve impulse

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19. How will you measure nerve conduction velocity?
The nerve conduction velocity performed by electrical stimulation of a peripheral

nerve and recording from a muscle supplied by this nerve. The time it takes for the electrical
impulse to travel from the stimulation to the recording site is measured. This value is called
the latency and is measured in milliseconds (ms).
By stimulating in two or more different locations along the same nerve, the NCV
across different segments can be determined. Calculations are performed using the
distance between the different stimulating electrodes and the difference in latencies
20. What is the use of a stimulators in EMG machines?
Used in physical therapy to whether muscle groups are able to contract

by applying external stimuli to these muscles and observing the results.
In paralysis, Periodic stimulation of muscles can regain the function of paralyzed muscles
21.Define biofeedback.
The most concise definition of biofeedback is probably that of Olton and Noonberg ,
who characterized it as,‘‘any technique that increases the ability of a person to control
voluntarily physiological activities by providing information about those activities’’.
22.What is the significance of EMG biofeedback?
To measure, process, and feedback biophysical information.Biofeedback does not

monitor the actual response itself.It monitors conditions associated with the response
Purpose: To reestablish sensory-motor loops ‘forgotten’ by patient.Used to facilitate
increased or decreased levels of motor unit activation.Sound/visual cues stimulate brain
along with watching the muscle contract assists in reopening a neural loop.
23. Name the type of amplifier used in EMG biofeedback instrumentation.
Instrumentation amplifier with High performance differential amplifiers increase and

condition the signals. Signals of interest are in the range of 0.5–200µV , over the frequency
range of 1–30 Hz. Newer clinical research extends the frequency range to 1–50 Hz.
24.Brief about muscle stimulators. (April/May 2011)

Used in physical therapy to whether muscle groups are able to contract by applying
external stimuli to these muscles and observing the results. In paralysis, Periodic stimulation
of muscles can regain the function of paralyzed muscles.
It has potentials to serve as a strength training tool for healthy subjects and artheletes,
a rehabilitation and preventive tool for partially or totally immobilized patients, testing tool
for evaluating the neural and /or muscular functions.

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25.Write few applications of Nerve stimulators.
❖ Multiple types of arthritis including rheumatoid and osteoarthritis
❖ Neck and back pain
❖ Headaches; including tension and migraine
❖ Post-herpetic neuralgia
❖ Complex Pain Syndrome
❖ Lateral epicondylitis (Tennis Elbow)
❖ Childbirth
❖ Muscle strains
❖ Knee pains
❖ Cancer Pain
❖ Bladder incontinence
26. What is a pedobarograph used for?

Pedobarograph is a device that is used to measure foot pressure abnormalities and to study
abnormalities of gait.
27. What are the basic parts of a GAIT analyser?

A typical gait analysis laboratory has several cameras (video or infrared) placed around a
walkway or a treadmill, which are linked to a computer.
28. Name the factors that can modify a gait pattern.
❖ Extrinsic: such as terrain, footwear, clothing, cargo

❖ Intrinsic: sex, weight, height, age, etc.
❖ Physical: such as weight, height, physique
❖ Psychological: personality type, emotions
❖ Physiological: anthropometric characteristics, i.e., measurements and proportions of body
❖ Pathological: trauma, neurological diseases, musculoskeletal anomalies, psychiatric
disorders

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29. List the parameters that have to be taken into account for gait analysis.
❖ Step length
❖ Stride length
❖ Cadence
❖ Speed
❖ Dynamic base
❖ Progression line
❖ Foot angle
❖ Hip angle
❖ Squat performance
UNIT IV RESPIRATORY MEASUREMENT SYSTEM
1. Define respiration.
Respiration is defined as the exchange of gases between an organisms and its
environment.Respiration is the process by which oxygen from the lungs is carried by the
blood to the lungs & the Co2 formed in the tissues by metabolic activity is carried by the
blood to the lungs & is expired out.
2. Distinguish the two types of respiration.

External Respiration Internal Respiration Includes all the physiological processes
commencing with the entry of air into lungs, till the delivery of O2 to the tissues & transfer
of CO2 to blood & its expulsion out of the lungs. The intracellular biochemical processes by
which O2 is used by the cell and Co2 is produced is internal respiration (Cellular respiration).
3. Write down the muscles involved in respiration.
Breathing is accomplished by musculature that changes the volume of the thoracic

cavity and in doing so creates positive and negative pressures that move air into and out of
the lungs. Two set of muscles are involved 1) Those in and near the diaphragm that cause
diaphragm to move up and down, changing the size of the thoracic cavity in vertical
direction. 2) Those moves rib cage up and down to change the lateral diameter of the thorax.
[external & internal intercostal muscles]
4. What is the function of alveoli?

Gas exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide takes place in the alveoli. Oxygen from
the inhaled air diffuses through the walls of the alveoli and adjacent capillaries into the red
blood cells. The oxygen is then carried by the blood to the body tissues.
5. What is apnoea ?
Apnoea is the Absence of breathing or temporary cessation of breathing. Followed by
Hyperpnoea is an increase in depth or rate and depths of respiration.
6. Classify the types of hypoxia.

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Hypoxia: (Asphyxia) Hypoxia is inadequate supply of oxygen to tissues. Anoixa →
no O2 supply and tissues. Hypoxaemia → refers to reduction of oxygen content of blood.
Types: 1. Hypoxic Hypoxia. 2. Anaemic Hypoxia. 3. Stagnant Hypoxia. 4. Histotoxic
Hypoxia.
7. Differentiate anatomical and alveolar dead space.

Anatomical dead space Alveolar dead space Is that portion of the volume of the
conducting airways of the nose, mouth, and trachea down to the level of the alveoli,
representing that portion of inspired gas unavailable for exchange of gases with pulmonary
capillary blood. is sum of the volumes of those alveoli which have little or no blood flowing
through their adjacent pulmonary capillaries, i.e., alveoli that are ventilated but not perfused,
and where, as a result, no gas exchange can occur.
8. What are respiratory bronchioles? (Nov/Dec2010)

The bronchioles or bronchioli are the passageways by which air passes through the
nose or mouth to the alveoli (air sacs) of the lungs, in which branches no longer contain
cartilage or glands in their submucosa. They are branches of the bronchi, and are part of the
conducting zone of the respiratory system.The main function of the bronchi andbronchioles
is to carry air from the trachea into the lungs. Smooth muscle tissue in their walls helps to
regulate airflow into the lungs.
9. What is spirometer? (November/December 2014)

Spirometer is an instrument for measuring air inhaled into and exhaled out of the
lungs; it provides a simple way of determining most of the lung volumes and capacities that
are measured in PULMONARY FUNCTION TESTS. For this test, you breathe into a
mouthpiece attached to a recording device (spirometer). The information collected by the
spirometer is printed out on a chart called a spirogram.
10. Define Vital capacity.

Vital Capacity: (VC) it is the volume of air that can be breathed out by maximal effort
after a maximum inspiration. By definition it amounts to IC + ERC = (3.5 + 1) = 4.5 ml.
11. Compare spirometer and pneumotachometer.

Spirometer is an instrument for measuring air inhaled into and exhaled out of the
lungs; it provides a simple way of determining most of the lung volumes and capacities that
are measured in PULMONARY FUNCTION TESTS. For this test, you breathe into a
mouthpiece attached to a recording device (spirometer). The information collected by the
spirometer is printed out on a chart called a spirogram. Pneumotachometers are the devices
that measure the instantaneous rate of volume flow of respired gas.
12. Define Tidal volume.

Tidal volume: (VT) is Resting Tidal Volume (RTV). Tidal volume is the volume of air
breathed in and out during quiet Respiration (about 500ml).
13. What are the causes of apnea?

Brief periods of apnoea may occur normally during sleep. But if frequency and
duration of its occurrence is high it is pathological. Breath holding time or apnoea time after
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maximal inspiration ranges for 40-80 seconds in normal person, may be increased by
practice. It is apparent that distressing symptoms of breath holding is largely due to the low
O2 and high CO2 content of arterial blood.
14. State the significance of a respirator.

A respirator is a mask-like device that filters fine particles from inhaled air, while a
ventilator is a machine that assists with or performs the breathing process for medical
patients. Perhaps further adding to the confusion of the terms is the fact that ventilator
professionals are known as respiratory therapists
15. Define pressure and volume controlled ventilators.

In pressure controlled ventilators, the ventilator delivers a breath to set pressure and at
a set rate.This is primarily used when the patient has no spontaneous breathing but will
support the patient if they are able to trigger a breath. In volume controlled ventilators a
preset tidal volume is delivered at a set rate primarily used when the patient has no
spontaneous breathing
16. What is meant by respiration rate? (April/May 2011)

The respiratory rate is defined as the number of breaths a person takes during a
one-minute period of time while at rest. In general, children have faster respiratory rates than
adults, and women breathe more often than men. The normal ranges for different age groups
are listed below: ∙ Newborn:30-60breaths/minute ∙ Infant(1 to 12 months): 30-60 breaths per
minute ∙ Adolescent (13-17 years): 12-16 breaths per minute ∙ Adult: 12-18 breaths per
minute
17. What is the ventilation perfusion ratio? (Nov/Dec2011)

In respiratory physiology, the ventilation/perfusion ratio (or V/Q ratio) is a
measurement used to assess the efficiency and adequacy of the matching of two variables:
"V" – ventilation – the air that reaches the alveoli. "Q" – perfusion – the blood that reaches
the alveoli.
18. Define minute respiratory volume. (April/May 2011)

Respiratory minute volume (or minute ventilation or expired minute volume) is the
volume of gas inhaled (inhaled minute volume) or exhaled (exhaled minute volume) from a
person's lungs per minute. It is an important parameter in respiratory medicine due to its
relationship with blood carbon dioxide levels. MRV= Respiratory rate x tidal volume Normal
minute ventilation = 12 x 500 ml = 6000ml
19. Define Lung compliance

Compliance: The ability of the lungs and thorax to expand during breathing is called
compliance, which is expressed as volume increase in the lungs per unit increase in intra
alveolar pressure.
Pulmonary compliance (or lung compliance) is a measure of the lung's ability to
stretch and expand. In clinical practice it is separated into two different measurements, static
compliance and dynamic compliance. Static lung compliance is the change in volume for any
given applied pressure. Dynamic lung compliance is the compliance of the lung at any given
time during actual movement of air.
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20. State the significance of nebulizer.

In medicine, a nebulizer or nebuliser is a drug delivery device used to administer
medication in the form of a mist inhaled into the lungs. Nebulizers are commonly used for
the treatment of cystic fibrosis, asthma, COPD and other respiratory diseases.
21. What is the principle of ultrasonic nebulizer?

When water or some type of medication suspended in the inspired air as an aerosol is
administered to the patient with a nebulizer. In ultrasonic nebulizer high intensity ultrasound
energy which vibrates the substances (water or medication) is used to produce a high volume
of minute particles. Ultrasonic nebulizers do not depend upon breathing gas for operation and
thus therapeutic agents can be conveniently administered during ventilation process.
22. Draw the components of inhalators.

These components are container, propellants, drug formulation, metering valve, and
actuator.
23. Define Airway resistanc.

In respiratory physiology, airway resistance is the resistance of the respiratory tract to
airflow during inspiration and expiration. Airway resistance can be measured using body
plethysmography. Airway resistance is the opposition to flow caused by the forces of friction.
It is defined as the ratio of driving pressure to the rate of air flow. Resistance to flow in the
airways depends on whether the flow is laminar or turbulent, on the dimensions of the
airway, and on the viscosity of the gas.
24. Mention the causes for airway resistance.

Airway resistance can also vary between inspiration and expiration, for example, in
emphysema there is destruction of the elastic tissue of the lungs which help hold the small
airways open, therefore during expiration, particularly forced expiration, these airways may
collapse causing increased airway resistance.
25.Write the uses of Whole body plethysmography.

A plethysmograph is an instrument for measuring changes in volume within an organ
or whole body (usually resulting from fluctuations in the amount of blood or air it contains).
Pulmonary plethysmographs are commonly used to measure the functional residual capacity
(FRC) of the lungs—the volume in the lungs when the muscles of respiration are
relaxed—and total lung capacity.
26. Bring out the difference between respirator and a ventilator.

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The most important difference between a respirator and a ventilator is that, unlike a
ventilator, a respirator does not perform any actual breathing function for its wearer. Instead,
its purpose is to purify inhaled air before it enters the lungs by trapping harmful particles and
fumes. A respirator usually takes the form of a partial or full face-mask that is secured in
place with a strap. Its purification function is performed by a filter, which is fitted near the
nose and mouth area.
27. What are different settings required in Ventilator?

1. Trigger mode and sensitivity
2. Respiratory rate
3. Tidal Volume
4. Positive end-expiratory pressure (PEEP)
5. Flow rate
6. Inspiratory time
7. Fraction of inspired oxygen
28. Write the advantage of PEEP setting in Ventilator.

Positive End Expiratory Pressure (PEEP) is a therapist selected pressure level for the
patient airway at the end of expiration in either mandatory or spontaneous breathing. It is
used to increase the end-expiratory lung volume (EELV) or prolong expiration with a
potentially similar effect on the EELV.
29. State the significance of Apnoea Monitor.

Apnoea is the cessation of breathing which may precede the arrest of heart and
circulation in several clinical situation such as head injury, drug overdose, anaesthetic
complications and obstructive respiratory diseases. Apnoea monitors are used for closely
observing the respiration of individuals, particularly infants. The procedure may involve the
use of electronic devices that detect changes in thoracic or abdominal movements and in
heart rate. Such devices also include an alarm that sounds if breathing stops.
30. Draw the functional diagram of positive pressure ventilator Functional diagram of
positive pressure ventilator.
31. Draw and label the lung volume capacity diagram

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UNIT V SENSORY MEASUREMENT
1. Write the significance of Psycho Physiological Measurements.

Psycho Physiological Measurements are used for testing and sensory responses such
as perception test. Example: Difference between seeing and perceiving, Differences between
images.
2. What is audiometer?
An audiometer is an instrument used to measure how well a person hears. The ear is a
move from the eardrum through the bones of the middle ear to the cochlea (a spiral-shaped
complex organ. It receives sound in the form of vibrations that strike the eardrum. These
vibrations organ filled with fluid). The vibration sets the fluid in motion and sensory cells
along the cochlea's basilar (at the bottom or base of) membrane (a thin covering through
which things can pass) send messages of the sound to the brain.
3. Who invented pure tone audiometer? (May/June2009)

The pure-tone audiometer was invented by Georg von Békésy (1899-1972; winner of
the Nobel Prize), a Hungarian-American physician
4. Where in the ear the sound is converted into neural signals?

The linear ear or cochlea is a fluid –filled coiled passage in the temporal bone.
It is almost completely divided lengthwise by basilar membrane. The membrane contains the
sensitive rupture cells which transform sound energy or pressure wave into action potential.
5. What part do the semi circular canals plays in hearing?

The semicircular canals are part of the inner ear. They are lined with cilia
(microscopic hairs) and filled with a liquid substance, known as endolymph. Every time the
head moves, the endolymph moves the cilia. This works as a type of motion sensor, as the
movements of the cilia are communicated to the brain. As a result, the brain knows how to
keep the body balanced, regardless of the posture.
6. What are the causes of hearing loss ? (May/June2009)

Change with age Conductive Loss Sensory neural loss Hearing loss has many forms.
The most common is related to the body of aging process and to long term cumulative
exposure of the ear to sound energy .Hearing impairment is caused by either loss in
sensitivity or loss in the ability to discriminate different speech sound or both.
7. Define Presbycusis.
Presbycusis is the loss of hearing that gradually occurs in most individuals as they
grow older. Hearing loss is a common disorder associated with aging. About 30-35 percent
of adults age 65 and older have a hearing loss.

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8. Define Threshold of hearing?

The threshold pressure level of a sound is the lowest level at which an observer can
between the desired sound and the noise background always present in the auditory system
discriminate.
9. Why is masking used in hearing test?

In the presence of mono aural and asymmetrical binaural hearing losses ,there is
serious difficulty in obtaining accurate measure of hearing for the poorer ear. The answer to
the problem is to eliminated response from the better ear by masking in order,to shift the
threshold to a high level, permitting greater insensitive to be presented to the poorer ear
without any danger of irons – over.
10. Name the different methods used for the measurements of ear function.
Methods: 1. Pure tone Audiometer.
2. Speech Audiometer.
3.Impedance Audiometer.
4.Speech reception threshold
5.Evoked response Audiometer.
11. What is an Audiogram? (April/May2010)

An Audiogram, one which shows both air and bone condition threshold bilaterally, is
not only a graph representation of the dB loss at different frequency level for both air and
bone conduction .But also indicates the type of location of the hearing impairment.
12. How audiometer test is conducted?

An audiometer consists of four parts. These parts are the oscillator (used to change
the frequency of sounds heard), an audio amplifier, an attenuator (used to control volume
loudness), and a pair of headphones. The person being tested wears the headphones. The
amplitude of a tone is slowly increased until the person hears the sound. The lowest decibel
level at which a sound is heard is called the threshold. The oscillator is used to change pitch
so a range of sounds can be tested. The result of a hearing test using an audiometer is called
an audiogram.
13. Differentiate Air conduction and Bone conduction.

Air conduction Bone conduction It is transmission of sound through the external and
middle ear to the internal ear It is transmission of sound to the internal ear mediated by
mechanical vibration of the cranial bone and soft tissue. Hard of hearing patients with middle
ear disease usually have normal hearing by bone conduction Patients with inner ear
involvement have decreased or diminished bone conduction
14. What are the general requirements of audiometer?

a. The frequency must remain sensibly constant at a valve within 1-3% of the
indicated valve.
b. The intensity range of most audiometer starts from approximately 15db above
normal to 95db below normal over a frequency range from approximately 500
to 4000Hz.
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c. The attenuation bials on the audiometer provide variable intensity or volume
controls.
d. Audiometers usually have two channels with single pure –tone generators.
e. The noise –free conditions are achieved by performing the audiometric testing
in a sound isolating enclosure.
15 . What is the need for pure tone audiometer? (April/May2010)

Pure tone audiometry (PTA) is the key hearing test used to identify hearing threshold
levels of an individual, enabling determination of the degree, type and configuration of a
hearing loss. Thus, providing the basis for diagnosis and management. PTA is a subjective,
behavioural measurement of hearing threshold, as it relies on patient response to pure tone
stimuli. Therefore, PTA is used on adults and children old enough to cooperate with the test
procedure.
16. What is galvanic skin response?

Galvanic Skin response is a measure average activity of sweat glands and is measure
of the phasic activity. The GSR is measured most conveniently at the palms of the hand,
where the body has the highest concentration of sweat glands. Silver –silver electrodes are
used to measure and record the GSR. The Galvanic Skin Response (GSR) is defined as a
change in the electrical properties of the skin. The signal can be used for capturing the
autonomic nerve responses as a parameter of the sweat gland function. The measurement is
relatively simple, and has a good repeatability.
17. Write few uses of recording electro dermal activity.

EDA is highly responsive to emotions in some people. Fear, anger, startled response,
orienting response, and sexual feelings are among the reactions that may be reflected in
EDA. These responses are utilized as part of the polygraph or lie detector test. EDA in
regular subjects differs according to feelings of being treated fairly or unfairly, but
psychopaths have been shown to manifest no such differences. This indicates that the EDA
record of a polygraph may be deceptive in a criminal investigation
18. What is a Applanation tonometer?

Applanation tonometry is a test that measures fluid pressure in your eye. The test
involves using a slit lamp equipped with forehead and chin supports and a tiny, flat-tipped
cone that gently comes into contact with your cornea. The test measures the amount of force
needed to temporarily flatten a part of your cornea.
19. What is a normal tonometer reading?

A normal result means your eye pressure is within the normal range. The normal eye
pressure range is 10 to 21 mm Hg. The thickness of your cornea can affect
measurements. Normal eyes with thick corneas have higher readings, and normal eyes with
thin corneas have lower readings.
20. What is intraocular pressure? How is it measured?

Intraocular pressure (IOP) is the fluid pressure inside the eye. Tonometry is the
method eye care professionals use to determine this. IOP is an important aspect in the
evaluation of patients at risk of glaucoma.

Diagnostic and Therapeutic Equiments I

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DIAGNOSTIC AND THERAPEUTIC EQUIMENTS -I

Biomedical engineering (Anna University)

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BM8601 DIAGNOSTIC AND THERAPEUTIC EQUIPMENT- I L T P C

OBJECTIVES: The student should be made to:

UNIT I CARDIAC EQUIPMENT

UNIT II NEUROLOGICAL EQUIPMENT

Clinical significance of EEG, Multi-channel EEG recording system, Epilepsy, Evoked

UNIT III MUSCULAR AND BIOMECHANICAL MEASUREMENTS

Recording and analysis of EMG waveforms, fatigue characteristics, Muscle stimulators,

UNIT IV RESPIRATORY MEASUREMENT SYSTEM

UNIT V SENSORY MEASUREMENT

Psychophysiological Measurements polygraph, basal skin resistance (BSR), galvanic skin

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At the end of the course, the student should be able to:

1. John G. Webster, “Medical Instrumentation Application and Design”, 4th edition,

1. Myer Kutz, “Standard Handbook of Biomedical Engineering & Design”, McGraw

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Dr.N.G.P. Institute of Technology Biomedical Engineering

UNIT I: CARDIAC EQUIPMENT

NORMAL ECG WAVEFORM

Normal value - 1mV, 0.05-120Hz

2. Brief about electrocardiograph. (April/May 2011)

Electrocardiography is the process of recording the electrical activity of the heart

Assess your heart rhythm.

Diagnose poor blood flow to the heart muscle (ischemia)

Diagnose a heart attack.

Diagnose abnormalities of your heart, such as heart chamber enlargement

and abnormal electrical conduction.

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Dr.N.G.P. Institute of Technology Biomedical Engineering

5. Draw Einthoven triangle and label. (Nov/Dec 2014)

6. Define arrhythmia simulator.

Arrythmia simulators are designed to mimic a set of abnormal electrocardiographic

7. Name the different types of cardiac arrhythmias.

Cardiac arrhythmia, also known as cardiac dysrhythmia or irregular heartbeat, is a

Examples:Atrial fibrillation, Ventricular fibrillation, atrial flutter, Myocardial infarction,

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Ventricular fibrillation (V-fib or VF) is a condition in which there is uncoordinated

9. What is Holter monitor? Mention any two application of it.

A Holter monitor ( simply "Holter" or occasionally ambulatory electrocardiography

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The Holter's most common use is for monitoring heart activity

It is to used for continuous recording and monitoring of electrical activity of

10. What is heart rate monitor? (April/May 2011)

11. What are heart sounds?

12. What are murmurs?

13. Mention the importance of phonocardiography. (April/May 2011)

pumping and valve action.

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Dr.N.G.P. Institute of Technology Biomedical Engineering

14. What is use of plethysmography?

15. What is a cardiac pacemaker?

Cardiac pacemaker is an electronic instrument to produce external electrical