BIO10001

Anatomy and Physiology Practical Manual
BIO10004 Anatomy and Physiology 2023 SEM 1

School of Health Sciences
Swinburne University of Technology
Dr. Ali Al-Rubaie

Email: aalrubaie@swin.edu.au
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Contact Details
If you wish to discuss matters relevant to the materials presented at the laboratory sessions contact
Dr. Ali Al-Rubaie via email: aalrubaie@swin.edu.au
Please refer to the unit outline for more details about the communications with the Unit Convenor
BIO10004 – Semester 1
Anatomy Laboratory Tutorial 1 (A1):

Introduction to Anatomy
Aim
1. To familiarise with anatomical terminology
2. To identify components of the integumentary system
3. To explore the gross anatomy of the skeleton
4. To identify components of a synovial joint
5. To differentiate between muscle types according to anatomical properties
6. To differentiate between origin and insertion
7. To palpate muscles at rest and in motion
Cell, Skin, Bones, Skeleton, Joints and Muscles
Background
Anatomy is the study of the structure of the human body. The human body is composed of billions of cells
of various types that come together to form different tissues, organs and bodily systems. During this
practical we will be using traditional methods to explore the anatomy of the human body in combination
with state-of-the-art digital technology such as the Anatomage table to extend upon our existing
understanding of the human body.
The cell
The cell is the basic building block of life and is the smallest self-contained unit that carries out the
functional physiological roles. They comprise a plasma (cell) membrane, nucleus, cytosol, organelles,
proteins, and some other accessory structures. Not all cells will possess all of these features, as they may be
specialised to a degree where they are not required (for example mature red blood cells do not contain a
nucleus). The membrane separates the interior environment of the cell from the external world and creates
a semi-permeable barrier that allows the control of pH, ionic concentrations and transport in and out of
ions and larger molecules.
The integument
This is a large organ system that includes the cutaneous membrane (skin with epidermis and dermis),
accessory structures such as hair, hair follicles and nails, and a range of exocrine glands, including sweat
glands. The integument provides an organism level barrier between the outside and inside worlds, and
most of the time it functions very well. We notice it more when it is damaged or not functioning well.
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Bones
Bones come in a variety of
shapes and sizes and generally
organised according to general
structural features. These
classifications are known as
long, short, flat, irregular and
sesamoid.
In Figure 1 to the right, the
classification of bones by shape
is shown.
Skeleton
Our skeletal system consists of
approximately 206 bones and
has two major divisions: the
axial skeleton and the
appendicular skeleton, as
illustrated in Figure 2 below.
The axial skeleton consists of the skull, vertebral column and ribs (thoracic cage). Despite the distinction in
names, there is movement in the axial skeleton, the vertebrae, head and neck can twist and bend, and the
ribs can move. Their flexibility depends upon the musculature and stabilising ligaments.
The appendicular skeleton comprises all the remaining bones (generally with moveable joints), including
shoulders (pectoral girdle), pelvis (pelvic girdle), hips, arms, legs, fingers, and toes. The Figure below shows
the appendicular skeleton (along with the axial – shaded).
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Joints
A joint is a connection between bones in the skeletal system.
They can have a no movement, minimal movement or allow
for free movement. Synovial joints are the most abundant
type of joint in the body and are a freely moveable joint.
Synovial joints consist of a joint cavity (articulating capsule)
that is filled with synovial fluid. The bones of synovial joints
never directly articulate with each other instead they have
an articulating cartilage that prevent bone-to-bone contact
and reduces friction. Apart from articulating cartilage, some
synovial joints have a fibrous cartilage located between the
joints to prevent bone to bone contact, such as the meniscus
in the knee.
Synovial joints are further classified into groups based on

the shape of the articulating joints. There are 6 types of Figure 3. Classification of joints. Taken from
synovial joints, as shown to the right in Figure 3. https://www.visiblebody.com/learn/skeleton/joints-and-ligaments
A description of each of these six joints is presented in the table below.
Gliding: Also known as a plane joint. A uniaxial joint where 2 flat bones articulate by “gliding”
giving it a limited degree of movement.
Hinge: Uniaxial joint. 2 bones one convex in shape and one concave in shape articulate with each
other. Allows flexion and extension.
Condyloid: Also known as a condylar or ellipsoid joint. A multiaxial joint and the most abundant
type of synovial joint in the body. Condyloid joints are where on oval shaped projection of a bone
articulates with an elliptical shaped cavity allowing a high degree of movement to occur.
Saddle: A multiaxial joint and the most unique of all synovial joints where 2 bones form a perfect
“horse and saddle.” Saddle joints also provide stability to surrounding bones.
Pivot: Uniaxial joint. The bone rotates within a ring that is formed by the articulating bone and a
ligament.
Ball and socket: A multiaxial joint that allows for the highest degree of movement. It is where a
round head of a bone articulates in a socket shaped cavity.
Muscles
These are of different types and have many roles in the body. They all operate in essentially the same way
by contracting ad shortening. This has a subsequent effect on what the ends of muscle connect to. This may
be to move a joint, controlling a body opening, stabilising a structure or supporting the body.
Generally, each muscle has two ends, known as the origin and insertion. The origin is usually more proximal
and the insertion more distal.
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Pre-lab Worksheet
Activity 1: Anatomical terms
A. Describe the human anatomical position and draw an example of this from the anterior or frontal point
of view in the box below.
___________________________________________
___________________________________________
___________________________________________
___________________________________________
___________________________________________
B. Match the labels and identify the correct anatomical plane and definition for each arrow on the image.
Frontal/Coronal Plane Transverse Plane Sagittal Plane
Divides the body into left and right sections Divides the body into front and back sections
Divides the body into top and bottom sections
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Activity 2: Tissues
List the four main types of tissues in the human body and provide an example of an organ where you could
find this tissue type.
1. ______________________________________________________________
2. ______________________________________________________________
3. ______________________________________________________________
4. ______________________________________________________________
Activity 3: Integumentary System

Fill in the blanks to complete the following sentences.
There are three layers of the skin. The _____________________ layer is the most superficial (closer to
the surface of our body). Laying beneath this is the _________________ layer, which is made up of a
dense connective tissue as well as our accessory structures. The deepest layer of the skin is the
__________________ layer, which is made up of fat and loose connective tissue.
Activity 4: Bones
Name the parts of the long bone labelled A, B, C in the image below.
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Activity 5: Joints
A. Structurally, joints are classified into three categories: Fibrous joints, Cartilaginous joints and Synovial
joints. Define these terms below, and provide an example of each in the body.
Fibrous joint:
_______________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
Cartilaginous joint:
_______________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
Synovial joint:
_______________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
B. Choose one of these joints in the human body:
Elbow Shoulder Hip
Name the two or three main bones that make up this joint
__________________________________________________________________________________
What movement is facilitated at this joint?
__________________________________________________________________________________
Activity 6: Muscles
A. Define what an origin and an insertion is for a muscle.
_______________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
B. List the 3 types of muscle tissue in the body.

_______________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
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Laboratory Sessions: Activities, Results and Discussion

Resources: Anatomage full body male Caucasian specimen; Two styluses
In Activity #1 and #2, you will be using the virtual dissection table (ANATOMAGE TABLE) to complete the
activities below. Familiar with the Touchscreen commands and user interface of the table using the general
instruction below.
Touch Input (In the Software) Description 1.SELECT SPECIMEN: Opens the main
menu or Application Toolbar. Select
One Finger Drag Rotate
Gross Anatomy and open the Male
Two Fingers Drag Pan Full Body Caucasian
Pinch/Pull Zoom In/Out
Rotate Settings -> Spin
Select the desired Layout using the
Enabled icon provided beside; specifically, the
3D/2D Splitscreen to bring up the
Three Fingers Drag Up/Down Adjust Clipping Plane
corresponding cross-section
Activity 1: Anatomical Terminology.

A. Using the labels below, match the correct directional term with the labels from A – J on your skeleton.
Proximal Medial Inferior Lateral Posterior

Superior Ventral Anterior Distal Dorsal
A ________________________ F ________________________
B ________________________ G ________________________
C ________________________ H ________________________
D ________________________ J ________________________
E ________________________
B. Define these terms and provide an example for each related to the human body (e.g. the fingers are
____ to the shoulder, the kneecap is located on the anterior side of the leg).
Term Definition Example

Proximal
Distal
Lateral
Medial
Superior
Inferior
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Anterior Towards the front of the body The kneecap is located on the anterior side of
the leg.
Posterior
Dorsal
Ventral
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Activity 2: Systems of the Human Body.

A. Fill in the empty yellow boxes with the name of each organ system in the human body.
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B. Using the table below, list the organ systems you have identified, one function, and two major organs
that can be found in each system.
Organ system Major organs A function of the system
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Activity 3: Cells, Tissues and the Integument

A. Looking at the image of an animal cell, fill in the labels from A-I in the table below.
Label Structure
Mitochondria
Centrioles
Nucleus
Cytoplasm
Plasma membrane
Lysosome
C Smooth endoplasmic reticulum
Golgi Complex
Rough endoplasmic reticulum
B. Label the following parts of a neural cell on the image below.
Cell body Nucleus Axon Axon hillock Dendrites
C. In your groups, answer the following questions about the skin:
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1. How many layers make up the skin? __________________________________________

2. These layers are called: _____________________________________________________
3. Which layer of skin can be subdivided into an additional two deeper layers, and what are these
sublayers called?:
______________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
4. In which layer of skin could you find accessory structures of the integumentary
system?:_________________________________________________________________
5. What reflex/sensation does the Arrector Pili muscle
produce?:________________________________________________________________
D. In your groups, label the image below.
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Activity 4: Joints and the Skeletal System

A. Identify whether the components below are part of the appendicular or axial skeletons.
Cranium Auditory ossicles Pelvic girdle Lower limb Vertebral column
Thoracic cage Upper limb Pectoral girdle
Appendicular Axial
B. Using the Anatomage Table, colour the bones of your skeleton model with two colours to show which
bones make up the axial skeleton and which bones make up the appendicular skeleton.
When this is done get a tutor to check your model for errors and mark off this task
Initial _______
C. Bones are classified into five structural types. Identify these below.
1. ________________________
2. ________________________
3. ________________________
4. ________________________
5. ________________________
D. Locate each of the following bones at your workstations. Name the structural classification of each
bone.
Name of bone Type of bone

Clavicle
Frontal
Ilium
Femur
Fibula
Vertebrae
Talus
Ribs
Patella
Sacrum
Metacarpal
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E. Using the models and software available to you, list the six types of synovial joints in the table below
and provide an example of each type in the body.
Synovial joint type Example of joint in the body
Pivot joint Atlantoaxial Joint - between the first and second cervical
vertebrae
Activity 5: Movement and Muscles

A. Tick the box next to the label when each group member has familiarised themselves with the
movement.
Flexion Supination Depression
Extension Pronation Elevation
Abduction Rotation
Adduction Circumduction
B. Demonstrate each of the above movements to a tutor. They will tick this activity as complete.
Initial _______
C. Provide an example of at least one movement these muscles assist with (e.g. abduction of the shoulder
joint).
• Rectus Femoris muscle: _________________________________________________

• Brachioradialis muscle: _________________________________________________
• Trapezius muscle: _________________________________________________
• Orbicularis Oris muscle: _________________________________________________
• Masseter muscle: _________________________________________________
• External Oblique muscle: _________________________________________________
• Gluteus Maximus muscle: _________________________________________________
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D. Locate the following four muscles: flexor carpi ulnaris, flexor carpi radialis, palmaris longus and
pronator teres.
When you have located these muscles on your cadaver, ask a tutor to demonstrate how to palpate for
tendons and muscles. They will tick this activity as complete.
Initial _______
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Checkout Laboratory A1
Name ________________________________
Day/Date ______________/__________________
Time ________________________________
Partner 1 ________________________________
Partner 2 ________________________________
Partner 3 ________________________________
Partner 4 ________________________________
Pre - lab
Activity 1 Anatomical Terms
Activity 2 Organ Systems
Activity 3 Cells, Tissues, Integument
Activity 4 Joints, Skeletal System
Activity 5 Movement and Muscles
Complete
Student Signature _____________________________________________
Tutor Name _____________________________________________
Tutor Signature _____________________________________________
Date __________________
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Physiology Laboratory Tutorial 1 (P1):

Diffusion, Osmosis & Physiological Recordings
AIMS:
The current laboratory tutorial has several aims. Broadly, the purpose of the laboratory tutorial is to help
students appreciate that there are different types of experiments which can be used to investigate
physiological function(s), or the principles underpinning these functions. Specific aims of the laboratory
tutorial include,
1. Investigate the effect of molecular size on the rate of diffusion.

2. Investigate the effect of concentration gradient on the rate of osmosis.
3. Investigate regional variation in body surface temperature.
4. To become familiar with the Powerlab equipment and record an electrophysiological signal.
Background:
The human body is remarkably complex! There are a multitude of physiological processes that
underpin normal functioning. We can study these physiological processes, as well as the principles
underpinning such processes in a number of ways. These experiments can be relatively simple investigations
involving agar plates (i.e., petri dishes containing agar), or they can be more advanced involving relatively
simple devices (e.g., thermometers) to more complex equipment such as that used to record and analyse
electrical signals from the human body (e.g., the electrical activity associated with heart activity - the
electrocardiogram, or ECG).
Diffusion & Osmosis
Diffusion is a passive process, whereby the molecules of a solute will spread throughout a solvent
along a concentration gradient (from a high to a low concentration) so as to facilitate an even distribution of
the solute. A simple illustration of diffusion is the spread of food dye/colouring when added to clear water.
Initially the drop of food colouring is quite concentrated, but soon after its addition to the water, the food
colourings’ molecules begin throughout the body of water. After a period of time, the food colouring will be
evenly dispersed through the water (See Figure 1). Diffusion is an important process in the human body. An
example of a physiological function involving diffusion is gas exchange in the lungs (i.e., diffusion of O2 from
alveoli to red blood cells & CO2 from red blood cells to the alveoli).
Diffusion occurs along a concentration gradient - that is, the molecules of a solute will move from a
region of high concentration to one of a low concentration. This movement eventually creastes an even
distribution of the solute throughout the solvent (i.e., our food colouring in water). That is of course, unless
the movement of the solutes molecules is restricted (perhaps in a particular direction) by various barriers or
obstacles. The plasma membrane (that is the ‘wall’ of the cell) can represent such obstacle (if a molecule
cannot move through the plasma membrane, the membrane is said to be impermeable to that molecule).
The rate at which diffusion occurs is dependant a number of factors. These include:
1. Distance - if molecules have to diffuse over a longer distance to eliminate a concentration gradient, then
the process of ensuring an equal distribution will take longer.
2. Molecule size - smaller molecules will diffuse faster through a medium than larger molecules.
3. Temperature - the warmer the temperature of the environment in which diffusion is occurring, the faster
diffusion will proceed.
4. Concentration gradient - the steeper the concentration gradient, the faster diffusion will occur. However,
over time, as the concentration gradient is reduced, the rate of diffusion will likewise decrease.
5. Electrical forces - opposite electrical forces will attract one another, whereas like charges will repel.
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Figure 1. Diffusion. From Martini et al. (2015). Fundamentals of Anatomy & Physiology (10th Ed). Pearson.
The plasma membrane of the cell is selectively permeable. That is, some molecules may freely enter
or exit the cell by crossing through the membrane (though some may only do so via specialised channels
(tunnels) in the membrane), whereas others cannot freely enter or exit without the assistance of specialised
proteins. The diffusion of water across a selectively permeable membrane is referred to as osmosis. Osmosis,
like diffusion generally, occurs along a concentration gradient (in this case, from an environment where there
is a relatively greater concentration of water to a solute, to an environment where the relative concentration
is lower). It is important to note that osmosis works to eliminate a concentration gradient because the
membrane or barrier is impermeable to the solute. Figure 2 provides an overview of osmosis. In the lab, we
will be performing some basic experiments demonstrating how molecular size influences the rate of
diffusion, but also how different concentration gradients influence the rate of osmosis.
Figure 2. Osmosis. From Martini et al. (2015). Fundamentals of Anatomy & Physiology (10th Ed). Pearson.
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Body Temperature & Thermal Exchange
Thermal energy is transferred to, or gained from, the environment via various mechanisms. As shown
in Figure 3, these mechanisms include radiation, conduction, convection, and evaporation (e.g., sweating).
As you would appreciate, these mechanisms can be used to cool us down or provide warmth. Often times,
via these mechanisms, we can lose too much heat or become too warm. Although we can adapt our
behaviour to help keep warm or cool down, our body will initiate different actions to either promote heat
loss or generate heat in order to keep maintain an internal body temperature in the range of 36.7 – 37. 2o C
(e.g., remove clothing, or turn on a heater). Some of the ways in which the body can ensure temperature
homeostasis are presented in Figure 4.
Figure 3. Mechanisms of Heat Transfer. From Martini et al.

(2015). Fundamentals of Anatomy & Physiology (10th Ed).
Pearson.
Figure 4. Homeostatic Control of Body Temperature. Source unknown.
In the lab, we will be examining regional differences in body surface temperature, both before and
after some gentle physical activity (using infrared handheld thermometers). We will also explore the
laboratory space using an infrared (thermal) camera.
Eye Movement: The electro Oculogram (EOG)
Unless you are also turning your head, shifting your gaze is wholly dependent on moving your eyes,
with such movement occuring via the action of six small muscles attached to the exterior surface of each eye.
The coordinated action of these muscles allows for fine control of eye movement along the horizontal,
vertical, and diagonal planes.
There are three general categories of eye movement. These include ‘saccadic movements’ (i.e.,
movement of the eye from one fixation point to the next, e.g. shifting your gaze from one word to the next
when reading), ‘smooth pursuit movements’ (i.e., fixing your gaze on an object & ‘following’ it as it moves in
the environment, e.g., watching a car move along a road in the distance; note that there is also ‘smooth
compensatory movement’ which allow you to keep focusing on an object despite your own head movements
or positional changes within the environment, e.g., focusing on a ball that is currently mid-air whilst running
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to catch it), and ‘nystagmoid’ movement (i.e., oscillations of the eye, often due to visual defects or other
medical conditions). In this lab we will focus on saccadic and smooth pursuit movements.
Electrooculography is one method of detecting eye movement. However, this method is not
measuring the electrical activity of the muscles controlling eye movement. Instead, electrodes placed on
either side of the eye (or superior & inferior to the eye) detect a steady voltage potential that exists between
the front or anterior portion of the eye (i.e., the cornea) and the back or posterior portion of the eye (i.e.,
the retina). The cornea is electrically positive, whereas the retina is electrically negative (think of the eye as
a little battery with a ‘+’ & a ‘-‘ end). This potential is called the corneo-retinal potential (or corneo-fundal
potential; See Figure 5). If we position an electrode on either side of the eye, when the eye moves to the
right, the electrode on the right will detect the potential. If that electrode is the ‘+’ electrode, the potential
will be recorded as a positive voltage, vice versa for the left where the ‘-‘ electrode has been placed (see
Figure 6). The subsequent ‘trace’ is called the electrooculogram (EOG).
Figure 5. The Corneo-Retinal Potential. Adapted from Martini Figure 6. Voltage Potential when looking left & right. From
et al. (2015). Fundamentals of Anatomy & Physiology (10th Ed). Andreassi (2007). Psychophysiology (5th Ed.) Lawrence Erlbaum
Pearson. Associates.
In the lab, we will record the EOG when our participant is shifting their gaze from the left to the right
(saccadic movement) as well as when they are tracking a moving object in their visual field; a pendulum or
key on a string (smooth pursuit movement). We will also record the EOG when our participant reads written
text in the English language.
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Activity 1. Diffusion
1. What are three factors that can influence the rate or speed of diffusion? For one of the factors, describe
the association with the rate of diffusion.
Distance
a. _______________________ Molecular size
b. _______________________ Temperature
c._______________________
Description of relationship for Temperature

_____:
Smaller molecule will diffuse faster
__________________________________________________________________________________
2. Give an example of a physiological function (identify the relevant organ/organ system) that depends
upon diffusion.
Gas exchange in the lungs
_______________________________________________________________________________
Activity 2. Osmosis 1
1. How is osmosis different from regular diffusion?

Osmosis Is the diffusion of water across selectively permeable membrane
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
Activity 3. Body Temperature & Temperature Control
1. Why does surface temperature vary across the body?

To _____________________________________________________________________________________
maintain An internal body temperature
_________________________________________________________________________
2. When you are highly physically active, you sweat to cool down. What causes your skin to become
warmer so that sweat evaporation can occur?
Different actions initiating in our body
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
Activity 4. The Electrooculogram (EOG)
1. What is the name of the potential we are measuring using electrooculography?

Voltage
_______________________________________________________________________________
2. What is the minimum number of electrodes (recording & ground) required for examining horizontal
saccadic eye movements?
Two
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
3. If you wanted to measure a participants saccadic eye movements when reading (in English), where
would you place the ‘+’, ‘-‘ and ‘GND’ electrodes?
+_____________________________________________________________________________________
to the left ,- to the right and GND in the centre of forehead
_________________________________________________________________________
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Methods
The aim of this activity is to examine the effect of molecular size upon the rate of diffusion. The
demonstrator will place a small amount of potassium permanganate (molecular size = 158) on an agar plate
(i.e., petri dish filled with agar). On a separate agar plate, they will place a small amount of methylene blue
(molecular size = 373). Afterwards, the following method will be applied (unless otherwise instructed):
1. Demonstrator will measure the baseline (i.e., time 0) diameter of the chemical pile/blob using a pair of
calipers.
2. Demonstrator will measure the diameter of the chemical pile/blob every 15 minutes (collecting at least 5
measurements).
3. Students will record the results (as well as make drawings or take photos of results) collected over time
in Tables 1 & 2. Students will calculate the change in diameter over time (i.e., how does the current
measurement differ from the previous measurement) as well as the percentage change over time (i.e.,
how large is current change in diameter in relation to the diameter at the previous measurement).
4. Students will create a plot of percentage changes over time and sketch (or print/copy) this plot into the
corresponding results box (use the excel spreadsheet provided).
Figure 7. Previous Baselines for MB and PP.
Figure 6. Diffusion Experimental Setup.
Activity 2. Osmosis
The aim of this activity is to examine the effect of differences in concentration gradient upon the rate
of osmosis. The demonstrator has pre-made two ‘cells’ (a small piece of dialysis tubing tied at both ends with
cotton thread, filled with a glucose/water solution). Once ‘cell’ contains a solution of 5g glucose per 100ml
water (it is coloured green), whereas the other contains a solution of 20g glucose per 100ml water (it is
coloured blue). The following method will be applied (unless otherwise instructed):
1. Demonstrator will measure the baseline (i.e., time 0) weights of the dialysis tubing ‘cells’ (in grams). The
‘cells’ will then be submerged in beakers of tap water.
2. Demonstrator will extract the ‘cells’ every 15 minutes after initial submersion and gently dab dry them
(paper towel or a tissue) before measuring their weight (in grams; collect at least 5 measurements after
baseline. Every 1 gram increase in weight reflects a 1 ml increase in water volume). The ‘cells’ are returned
to the beakers after each measurement.
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3. Students will record the results collected over time in Tables 3 & 4. Students will calculate the change in
weight (grams) over time (i.e., how does the current measurement differ from the previous
measurement) as well as the percentage change over time (i.e., how large is current change in weight in
relation to the weight at the previous measurement).
4. Students will create a plot of percentage changes over time and sketch (or print/copy) this plot into the
corresponding results box (use the excel spreadsheet provided).
Figure 8. Osmosis Experimental Setup.
The aim of this activity is to measure surface temperature from various parts of the body as well as
the temperature of different objects within the laboratory. This activity involves two pieces of equipment, 1)
infrared thermometer, and 2) infrared (thermal) camera.
The Infrared Thermometer
1. Hold the thermometer in your hand and aim it towards the part of the body you wish to determine the
surface temperature of (DO NOT aim it at the eyes).
2. Squeeze the ‘trigger’ on the device. A small red ‘laser’ dot will be projected onto the target you are aiming
at.
3. Note the temperature (in Celsius, C) given on the back screen of the thermometer. Complete Table 5.
The Infrared (Thermal) Camera
1. Carefully hold the camera in your hand. If it is turned off, turn it on by pressing the middle button on the
back of the camera. Make sure the ‘lens cap’ has been removed (it folds upwards).
2. Aim the camera towards the target whose temperature you wish to examine. You will see a ‘heat
signature’ on the screen (warmer colors = warmer temperature). If the ‘heat signature’ and the target
are not aligned properly on the cameras screen, adjust the focus dial (front of the camera).
3. Examine different objects in the room. Answer the discussion questions (you can also take photos of the
camera screen if you wish).
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Figure 10. Infrared (Thermal) Camera.
Figure 9. Infrared Thermometer.
Activity 4. Electrooculography & the EOG
The first aim of this activity is to become familiar with the equipment (i.e., Powerlab) used to measure
and record electrophysiological signals as well as the software (i.e., Lab chart) used for analysis. The second
aim is to record an electrophysiological signal. In this laboratory tutorial we will record the EOG.
This activity is comprised of four tasks; 1) Prepare skin sites for electrode attachment, 2) record the
EOG when shifting gaze from left to right (saccadic eye movements), 3) record the EOG when following a
swinging pendulum/key on a string (smooth pursuit eye movement), and 4) record the EOG when reading
English text. The method for each task is given below:
Task 1. Preparation of skin for electrode attachment
1. Identify where each electrode needs to be placed for the recording (See Figure 11). For the EOG, you will
place the ‘+’ electrode at the left temple (towards the lateral canthus of the left eye). You will place the
‘-‘ electrode at the right temple (towards the lateral canthus of the right eye). The ‘GND’ electrode will
be laced in the middle of the forehead.
2. Place a small amount (about the same volume as a match head) of the NuPrep abrasive gel (see Figure
12) on a tissue. Abrade (scrub) each site where each electrode is to be placed (be gentle when doing this
on sensitive skin such as the face).
3. Wipe each site clean using an alcohol wipe (See Figure 12). Make sure you wipe in a single direction, away
from the site (if you swirl, you just smear impurities such as dead skin, dirt, oil, & left over NuPrep gel
around the site). Allow the site to dry.
4. Carefully attach a self-adhesive electrode (Red Dot electrode, See Figure 12) to the site. Be careful not to
touch the gel with an ungloved finger (impurities from your fingerprint will be embedded in the gel,
reducing the effectiveness of the gel in conducting the signal from the skin to the electrode). Afterwards,
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attach the correct lead to each electrode (i.e., for the electrode that will be ‘+’, attach the lead connected
to the ‘+’ input; see Figure 13).
Figure 11. Electrode Placement for EOG. Adapted from Figure 12. Equipment for Skin Preparation & Electrodes
https://mitsar-eeg.com/2020/12/09/biosignals_eog_ecg_emg/
Figure 13. Lead Setup & Input to Powerlab for EOG.
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Task 2. Left & Right Gaze Shifting (Saccadic Eye Movement)
1. The participant should be sitting in front of the computer monitor, looking at the sticker in the center of
the computer monitors’ top border. Press ‘Start’ on Labchart to begin recording the EOG.
2. Instruct that participant to shift the gaze (keep the head still) to the sticker attached to the top left corner
of the computer monitor (focus for 1 second), then return to the middle sticker (focus for 1 second). Then
shift gaze to the sticker attached to the top right corner of the computer monitor (focus gaze for 1 second),
then return to the middle sticker (focus for on second). Repeat as many times as needed. Results should
resemble those in Figure 14 (if not, ask the demonstrator for assistance).
3. Annotate your results. Indicate on the trace when the participant shifted their gaze to the left, to the right,
or towards the middle of the monitor. Indicate when the participant fixed their gaze to a specific location.
4. Save a copy of your data to a USB.
Task 3. Shifting Gaze to Follow a Swinging Pendulum (Smooth Pursuit Movement)
1. Hold the key on the string about one meter from the participants face (the key should be level with the
participants eyes).
2. Press ‘Start’ on Labchart to begin recording the EOG and gently swing the key back and forth (across the
participants field of vision). The participant will follow the key by shifting the gaze (not turning their head).
Your results should resemble those in Figure 15 (if not, ask the demonstrator for assistance).
3. Annotate your results. Indicate when your participant was looking to their left & when they were looking
to their right.
Task 4. Reading Easy & Hard English Text (Saccadic Eye Movement During an Everyday Task)
1. Locate the Easy and Hard text samples at the end of the P1 laboratory notes. Instruct the participants
to hold the notes at eye level. Press ‘Start’ on Labchart to begin recording the EOG.
2. The participant should read the text silently in their head. They should not verbalise the written
material (electrical activity from the jaw muscles will be recorded by the electrodes & will
contaminate the EOG signal making it much more difficult to interpret).
3. Ensure you have TWO EOG recordings – one for Easy text and one for Hard text. Your results should
resemble the sample of the EOG trace for reading shown in Figure 15 (if not, ask the demonstrator
for assistance).
4. Annotate your results. Indicate a saccade for a change of line, a saccade for a new word, when
fixating on a word, and when re-reading a prior word.
28
Figure 14. Left & Right Saccadic Eye Movement (‘+’ at Left, ‘-‘ at Right)
Figure 15. Smooth Pursuit Movement (‘+’ at Left, ‘-‘ at Right)
Figure 15. Saccadic Eye Movement During English Reading (‘+’ at Left, ‘-‘ at Right)
29
Results
Table 1. Diffusion of Methylene Blue. Plot of Percentage Change (Diffusion - MB)
Change
Current Since
Methylene Diameter Previous Percentage
Blue (mm) (mm) Change (%)
Baseline 10.72 0mm 0%
15 Minutes 12.85 2.13
30 Minutes 24.09 11.24

14.56 9.53
45 Minutes
60 Minutes
15.46 0.9
75 Minutes
15.78 0.32
90 Minutes
30
Table 2. Diffusion of Potassium Permanganate. Plot of Percentage Change (Diffusion - PP)
Change
Current Since
Potassium Diameter Previous Percentage
Permanganate (mm) (mm) Change (%)
15 Minutes 22.27 5.11
30 Minutes 26.43 4.16
45 Minutes 28.69 2.2
6
60 Minutes 32.36 3.67
75 Minutes 34.56 2.2

90 Minutes
31
Activity 2. Osmosis
Table 3. Osmosis for 5g Glucose Per 100 ml Water Plot of Percentage Change (Osmosis – 5g Glucose)
Change
Current Since
Weight Previous Percentage
5g/100ml (g) (g) Change (%)
15 Minutes 4.61 0.39

30 Minutes 4.73 0.12
45 Minutes 4.85 0.12
60 Minutes
4.89 0.4
75 Minutes 5.01 0.12
90 Minutes
32
Activity 2. Osmosis
Table 4. Osmosis for 20g Glucose Per 100 ml Water Plot of Percentage Change (Osmosis – 20g Glucose)
Change
Current Since
Weight Previous Percentage
20g/100ml (g) (g) Change (%)
15 Minutes 5.71 0.71

30 Minutes 6.22 0.51
45 Minutes 6.51
60 Minutes 6.85
75 Minutes 7.12
90 Minutes
33
Table 5. Regional Body Surface Temperature
Location At Rest Post Exercise
Forehead
Cheek
Top of Head (Hair)
Top of head (hair parted for scalp)
Abdomen (Covered by clothes)
Abdomen (uncovered)
Wrist (anterior)
Fingertip
Activity 4. The EOG
Task 2. Left & Right Gaze Shifting (Saccadic Eye Movement)
Sketch & Annotate EOG (or insert annotation from Labchart)
34
Task 3. Shifting Gaze to Follow a Swinging Pendulum (Smooth Pursuit Movement)
Task 4. Reading Easy & Hard English Text (Saccadic Eye Movement During an Everyday Task)
Number of Saccade for ‘change of line’

Easy Text ______________
Hard Text ______________
Mean number of Saccades for ‘change of word’

Easy Text ______________
Hard Text ______________
Mean number of words in the actual text

Easy Text ______________
Hard Text ______________
35
Discussion Questions
1. Which of the two chemicals demonstrate the greatest level of diffusion (i.e., spread) during the
experiment? Why?
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
2. Why would it be better to assess rate of diffusion over time using ‘percentage change’ data than ‘diameter
change’?
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
Activity 2. Osmosis
1. Which of the two ‘cells’ demonstrated the greatest level of osmosis (i.e., water uptake) during the
experiment? Why?
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
2. What happened to the rate of osmosis over time? Why did this occur?
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
1. Which region of your skin appeared to be the coolest at rest? What causes this?
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
2. When we completed some light physical activity (e.g., walking up a short flight of stairs) students often
report a decline in surface temperature. What could be a cause of this? If physical activity continued for
10 minutes, do you think you would see similar results? Why?
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
3. The normal range for body temperature is about 36.7-37.2o C. Were your results at rest generally in this
range? If not, why?
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
36
4. When examining other students in the lab, how does clothing or facial coverings (e.g., eyeglasses, or a
facemask) influence the apparent heat signature on the camera? Why do you think clothing etc influences
the image on the camera?
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
Activity 4. The EOG
1. Why is it important to properly prepare the skin where you are going to place electrodes for an EOG?
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
2. What are the two types of eye movement we examined in the laboratory?
_______________________________________________________________________________
3. What is the name of the signal/potential detected measured via electrooculography to infer eye
movement?
_______________________________________________________________________________
4. Why might someone demonstrate more saccades when reading difficult text than when reading easy
text?
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
5. Do the number of saccades for ‘new words’ reflect the actual number of words in the text provided?
Why/why not?
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
37
Appendix
EASY
The Tigers were very, very angry, but still they would not let go of each
other’s tails. They were so angry that they ran round the tree, trying
to eat each other up, and they ran faster and faster till they were
whirling round so fast that you couldn't see their legs at all. And they
still ran faster and faster and faster, till they all just melted away, and
then there was nothing left but a great big pool of melted butter
round the foot of the tree.
Word count: 89. Words per line in the easy text 15, 14, 14, 15, 13, 14, 4
Helen Bannerman, The story of little black Sambo
Sourced from Project Gutenberg (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/17824/17824.txt)
DIFFICULT
It follows directly from this discussion, that for our sphere-beings the
circumference of a circle first increases with the radius until the
"circumference of the universe" is reached, and that it thenceforward
gradually decreases to zero for still further increasing values of the
radius. During this process the area of the circle continues to increase
more and more, until finally it becomes equal to the total area of the
whole "world-sphere".
Word count 73. Words per line 11, 11, 10, 11, 12, 14, 2
Einstein, Albert, 1879-1955, Relativity: the Special and General Theory
Sourced from Project Gutenberg (http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/etext04/relat10.txt)
38
Checkout Laboratory P1
Name Sukhmanpreet kaur

________________________________
Thursday 16 March 2023

Day/Date ______________/__________________
Time 1:14
________________________________
Hasnat
Partner 1 ________________________________
Emerlyn
Partner 2 ________________________________
Lily Wong sing yum

Partner 3 ________________________________
Partner 4 ________________________________
Pre-Lab Homework
Activity 1 Diffusion
Activity 2 Osmosis
Activity 3 Body Temperature
Activity 4 Powerlab EOG
Tutor Name
Milly Li
_____________________________________________
Tutor Signature ML
_____________________________________________
16 march 2023
Date __________________
39
40

Nervous, Endocrine and Cardiovascular Systems
Aim
1. To revise on some of the concepts that you have previously learned
2. To explore the nervous system and identify structures of the brain
3. To locate endocrine structures and investigate some examples
4. To identify structures of the heart and circulation
Background
The nervous system

The nervous system is a collection of
neurons, and accessory structures to
enable some of these functions:
communication, information transmission,
sensation, motor movement and
homeostatic control. There are several
sections of the nervous system, with the
most common distinctions being made
between the Central (CNS) and the
Peripheral (PNS) Nervous System. The CNS
encompasses the brian and spinal cord,
while the PNS is everything outside the
CNs. There is a sudivision into the Somatic
and Autonomic Nervous Systems.
41
The endocrine system

The endocrine system comprises a series of glands and organs that control the release of substances
(endocrines and hormones) into the bloodstream that have an effect on target cells and organs. These glands
are also linked to the nervous system, and may be in turn responsive to other endocrines. Hormones are of
three structural types: amines, proteins, steroids. The most common endocrines you will be aware include:
adrenalin, insulin, testosterone, estrogen and progesterone.
42
The cardiovascular system

The cardiovascular system encompasses the heart, blood and circulation. To this end it distributes oxygen,
carbon dioxide, glucose, endocrines and other substances around the body for use and removal in different
locations. The major organs responsible for this are the heart and the circulatory system. There is a large
degree of overlap with other organ systems and the cardiovascular system.
Figure 4 The circulatory system
43
Pre-lab Worksheet
Activity 1 Nervous system

A. On the image below, label the name of each spinal nerve segment.
B. How many spinal nerves do we have in each segment?
_______________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
C. How many spinal vertebrae do we have in each segment?
_______________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
44
Activity 2 Endocrine system

A. Connect the endocrine with the organ primarily responsible for its production and its target
Hormone Production Target

Adrenalin Adrenal medulla Most cells
Cortisol Pancreas Cell mitochondria
Follicle stimulating hormone Anterior pituitary Liver, adipose tissue
Glucagon Posterior Pituitary Most cells
Oxytocin Thyroid Ovaries
Thyroid (T4) Adrenal cortex Uterus
Activity 3 Cardiovascular system
A. How many chambers are in the heart?
__________________________________________________________________________________
B. List the names of these chambers:
_______________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
45
Laboratory Session: Activities, Results and Discussion

Resources: Anatomage High Resolution Brain pre-set image and Cardiovascular system (split screen); two
plastic models
Activity 1 Revising concepts

In this activity, you will work with your lab group to complete three revision activities using models in the
laboratory. You will go through and refresh concepts that you have learned over the first month of the
semester. Use this time to assess your familiarity with previous concepts and note the areas that you need
to go back and revise.

A. In the box below, draw and label the two main divisions of the nervous system using two colours.
B. Using Complete Anatomy (see method) remove layer by layer to explore the structures of the brain and
spinal cord and answer the following questions:
1. What is the name of the protective membrane that covers the brain and spinal cord?
_______________________________________________________________________________
46
2. The image on the right shows a superior view of the head with layers of the scalp removed. What the layers
of the membrane identified in Q1?
_______________________________________
_______________________________________
_______________________________________
3. What is the name of the structure that our spinal
nerves attach to?
______________________________________
4. Locate the central canal of the spinal cord. What fluid
is contained in this?
______________________________________
5. Where is this fluid produced in the brain?
______________________________________
C. On Anatomage, colour the four lobes of the brain with different colours. Get a tutor to mark this off and
then answer the following questions.
Initial _______
D. Now practice identifying the following structures on the model of the brain at your station. Tick the box
when you have identified these main structures.
o Occipital lobe
o Parietal lobe
o Temporal lobe
o Frontal lobe
o Cerebellum
o Central sulcus
o Lateral sulcus
o Pons
o Medulla oblongata
E. On Anatomage, use the pen tool to outline the location of the major primary cortices of the brain:
auditory, motor, somatosensory, and visual. Get a tutor to mark this off when you have attempted this
question.
Initial _______
47

A. Label the endocrine organs and tissues on the image below. Locate these organs on your models
B. How does the endocrine system differ between males and females?
____________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
C. Get a cross section of the Suprarenal/Adrenal gland and sketch this in the table below. Label the
adrenal cortex and the adrenal medulla on your drawing, and answer the questions following.
Where is the adrenal gland located in the body? Use anatomical directional language in your answer.
48
__________________________________________________________________________________
The suprarenal gland is composed of a medulla and three zones. Name the structural layers from most
superficial to deep.
_______________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
Name the major hormones found in each layer of the suprarenal gland and describe the basic function of
each hormone:
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
49
Activity 4: Cardiovascular Anatomy

A. Fill in the blanks to complete this sentence.
The cardiovascular system contain is responsible for the delivery and drainage of blood to all parts of the
body. The vessels coloured in red are called ____________ and are responsible for carrying blood away
from the __________ to the body and tissues. The vessels coloured in blue are called _____________ and
are responsible for draining blood away from body tissues and returning the blood to the ______________.
B. Using Anatomage, complete the activity in the method to observe the direction of blood flow in the
heart. Ask your tutor to mark off this page when you are done.
Initial _______
C. Looking at the heart model at your station, identify the structures that are labelled from 1-12. Write
your answers below.
1. ____________________________ 2. ________________________________
3. ____________________________ 4. ________________________________
5. ____________________________ 6. ________________________________
7. ____________________________ 8. ________________________________
9. ____________________________ 10. _______________________________
11. ___________________________ 12. _______________________________
D. What structures does blood pass through as it flows from the systemic circulation into the lungs? Order
the labels below, starting from the Vena Cavae.
Vena Cavae
Pulmonary artery
Pulmonary valve
Right atrium
Right ventricle
Tricuspid Valve
Lungs
Lungs
E. What structures does blood pass through as it flows from pulmonary circulation and to the body
tissues? Order the labels below, starting from the lungs.
50
Left ventricle
Lungs
Aortic valve
Left atrium
Pulmonary vein
Mitral valve
Aorta
Lungs
51
Name ________________________________
Day/Date ______________/__________________
Time ________________________________
Partner 1 ________________________________
Partner 2 ________________________________
Partner 3 ________________________________
Partner 4 ________________________________
Pre -lab
Activity 1 Revision
Activity 4 Cardiovascular system
Complete
Tutor Name _____________________________________________
Tutor Signature _____________________________________________
Date __________________
52
53
54

Muscular Power & Cardiovascular Function
AIMS:
The second physiology laboratory tutorial is more complicated, with more activities than P1. As such,
teamwork, delegation of responsibility, and time management is essential. The laboratory tutorial examines
two topics – muscular power and cardiovascular function. There are a number of different aims of the
laboratory tutorial. These include:
1. Assess muscular power during a single ‘explosive’ movement (i.e., vertical jump) as well as during an
‘explosive’ albeit prolonged movement (i.e., stair run).
2. To assess blood pressure (oscillatory method) and interpret results.
3. To assess blood oxygen saturation (Sp02) using a pulse oximeter as well as determine the effects of
breath holding and physical activity on Sp02 and pulse rate.
4. To set-up and record a basic (1 Lead) electrocardiograph, record the electrocardiogram (ECG) and
perform some basic analyses.
5. To understand the association between blood flow, the ECG, and peripheral pulse.
6. To identify different heart sounds using a stethoscope.
Background:
Muscular Power & Work
Physical activity is possible due to the action of various muscles/muscle groups. Sometimes an
activity is low intensity, other times it is high intensity; sometimes physical activity is of short duration - lasting
merely seconds, other times is quite prolonged. Regardless of the intensity or duration, muscles need ‘fuel’
in order to contract. This ‘fuel’ is called adenosine triphosphate (ATP).
Macronutrients stored in body tissues (e.g., protein, lipids, & glucose) are metabolised by different
pathways to create ATP (aerobic metabolism provides most of the required ATP when we are at rest).
Although there is a very limited store of ATP within muscle fibres allowing them to contract initially,
additional ATP must be generated to facilitate ongoing muscular contraction.
During high intensity activity, the ATP ‘fueling’ muscular contraction is produced via the ATP –
creatine phosphate (CP) system. However, there is a very limited supply of CP within skeletal muscle fibres
(enough to provide ATP for about 15 seconds of ongoing contraction). This is why you can only complete a
limited number of maximal vertical jumps before your performance (i.e., the height jumped) begins to
decline, or maximally sprint for so long before you begin to slow down.
If two people perform the same high intensity physical activity, the amount of energy required for
that action will differ. If a 100kg person jumps 0.30m (30 centimeters) into the air their effort will expend
more energy than someone weighing 70kg jumping the same height. Likewise, if a 100kg person runs up a
set of 14 stairs in 2 seconds, their effort will expend more energy than someone weighing 70kg (who achieves
the same time). We can calculate (approximately) how much energy is expended by assessing power.
55
A simple equation for determining power during a vertical jump is: P (power) = 21.67 x m x (√h).
Here, m is body weight in kg, whilst h is the height jumped (i.e., how high did you physically rise off of the
ground). The unit of measure is watts (or Joules/second).
A similarly simple equation can be used for calculating power during a prolonged, yet explosive,
!#$#%
activity such as a stair run: ! ($%&'() = & Here, m is body weight in kg, h is the vertical distance
climbed (i.e., number of stairs multiplied by the height of each stair), g is acceleration due to gravity (9.8
m/s/s), whilst t is the time (in seconds) that it took to complete the stair run.
In the lab, we will be examining the interindividual (i.e., between individuals) differences in muscular
power. This is to be accomplished via a standing jump task and a stair run task.
Blood Pressure
Blood pressure refers to the force exerted by the blood against any unit area of the vessel (i.e., blood
vessel) or chamber (i.e., heart chamber) wall. Blood pressure can be measured within the different blood
vessel (arteries, arterioles, capillaries, venules, veins) of the circulatory system, but also within each chamber
of the heart (i.e., atria & ventricles). However, as indicated in Figure 1, the pressure throughout the
circulatory system is not uniform. Different types of artery have widely different maximal and resting
pressures. Further, capillaries and veins have much lower pressures than arteries. This is why venules and
medium sized veins have ‘valves’ which permit blood flow in a single direction thereby facilitating the
transport of blood along the vessel towards the heart, against the force of gravity.
Figure 1. Pressure Throughout the Circulatory System. From Hall & Hall (2021). Textbook of Medical
Physiology. Elsevier.
When we refer to blood pressure in the lab (or when your healthcare provider tells you your blood
pressure) we are referring to arterial pressure. Adequate arterial pressure is essential for maintaining blood
flow through the capillary beds (the site of gas exchange with tissues). Arterial pressure is not constant (as
can be seen in Figure 1). Peak pressure measured during ventricular systole (i.e., when the hearts’ ventricles
have contracted) is referred to as systolic pressure. The minimum pressure (essentially the resting pressure
within the artery) occurs at the end of ventricular diastole (i.e., the rest/refilling period for the hearts
'(')*+,-
ventricles) is referred to as diastolic pressure. Blood pressure is reported as with the unit of
2,3')*+,- ./0''1/0
measure being millimeters of mercury (mm Hg). Other useful measures include pulse pressure (the difference
56
between systolic & diastolic pressures) and mean arterial pressure (often taken as a measure of ‘perfusion’
pressure – that is, pressure applied to the capillary beds of end organs such as the brain or kidneys).
There are different guidelines indicating what constitutes healthy or normal arterial blood pressure.
The American Heart Association (AHA) provide a helpful guide for delineating normal, elevated, and clinically
elevated blood pressure1. An infographic from the AHA is given in Figure 2.
Figure 2. American Heart Association’s Guidelines for Classifying Blood Pressure.
Blood pressure can be measured in several ways. You may be familiar with the auscultatory method,
whereby a pressure cuff is applied to the brachium (upper segment of the arm between the shoulder &
elbow), manually inflated and then deflated (see Figure 3). A stethoscope (specifically the diaphragm of the
device) is placed over the antecubital artery. The emergence and disappearance of sounds (korotkoff sounds)
at specific cuff pressures (during deflation of the cuff) is used to demarcate peripheral (i.e., brachial) systolic
and diastolic pressures respectively.
However, you may also be familiar with the oscillatory method (if you measure your own blood
pressure, this is the method you would use). Here, an automatic device (See Figure 4) inflates the brachial
cuff above systolic pressure, then deflates it, during which a special pressure sensor detects oscillations (that
is the increase/decrease pressure rhythm) within the cuff due to blood flow through the brachial artery (see
Figure 4). When inflated above systolic pressure, the cuff detects no oscillations (as there is no blood flow
through the artery). However, when the cuff is deflating, the pressure drops below the systolic pressure,
thereby allowing blood to pass through the artery, causing the pressure within the cuff will oscillate (i.e., rise
& fall) with each contraction and expansion of the artery (which occurs with each heartbeat). As cuff pressure
progressively declines under the systolic pressure, the amplitude of the oscillations eventually reaches a
maximum, declining once cuff pressure falls below the diastolic pressure. Ambulatory blood pressure
monitors (ABPM) rely upon this method and are commonly utilised to collect multiple BP recordings
throughout the day, as well as night, at specific time intervals. A greater number of BP measures can provide
a far more accurate assessment of an individual’s ‘normal’ blood pressure whilst also minimizing the ‘white
coat effect’ (i.e., increased BP when in the presence of a healthcare provider).
1 See https://www.heart.org/en/health-topics/high-blood-pressure/understanding-blood-pressure-readings
57
Figure 4. Automated Cuff – The Oscillatory Method.

Figure 3. The Auscultatory Method. From Essentials of Anatomy
and Physiology.
There are several advantages to the oscillatory method. Firstly, it is easier to perform (no extensive
training needed). It can be performed in noisy environments where subtle sounds using auscultation may be
more difficult to detect. More advanced systems can apply algorithms to the pressure waveforms to calculate
aortic bloods pressures (which are more closely related to the pressure being applied to organs such as the
brain & kidneys). However, it is essential that the right size cuff is used, and that the device is routinely
calibrated to ensure accuracy.
In the lab, we will be assessing blood pressure at rest as well as after some gentle physical activity. We
will be using the oscillatory method, so no prior skill with stethoscopes etc is required to successfully
complete this exercise.
Pulse Oximetry
Red blood cells (RBC) comprise about one third of all cells in the body (1mm3 of whole blood in males
contains an estimated 4.6-6.3 million RBCs: 4.2-5.5 million in females). RBCs contains a protein called
haemoglobin (Hb). It is this protein that transports dissolved gasses in the blood and gives blood its red
colour. When haemoglobin is carrying O2 it is called oxyhaemoglobin (HbO2) and when it does not hold
oxygen (perhaps CO2 or some other gas) it is called deoxyhaemoglobin (HHb). When RBCs are filled with
HbO2, blood is bright red, whereas is it dark red when RBCs are filled with HHb (hence the red & blue colour
coding for vessels).
Importantly, we can assess ‘oxygen saturation’ (Sp02) - that is, the proportion of haemoglobin
carrying O2 – of arterial blood using a pulse oximeter. This is a small device that can be attached to a fingertip,
nose, earlobe, or forehead. In this lab we will use a pulse oximeter designed to attach to the fingertip (see
Figure 5).
Figure 5. A Pulse Oximeter for the Finger.
58
The pulse oximeter emits both red and infra-red light from a pair of light emitting diodes. Hb02 and HHb
differentially absorb these lights (HbO2 absorbs greater amounts of infra-red light & lower amounts of red
light than HHb). A special sensor (a photodiode) on the other side of the device (i.e., positioned on the
other side of the finger for a finger clip device) detects the red and infra-red light that was able to
pass through the tissue (e.g., fingertip). The device then calculates the proportion of haemoglobin
that is saturation with O2 (as a percentage). The normal range is between 95 and 100 % saturation
According to the World Health Organisation, SP02 is < 95 % is considered low and requires treatment; an
Sp02 < 90 % is a clinical emergency2. The device is also able to provide a measure of pulse3.
In the lab, we will examine Sp02 using a pulse oximeter that clips onto the finger. We will be
recording Sp02 at rest, after holding our breath for a period of 30 seconds (or as long as you can) as well as
after some gentle physical activity.
The Electrocardiogram (ECG)
The human heart contracts about 100,000 times per day. Though the nervous and endocrine
systems can influence heart activity (e.g., increase or decrease heart rate), the heart itself generates the
electrical signal that results in the contraction of cardiac tissue (i.e., the heartbeat).
The generation and propagation of the action potential (electrical signal) that facilitates the
contraction of the various chambers of the heart (i.e., the heartbeat) is a quite intricate. In brief, the action
potential is generated in the sinoatrial node (SA node – located in the superior posterolateral wall of the
right atrium). The action potential is relayed via atrial muscle fibres and conducting fibres, to the
atrioventricular node (AV node – within the posterior wall of the right atria). Here there is a slight delay in
conduction (so the atria muscle can finish contracting before ventricles begin contracting). The signal is
then conducted along purkinje fibres within the AV bundle, which divides into left and right branches within
the ventricular septum (the muscle wall separating the left & right ventricles). The left and right
branches in turn separate into smaller branches. The purkinje fibres exit these smaller bundle branches
and embed into the ventricular muscle mass, becoming continuous with the cardiac muscle fibres. The
overall response of the cardiac muscle during this process is that the atria muscle contracts first, then
after a short delay the ventricular muscle is stimulated to contract (thereby pumping blood from the left
ventricle into the aorta & the right ventricle into the pulmonary artery). See Figure 6.
Figure 6. SA Node & Purkinje System of the Heart. From Hall & Hall (2021).
Textbook of Medical Physiology. Elsevier.
2www.who.int/patientsafety/safesurgery/pulse_oximetry/who_ps_pulse_oxymetry_training_manual_en.pdf
3
For a helpful reference discussing how pulse oximetry works, as well as its limitations, see Chan, E.D., Chan, M.M., & Chan, M.M. (2013). Pulse
oximetry: Understanding its basic principles facilitates appreciation of its limitations. Respiratory Medicine, 107, 789-799.
59
When the electrical signal (i.e., action potential) outlined above is conducted through the heart, the
electrical current is also conducted into tissue surrounding the heart, with a small portion also reaching the
skin. By placing electrodes on either side of the heart (e.g., on the left & right wrist), the various electrical
potentials generated by this current can be recorded. The method of recording this signal is
electrocardiography and the recording is known as the electrocardiogram (ECG).
The ECG rhythm comprises several waves forms. There is the P wave, caused by the electrical
potentials generated when the atria are depolarised; the QRS complex, caused by the electrical potentials
generated when the ventricles are depolarised; and the T wave, caused by the electrical potentials generated
when the ventricles are repolarised. Different intervals (the time from the start of one wave to the start of
another) or segments (the intervening period between specific waves) can be assessed. For example, the R-
R interval (that is, the time delay between the R waves of two consecutive ECG rhythms) can be used to
estimate heart rate (60 seconds / R-R (in seconds) = heart rate, though ideally this would be an average of
multiple R-R intervals). Figure 7 presents an example ECG rhythm as well as the various intervals and
segments of the ECG.
Figure 7. A Normal Electrocardiogram (ECG). From Hall & Hall (2021). Textbook of Medical Physiology. Elsevier.
In the lab, we will perform a very basic 1 lead ECG (lead meaning a circuit created via a positive &
negative electrodes). The ECG will be recorded at rest, but also after a short period of gentle physical activity.
Heart Sounds
During the cardiac cycle several different sounds can be detected. These sounds reflect certain
actions within the heart and can be readily assessed using a stethoscope or even cardiac microphone (see
Laboratory Tutorial P3). Heart sounds are often described as ‘lub, dub’. The ‘lub’ sound is denoted S1 and is
caused by vibration of the valves (the atrioventricular values; the mitral/bicuspid & tricuspid valves between
the atria & ventricles on the left & right side of the heart, respectively; See Figure 8) as well as that of adjacent
walls of the heart immediately after the valves close immediately following the start of ventricular systole.
The ‘dub’ sound is denoted as S2 and is caused by closure of the semilunar valves (i.e., the aortic valve –
between the left ventricle & aorta; the pulmonary valve – between the right ventricle & the pulmonary
artery) and subsequent reverberation of blood within the arteries. There is also a third sound (believed to be
due to blood filling the ventricles during ventricular diastole) and a fourth sound (caused by the rush of blood
into ventricles due to contraction of the atria). It is very difficult to hear the third and fourth sounds. Figure
9 is a Wiggers diagram outlining when each heart sound occurs during the cardiac cycle.
60
Figure 8. Cross-section of the Heart Showing Location of Atrioventricular & Semilunar Valves. From
Martini et al. (2015). Fundamentals of Anatomy & Physiology (10th Ed). Pearson.
Figure 9. Wiggers Diagram Showing Heart Sounds During the Cardiac Cycle.
Auscultation is the term for listening to heart sounds (or other bodily sounds) with the aid of a stethoscope
(See Figure 10). There are several areas on the chest wall where the different heart sounds can be differentiated. These
sites are not directly over the valves generating the sounds but rather where these sounds are transmitted (see Figure
11).
Figure 10. ‘Anatomy’ of a Stethoscope. Figure 11. Chest Areas for Auscultating Heart Sounds.
61
In the lab, we will practice using a stethoscope to listen to heart sounds S1 (lub) and S2 (dub).
Activity 1: Vertical Jump
1. We have two athletes – Ben & Marcus. Ben weighs 95kg, whereas Marcus weight 76kg. Both completed
a standing vertical jump. Ben jumped 0.33 metres off of the floor, whereas Marcus jumped 0.45 meters
off of the floor. Calculate power for each jump.
Ben Marcus
Body Weight, kg (m) = ___________ Body Weight, kg (m) = ___________
Jump Height, m (h) = ___________ Jump Height, m (h) = ___________
√h = __________ √h = __________
Power (W) = ____________ Power (W) = ____________
Activity 2: Stair Run
1. Ben & Marcus also completed the stair run test. Both ran up a staircase of 15 stairs, with each stair
being 0.15 metres high. Ben completed the run in 2.88 seconds, whereas Marcus was a little quicker,
completing the run in 2.33 seconds. Calculate power for each stair run.
Ben Marcus
Body Weight, Kg (m) = ____________ Body Weight, Kg (m) = ____________
Height Climbed, metres (h) = _____________ Height Climbed, metres (h) = _____________
Power (W) = ______________ Power (W) = ______________
Activity 3: Blood Pressure
1. What is the standard notation of blood pressure & what is the unit of measure?
_______________________________________________________________________________
2. According to the AHA, what pressures indicate clinically elevated blood pressure (i.e., stage 1
hypertension)?
_______________________________________________________________________________
3. Do you think it is appropriate to diagnose hypertension from a single measurement of BP? Briefly
explain.
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
Activity 4: Pulse Oximetry
1. What is the name of the protein in RBCs that carries oxygen?

_______________________________________________________________________________
2. What is the normal percentage range for blood oxygen saturation?

_______________________________________________________________________________
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3. What effect do you think excessive would have on the accuracy of an Sp02 measure using pulse
oximetry?
_______________________________________________________________________________
Activity 5: The Electrocardiogram (ECG)
1. What are the three main components of the ECG?

_______________________________________________________________________________
2. What does the QRS complex of the ECG represent?

_______________________________________________________________________________
3. How can you analyse the ECG rhythm to estimate heart rate?
_______________________________________________________________________________
Activity 6: Heart Sounds & the Stethoscope
1. What action in the heart creates the S1 (lub) and the S2 (dub) sounds?
_____________________________________________________________________________
63
Methods
Activity 1: Muscular Power – Vertical Jump
The aim of this activity is to assess muscular power during a single ‘explosive’ movement.
1. Identify two members of the group who can perform the activity (remember, they need to be able to do
some maximal jumping – so clothing on the day could be a factor).
2. Determine both your participants’ body weight (kg). Record in Table 1.
3. Determine the height that each of your participants can reach (touch the highest coloured ‘flag’ on the
pole). The distance between the bottom red ‘flag’ and the floor is marked on the vertical pole (See Figure
12). Each ‘flag’ after the first red one is worth 0.025m (2.5 cm) each. Record the height in Table 1.
4. Jump as high as you can (no run up) and hit the highest coloured ‘flag’. Calculate the height of this ‘flag’
using the approach outlined in step 3 (note: if your participant can easily reach the top flag you may want
to increase the height of the pole – ask your demonstrator for help). Record the height in Table 1. You are
permitted a warmup or practice jump(s) beforehand.
5. Calculate and record the physical elevation for your jump in Table 1 (i.e., the difference between the
heights recorded in steps 3 & 4).
6. Calculate power for both participants (record in Table 1).
Activity 2: Muscular Power – Stair Run
The aim of this activity is to assess muscular power during an ‘explosive’ action performed over several
seconds.
1. Identify two members of the group who can perform the activity (remember, they need to be able to
perform physical activity – so clothing on the day could be a factor).
2. Determine both your participants’ body weight (kg). Record in Table 2.
3. Calculate the vertical height (i.e., elevation) that the participants will climb (number of stairs x height of
each stair). See Figure 13.
4. Instruct the current participant to stand on the yellow pad at the bottom of the staircase. Record the time
it takes them to run the staircase (1, 2, or 3 steps at a time – whatever they are comfortable with) in Table
2. You are permitted a warmup or practice run(s).
5. Calculate power for both participants (record in Table 2).
Figure 12. Muscular Power – Jump Station Figure 13. Muscular Power – Staircase for Stair Run
64
Activity 3: Blood Pressure – The Oscillatory Method

The aim of this activity is to measure peripheral (i.e., brachial) blood pressure using the oscillatory method.
1. Determine who the participant will be. Make sure that they are not wearing too bulky clothing (e.g.,
jacket or jumper) – the cuff can be applied on a bare arm, or over thin clothing (e.g., a long sleeve
shirt).
2. Wrap the brachial cuff around the brachium (upper arm) of the participant. Make sure the artery
marker (Ø) is located slightly superior to the antecubital fossa (the anterior surface of elbow). When
wrapping and velcroing the cuff, ensure that the index marker (arrow) is able to fall within the ‘index
range’ indicated on the cuff (this ensures the cuff is an appropriate size. See Figure 14 below.
3. Instruct the participant to relax their arm (either by their side or resting on the bench). Give them a
short period of rest and instruct them to minimise talking and moving (as this can influence the
accuracy of the recording).
4. In Table 3, estimate your participants blood pressure and heart rate. Take into account their current
health (you do not have to disclose any confidential information), how their day has gone so far, their
stress levels etc.
5. Press the ‘start’ button on the device. You will see the ‘pressure gauge’ (in this case, numbers on the
screen) begin to count upwards during inflation, then count downwards during deflation.
6. When complete, record the participants blood pressure (systolic & diastolic) as well as their heart
rate in Table 3.
7. Repeat the measure after 2 minutes rest. Record the result in Table 3.
Figure 14. Artery & Index Markers on Brachial Cuff.
The first aim of this activity is to measure Sp02 using a pulse oximeter applied to the index finger. The
second aim is to determine the effect of breath holding and gentle
physical activity (not at the same time) on Sp02 and pulse.
1. Nominate a participant who is able to do some gentle physical

activity (e.g., stair walking).
2. Clip the pulse oximeter onto the participants index finger
(ensure that the ‘screen side’ of the device is over the
fingernail). See Figure 15.
3. Have the participants rest their hand on the bench for stability
(excessive movement can influence the recording). The device
should turn on automatically and after several seconds provide
you with Sp02 (orange value) and pulse (red value).
4. Record Sp02 in Table 4 after the following conditions - 30
seconds rest, 30 seconds (or there abouts) of breath holding,
Figure 15. Pulse Oximeter ‘Clipped’ to Index Finger.
and after some gentle exercise.
65
The first aim of this activity is to record the ECG using a very basic (1 Lead) setup during rest and after
a period of gentle exercise. The second aim of this activity is to perform some basic analysis, such as
determining the time course for certain ECG intervals. The final aim is to examine the association between
blood flow, the ECG and peripheral pulse (in this case, thumb pulse).
Setup
1. Nominate a participant who is able to do some gentle exercise.
2. Identify the skin sites where the electrodes for the electrocardiograph will be attached (‘+’, ‘-‘, & ‘GND
electrodes). See Figure 16 below. Prepare these sites using the method outlined in the P1 notes for EOG
(task 1).
3. Apply a brachial pressure cuff (from activity 3) to the participants left arm. Now, attach the electrodes to
the required skin sites, connect these electrodes to their corresponding attachment leads, and attach the
pressure transducer (see Figure 17) to the participants left thumb.
Figure 16. Electrode Placement for ‘1 Lead’ ECG.
ECG Recording During Rest

1. Instruct that participant to avoid moving or talking. The participant should rest their arms on the benchtop
(this avoids minor movements, which can generate a signal called the electromyogram, or EMG, which
can contaminate your ECG).
2. Press ‘start’ on Labchart. Your recording should look something like Figure 18 (if not, ask your
demonstrator for help). For identifying the P wave, QRS complex, and T Wave, see Figure 7 in the
background notes.
Figure 18. ECG (Channel 1) &

Thumb Pulse (Channel 2)
During Rest,
66
Relationship Between Blood Flow, ECG, and Peripheral Pulse

1. Keep your participant in the same position as in the previous ECG recording (i.e., resting with hands on
bench).
2. Press ‘Start’ on Labchart. After several seconds recording, press ‘Start’ on the blood pressure monitor.
Note what happens to the ECG signal and the thumb pulse whilst the cuff inflates and then deflates.
ECG Recording After Physical Activity

1. Remove all equipment from the participant, except for the ECG electrodes (these can remain, but
disconnect the leads).
2. Instruct your participant to walk down the stairs of the building to the first floor and back (or they can
perform some other physical activity).
3. When the participant has returned, carefully attach the ECG leads to their corresponding electrode (i.e.,
‘+’ lead is attached to the left electrode).
4. Press ‘Start’ on Labchart. Record at least one minute of ECG after physical activity.
Analysis of the ECG

1. Identify the small ‘M’ marker in the bottom left corner of the Labchart window. You can click and drag
the ‘M’ marker to any part of the signal in either channel 1 or 2. Then place your mouse cursor (it will look
like an ‘X’ over the trace) over the part of the trace you want to measure in relation to where the ‘M’
marker was set. In the top right corner, you will notice two values. One is given in seconds (s). This is the
time differences between the ‘M’ marker and the part of the trace you have placed your mouse cursor on
(the symbol + is also given. This is delta, which just means ‘difference’). The other is given in volts and
reflects the amplitude difference between the two points. See Figure 19. In the figure, the ‘M’ marker has
been placed on the R wave of one ECG rhythm, with the mouse cursor (‘X’) on the R wave of the next ECG
rhythm. The + value in the tope right corner of the figure indicates the time difference in seconds between
the R waves of the two consecutive ECG rhythms.
2. Using the ECG Recording During Rest, complete Table 5 and ‘Results Box 1’.
3. Using the ECG Recording After Physical Activity, complete Table 6.
Figure 19. Measuring the Time Difference Between Consecutive R Waves.
67
The aim of this activity is to identify the S1 and S2 heart sounds using a stethoscope.
1. Obtain a stethoscope (some are in the lab, but you may choose to use your own if you already own one)
and sit down (if you are listening to your own heart sounds) or have your participant sitting down.
2. Identify the four ‘listening posts’ on the chest (either your own or a participants). See Figure 11 in the
Background notes. A description of the heart auscultation ‘listening posts’ is also given here:
a. Aortic (A) – right sternal border, 2nd intercostal space (i.e., between ribs 2 & 3)
b. Pulmonary (P)– left sternal border, 2nd intercostal space
c. Tricuspid (T) – left sternal border, 5th intercostal space (i.e., between ribs 5 & 6)
d. Mitral (M) – midclavicular (i.e., in line with the middle of the clavicle/collar bone), 5th
intercostal space
3. Apply the diaphragm of the stethoscope (See Figure 10) to each auscultation site. Make notes in Table 6
outlining what you hear for each site.
Reproduced
Figure 20.from Clinically
Listening Orientated
to hear Anatomy,
sound on the 7th edition.
chest wall.
Image reproduced from Clinically Orientated Anatomy, 7th edition.
68
Results
Table 1. Muscular Power During a Vertical Jump.

Participant 1 Participant 2
Body Weight, Kg (m) = Body Weight, Kg (m) =
Max Reach, metres = Max Reach, metres =
Max Reach with Jump, metres = Max Reach with Jump, metres =
Actual Jump Height, metres (h) = Actual Jump Height, metres (h) =
√h = √h =
Power (Watts) = Power (Watts) =
Table 2. Muscular Power During a Stair Run.

Participant 1 Participant 2
Body Weight, Kg (m) = Body Weight, Kg (m) =
Number of Stairs = Number of Stairs =
Mean Height of Stairs (metres) = Mean Height of Stairs (metres) =
Total Elevation, metres (h) = Total Elevation, metres (h) =
Time for Run, seconds (t) = Time for Run, seconds (t) =
Power (Watts) = Power (Watts) =
Activity 3: Blood Pressure
Table 3. Blood Pressure

Estimate for Results 1st Recording 2nd recording
Systolic Pressure = mm Hg Systolic Pressure = mm Hg Systolic Pressure = mm Hg
Diastolic Pressure = mm Hg Diastolic Pressure = mm Hg Diastolic Pressure = mm Hg
Heart Rate = bpm Heart Rate = bpm Heart Rate = bpm
Table 4. Sp02 and Pulse Using a Pulse Oximeter

At Rest After 30 Second Breath Hold After Physical Activity
Pulse = bpm Pulse = bpm Pulse = bpm
Sp02 = % Sp02 = % Sp02 = %
Table 5. ECG During Rest

ECG Interval Time, seconds
R-R Interval (requires 2 consecutive ECG)
P-Q Interval (requires 1 ECG)
Q-T Interval (requires 1 ECG)
Results Box 1. Annotated Sketch of ECG Rhythm During Rest.
69
Table 6. ECG Post Physical Activity

During First 10 Seconds During Final 10 Seconds
R-R Interval (2 consecutive ECG)
P-Q Interval (1 ECG)
Location Description (using Diaphragm)

Aortic
Pulmonary
Tricuspid
Mitral
70
Discussion Questions
1. If two people of a different weight manage to jump the same height, who would exert more energy?
_______________________________________________________________________________________
2. Two people run the same set of stairs. One person is twice the body weight of the other. The heavier person
completes the run in exactly double the length of time that the first person required. Who would exert more
energy?
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
Activity 3: Blood Pressure – The Oscillatory Method
1. Why do you think it is prudent when assessing someone’s blood pressure to take the average rather than a single
recording?
_______________________________________________________________________________________
2. What advantages does the oscillatory method provide when assessing blood pressure over the auscultatory
method?
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
1. Was your participants Sp02 during rest within the normal range?
_______________________________________________________________________________________
2. Whilst your participant held their breath did their Sp02 change? Did their pulse rate change?
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
3. Following physical activity, what was your participants pulse rate and Sp02 compared to when at rest? Why do you
think these changes occurred?
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
1. In the ECG rhythm, what do the P wave, the QRS complex, and the T wave represent?
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
2. Describe the relationship between the R-R interval and your pulse/heart rate
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
3. What changes were apparent in the ECG rhythm and/or the thumb pulse when we inflated the brachial pressure
cuff? Why did this occur?
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
71
4. Why do you think your R-R interval was prolonged in the final 10 seconds of the ‘after physical activity’ recording
relative to the first 10 seconds of the recording?
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
1. In relation to the ECG rhythm and the different waveforms (P, QRS, T), when do you think the ‘lub’ of S1 sound
would occur?
________________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
72
Name ________________________________
Day/Date ______________/__________________
Time ________________________________
Partner 1 ________________________________
Partner 2 ________________________________
Partner 3 ________________________________
Partner 4 ________________________________
Pre-Lab Homework
Activity 1 Muscular Power - Jump
Activity 2 Muscular Power - Stairs
Activity 3 Blood Pressure
Activity 4 Pulse Oximetry
Activity 5 ECG
Activity 6 Stethoscope
Tutor Name _____________________________________________
Tutor Signature _____________________________________________
Date __________________
73
74

Respiratory, Digestive, Urinary and Reproductive Systems
Aim
1. To recognise the branching of the respiratory tract
2. To label the major structures of the GI tract
3. To view and label the structures of the kidney
4. To view and locate reproductive structures for males and females
Background
Respiratory System
Cells require oxygen to carry out their regular metabolic functions. They produce carbon dioxide as waste
product that also needs to be expelled from the body. Cells acquire oxygen from and release carbon dioxide
to the bloodstream that in turn is oxygenated when it enters the respiratory/ bronchial circulation in the
lungs. The primary source of oxygen for the body comes from atmospheric air, which at sea level usually
comprises of approximately 72% nitrogen, 21% oxygen, less than 0.05% carbon-dioxide, plus numerous
trace elements and chemicals in very small proportions.
The internal structure of the lungs consists of a series of branching tubes that carry air to the alveoli (Figure
1). Air travels through the bronchi and enters the left and right lungs from the left and right bronchi. The
bronchi then undergo a series of divisions until there are small microscopic called alveoli. These are small
air-filled sacs and the primary site of gas exchange with the blood.
75
Digestive system
The digestive system in humans begins at the mouth, progresses through the pharynx, the oesophagus,
stomach, small intestine, large intestine, and opens at the anus. There are several accessory organs and
structures, including: teeth, tongue, salivary glands, liver, pancreas and gallbladder. The main role of the
system is to break down food, absorb the nutrients, and eliminate the waste. Figure 2 illustrates the
structure of the digestive tract.
Figure 2 Digestive tract
The functions and processes of the digestive system are: ingestion, mechanical digestion & propulsion,
chemical digestion, secretion, absorption and defaecation.
Urinary system
The metabolic waste produced by cells in the body generally end up in the bloodstream. The urinary system
is a vital system that removes these wastes by a variety of mechanisms. The major components of the
Figure 3 Urinary system
76
urinary system are the kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder and urethra. All but the urethra is the same in
males and females. Figure 3 shows the urinary system.
The functions of the urinary system include: regulating blood pressure & volume, regulating plasma
concentrations of sodium, potassium, chloride & other ions, helping to stabilise blood pH, conserving
valuable nutrients, and assisting the liver to detoxify poisons.
Reproductive system
The human reproductive system has the purpose of ensuring the continuation of the human species. The
specialised reproductive cells are different to other cells in the human body and are known as gametes.
These have half the chromosomes of other human body cells have are known as haploid cells. Female-
produced gametes (oocytes) always have a single X chromosome, while male-produced gametes
(spermatozoa) may have either an X or Y chromosome and will therefore determine the biological sex of
the new organism. The inherited characteristics of the new offspring will be generally following the
observed rules of inheritance.
The male and female reproductive systems are very different anatomically and physiologically as they need
to support and control very different functions.
77
Pre-lab Worksheet
Activity 1 The respiratory system

A. Select the structures below that are part of the respiratory system and order them from outermost to
innermost (with respect to an inspiratory breath).
Trachea Oesophagus Larynx Bronchiole Alveolus Pharynx

Bronchus Nose
i. ________________
ii. ________________
iii. ________________
iv. ________________
v. ________________
vi. ________________
vii. ________________
B. Identify three functions of the respiratory system.

_______________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
Activity 2 The digestive system
A. Describe the path of digestion starting from the mouth to the stomach listing the major organs involved
in the process.
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
78
Activity 3 The urinary system

A. The kidneys reabsorb all of the following substances except one. Mark with a tick all those which are
reabsorbed.
o Water
o Proteins
o Sodium ions
o Potassium ions
o Glucose
B. Select true or false for each of the following statements about the urinary system
i. The right kidney is marginally superior to the left o True o False

ii. The ureter takes urine from the kidney to the bladder o True o False
iii. The first stage of filtration takes place in the corpuscle o True o False
iv. Endocrines affect ion and water concentration in urine o True o False
Activity 4 The reproductive system

A. Complete the table below and identify the differences between male and female reproductive systems:
Male Female
External genitalia • •
• •
•
Gonads • •
Secondary sex characteristics • •

• •
79
Laboratory Session: Activities, Results and Discussion

Resources: Anatomage pre-set images showing Respiratory (thoracic), and digestive/urinary and reproductive
(Abdopelvic) systems (split screen);
Activity 1 Respiratory system

A. Locate the following respiratory organs and tissues on your anatomy model and correctly label their
location on your model. Ask a tutor to mark off your page when complete.
Nasal cavity Oral cavity Nasopharynx Oropharynx Laryngeopharynx

Oesophagus Larynx Trachea Superior lobe Inferior lobe
Middle lobe
Initial _______
B. Contrast your knowledge of respiratory anatomy on the cadaveric prosection using Anatomage. Use
the pen tool to annotate the location of the following structures on your model. Ask a tutor to mark off
your page when complete.
Nasal cavity Oral cavity Nasopharynx Oropharynx Laryngeopharynx

Trachea Left lung Right Lung Primary bronchus
Initial _______
C. How many lobes does each lung have?
________________________________________________________________________
D. Why are the right and left lungs slightly different in shape?
_____________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
80
Activity 2: Digestive system

A. Label the components of the digestive system in the diagram below.
B. Starting from the pyloric sphincter of the stomach, list the 3 divisions of the small intestine.
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
C. Starting from the Ileocecal valve, list the 4 divisions of the large intestine.
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
D. What is the functional difference between the small and the large intestine?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
81
E. Abdominopelvic quadrants are used by health professionals to localise a potential internal pathology to
a smaller region of surface anatomy. The abdomen is divided into four quadrants to describe the site of
abdominopelvic pain: Right upper quadrant (RUQ), Left upper quadrant (LUQ), Right lower quadrant
(RLQ), and Left lower quadrant (LLQ). In the table below, list which organs can be found in each
quadrant.
RUQ LUQ
RLQ LLQ
F. Appendicitis occurs when the appendix becomes inflamed, and if untreated can cause the appendix to
burst and lead to further infection. Using your acquired knowledge, identify which abdominopelvic
quadrant would be causing pain in a patient with appendicitis.
______________________________________________________________________________
82
Activity 3: Urinary system
A. Answer the following questions to understand the components of the urinary system.
What is the name of the organ where urine is produced?

_______________________________________________________________________________
What is the name of the organ that allows urine to pass from the above answer to the bladder?
_______________________________________________________________________________
What is the name of the structure that connects from the bladder to allow us to voluntarily expel
urine?
_______________________________________________________________________________
B. Sketch a cross section of the kidney below and label these structures below on your diagram.
Minor Calyces Major Calyces Renal Medulla Renal Cortex Hilum
Renal Pyramids Ureter
83
C. Now that you are familiar with the general structural anatomy of the kidney, answer the following
questions.
What is the name of the functional unit of the kidney?

_______________________________________________________________________________
What are the two main components that make up this unit?
_______________________________________________________________________________
What are the main functions of this unit?

____________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
84
Activity 4: Reproductive system
A. Complete the following activities and questions on the male reproductive system.
On the model locate the following structures. Check when identified.
o Testes o Epididymis o Vas deferens o Scrotum o Glans penis
What is the pathway of sperm from development to ejaculation? Name the major organs in
correct order.
_______________________________________________________________
There are two muscles in the scrotum. One is the dartos muscle (also known
as the dartos fascia). What is the other muscle?
__________________________________________________________
What are the functions of these two muscles of the scrotum?
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
A common injury that occurs in male adolescents and young adults is

testicular torsion. Ask a tutor to show your group the anatomy of this condition
before moving to the female models.
B. Complete the following activities and questions on the female reproductive system.
On the model locate the following structures. Check when identified.
o Uterus o Fallopian (uterine) tubes o Ovaries o Cervix o Vaginal canal
The reproductive model at your station will have three stickers labelled A-C.
These represent the layers of the uterus. Name these layers from A-C.
_______________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
On your Anatomage model, try to explore and find the presence of an abnormal
structure growing in your cadaver model. What is the abnormality that is present?
__________________________________________________________
Ask a tutor to demonstrate to your group the significance of this diagnoses,
and explain its anatomy relative to the layers of the uterus.
85
Name ________________________________
Day/Date ______________/__________________
Time ________________________________
Partner 1 ________________________________
Partner 2 ________________________________
Partner 3 ________________________________
Partner 4 ________________________________
Pre -lab
Activity 1 Respiratory system
Activity 2 Digestive system
Activity 3 Urinary system
Activity 4 Reproductive system
Complete
Tutor Name _____________________________________________
Tutor Signature _____________________________________________
Date __________________
86
87
88

Respiration, Polygraph, & Nutrition
AIMS:
The third physiology laboratory tutorial is examining two topics – respiration and nutrition. There
are three main aims of the laboratory tutorial
1. To assess respiratory function via spirometry

2. To record signals from two organ systems (respiratory & cardiovascular) simultaneously
(polygraph) & analyse the data.
3. To understand information presented in nutritional panels on food packaging.
Background:
Pulmonary Ventilation
It should come as no surprise that breathing is important for sustaining life. What is less intuitive are
the mechanics underpinning this essential function, but also how pulmonary ventilation (inflow & outflow of
air between the external atmosphere & our lungs alveoli) can be assessed.
The respiratory system can be divided into upper and lower portions (See Figure 1). The upper
respiratory system (URS) consists of the nose, nasal cavity, paranasal sinuses, as well as pharynx (naso, oro-,
& laryngopharynx). The lower respiratory system (LRS) is comprised of the larynx (voice box), trachea
(windpipe), bronchi, bronchioles, and alveoli. Alternatively, we can divide the respiratory system into
functional zones. The first zone, the conducting zone, is comprised of the passageways that deliver air from
outside into the lungs. These include the nose, nasal cavity, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, and large
bronchioles. The respiratory zone contains the smallest bronchioles as well as the alveoli, or air sacs –
essentially where gas exchange between inhaled air and blood occurs.
Figure 1. Overview of the Respiratory System. From Martini (2015).

Fundamentals of Anatomy & Physiology (10th Ed.). Pearson.
89
Pulmonary ventilation occurs in two phases – inhalation and exhalation. During inhalation a skeletal
muscle known as the diaphragm contracts increasing the volume of the thoracic cavity. The external
intercostal muscles may also assist with inhalation, as their contraction raises/elevates the ribcage thereby
increasing the volume of the thoracic cavity. Increasing the volume of the thoracic cavity decompresses the
lungs, thereby lowering the pressure within the lungs. When the pressure in the lungs is lower than the
pressure in the outside atmosphere, air will flow from the outside atmosphere into the lungs (air moves from
environments of high to low pressure).
During exhalation, the volume of the thoracic cavity is reduced. This can be a passive process whereby
the diaphragm relaxes and returns to its original position. During more forceful exhalation, contraction of
other accessory muscles can assist in compressing the thoracic cavity. Either way, the thoracic cavity is
compressed, thereby compressing the lungs, increasing air pressure. Air then moves from the high-pressure
environment (i.e., the lungs) to the external atmosphere, where pressure is lower. For an overview of the
skeletal muscles involved in respiration, as well as their contributions to inhalation and exhalation, see Figures
2 and 3.
Figure 2. Overview of
Skeletal Muscles Involved
with Respiration. From
Martini (2015).
Fundamentals of
Anatomy & Physiology
(10th Ed.). Pearson.
Figure 3. Overview of Skeletal Muscle Action During Inhalation & Exhalation. From Martini (2015). Fundamentals of Anatomy &
Physiology (10th Ed.). Pearson.
90
The extent to which we are able to inhale or exhale the ‘normal’ volume of air expected for someone
of our biological sex, age, and body composition can be measured via spirometry using a device known as a
spirometer (See Figure 4). Using spirometry, we can assess the volume of air breathed in and out during
normal breathing but also during forced, that is effortful, breathing. Spirometry also provides useful
information as to the speed with which air is inhaled and exhaled. The rate of respiration (that is, how
frequently we breathe) can also be measured.
Figure 4. SpiroPro Spirometer. From Baldwin et al. (2010).

Respiratory Care, 55 (4), 443-452
The results of spirometry can be used to help diagnose problems with respiration. There are a number
of useful measures of respiratory volume (note that not all of these are measurable using spirometry).
However, in sometimes is it useful to consider respiratory capacities, that is, combinations of different volume
measures. Different volume and capacity measures and their definitions are given below (see Figure 5 to see
how these volumes & capacities relate to each other during the respiratory cycle).
Figure 5. Pulmonary Volumes & Capacities. From Martini (2015). Fundamentals of Anatomy & Physiology (10th Ed.). Pearson.
Pulmonary Volumes:
1. Tidal Volume (VT) – amount of air inhaled or exhaled with each normal breath.
91
2. Inspiratory Reserve Volume (IRV) – the volume of air that can be inspired over and above the
tidal inspiration.
3. Expiratory Reserve Volume (ERV) – the maximum volume of air that can be expired by forceful
expiration after a normal tidal expiration.
4. Residual Volume – the volume of air remaining in the lungs after a maximal expiration.
Pulmonary Capacities:
1. Vital Capacity (VC) – the amount of air that can be maximally expired after a maximal inspiration
(IRV + VT + ERV)
2. Inspiratory Capacity (IC) – the maximum amount of air a person in inhale after a normal
expiration (VT + IRV)
3. Functional Residual Capacity (FRC) – The volume of air that remains in the lungs at the end of a
normal expiration (ERV + RV)
4. Total Lung Capacity (TLC) – the maximum volume of air the lungs can hold following maximal
inhalation (VC + RV)
Spirometry is considered the foundation for testing of pulmonary ventilation4. This method can be
used in the diagnosis of obstructive breathing disorders, that is, difficulty exhaling leading to shortness of
breath. The major obstructive disorders are asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disorder (COPD).
Of the various results available using spirometry, abnormal results for FEV1 and the FEV1/FVC ratio
are indicative of obstructive disorders such as those listed earlier. FEV (forced expiratory volume) is the total
volume of air you can exhale during a maximal effort, so FEV1 represents the volume of air exhaled in the first
one second of that maximal effort. The FVC (forced vital capacity) is the volume of air that can be forcefully
and maximally exhaled after a maximal inhalation (this is different from slow vital capacity, whereby
exhalation is intentionally slow; normally they are the same, but in obstructive conditions the SVC > FVC). FVC
may be reduced in obstructive conditions, but not to the same extent at FEV1. The FEV1/FVC ratio indicates
the proportion of the total volume of air exhaled occuring within the first one second. The FEV1/FVC ratio
should normally be in the order of 0.75 – 0.80 (75 – 80 %)5 though this may be reduced in older adults.
Conversely, restrictive disorders are characterised by reduced FVC, but normal FEV1/FVC ratio (amongst other
important distinctions. Additional tests will also be performed for diagnosis this type of condition).
In the lab, we will practice spirometry using the Powerlab equipment with the spirometry setup in the
Labchart software (Note: we are not diagnosing or attempting to diagnose a breathing disorder. Your results
may appear abnormal in the lab – due to a number of reasons, particularly methodological one, and therefore
do not necessarily represent evidence of a respiratory condition).
The Polygraph
You may have likely heard of the polygraph before – it is sometime called the ‘lie detector’. This is
misleading term. The term ‘polygraph’ really just means ‘multiple recordings at once’ (poly meaning ‘much’
& graphos meaning ‘writing’). These can be biological signals such as respiration (e.g., respiratory rate),
galvanic skin response (a measure of the electrical conductivity of your skin; if you are sweating, your skin
becomes more conductive), blood pressure, and pulse. The theory is that if you are being deceptive there will
be tell-tale signs in these measures. But really all these measures reflect are changes in the participants level
4
For an informative book chapter on spirometry, what different measures of pulmonary function represent, & how this method can be used in the
diagnosis of a number of different respiratory disorders see Altalag, A., et al. (2019). Spirometry. In A. Altalag, A. et al. (2nd Ed.). Pulmonary Function
Tests in Clinical Practice. (pp. 1 – 40). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-93650-5.
5
From https://www.racgp.org.au/download/documents/AFP/2011/April/201104paraskeva.pdf
92
of arousal (e.g., if aroused, you will likely experience increased breathing rate, blood pressure, heart rate, and
skin conductivity). The American Psychological Association (APA) provides a useful and informative discussion
of the ‘polygraph’ or ‘lie detector’6. We will be performing a polygraph in class, though not for the purposes
of ‘lie detection’.
We will be examining four different measures in this activity. Most of these (e.g., the ECG, heart
sounds, & thumb pulse) have been covered in the previous laboratory tutorial (P2) so we won’t discuss them
again here. What you have not done before is measure respiration using a pneumotrace band (See Figure 6).
This band wraps around the participants thoracic cavity (at the level of the diaphragm, at the base of the
sternum). When the thoracic cavity expands during inhalation, this stretches the band, causing positive
voltage deflection (i.e., rise) on Labchart. When during exhalation, when the thoracic cavity decreases in
volume, the band relaxes, and the signal on Labchart demonstrates a negative voltage deflection (i.e., goes
down). See Figure 6. In this experiment we will also use a special microphone, to detect heart sounds (instead
of the stethoscope). This generates a signal called a phonocardiogram with heart sounds being represented
as distinct waves in the signal. See Figure 7.
Figure 7. Example Phonocardiogram Recorded in our Laboratory.
Figure 6. Pneumotrace Band (Left) & Cardiac

Microphone (Right)
In our polygraph experiment, we are going to examine something known as the respiratory sinus
arrhythmia (RSA)7. An arrhythmia is an abnormal or irregular heartbeat. However, it should be noted that
the RSA is a normal occurrence. Although heart rate is modulated by the SA node (see P2 notes on the ECG),
heart rate can be further influenced via stimulation from the vagus nerve (sympathetic & parasympathetic
nervous systems effects are also relevant, but let’s not over complicate this right now). When we inhale, there
is less vagus nerve stimulation of the SA node fibres (see P2 notes). This makes the fibres of the SA node more
likely to depolarise, and therefore create the action potential that causes heart muscle contraction. Thus,
during inhalation, there will be a shorted R-R interval between consecutive ECG rhythms (i.e., increased heart
rate). However, during exhalation there is maximal vagus nerve stimulation. This causes the fibres in the SA
node to be hyperpolarised (i.e., less likely to be depolarised & therefor create an action potential) leading to
an increased R-R interval between consecutive ECG rhythms (i.e., lowered heart rate). It has been suggested
that the signals from the respiratory control centre of the brain may ‘spillover’ into the nearby vasomotor
control centre, thereby influencing the number of impulses directed to the heart via the vagus nerve. For an
illustration of the RSA see Figure 8.
See https://www.apa.org/research/action/polygraph
7
A helpful reference could be Yasuma, F., & Hayano, J.H. (2004). Respiratory Sinus Arrythmia: Why Does the Heartbeat Synchronize
With Respiratory Rhythm? Chest, 125, 683-690.
93
Figure 8. Respiratory Sinus Arrythmia (RSA). From Goldberger (2018). Goldberger’s Clinical Electrocardiography (9th Ed.). Elsevier.
In the lab we will perform a polygraph assessing several measuring of cardiovascular function, namely
pulse, ECG, and heart sounds whilst also recording respiratory action using the pneumotrace band. We will
then perform some basic analyses to examine the respiratory sinus arrythmia.
Nutrition & Nutrition Panels
Nutrition is defined by the World Health Organisation (WHO) as the intake of food, considered in
relation to the body’s dietary needs. When we think about the “body’s dietary needs” we quickly realise that
this can mean quite a lot of different things. For example, we may note the average amount of energy or
kilojoules (kj; 1 Calorie = 4.2 Kj) required by adults about 8,700 per day. However, the average male and
female will differ in their daily Kj requirements (males typically require more due to increased muscle mass
on average). Likewise, adults varying in daily physical activity levels will require different Kj intake (the more
active you are, the higher your daily Kj requirement will be).
Nutritional intake starts to become more complicated when we start thinking about macronutrients
(i.e., protein, fats, & carbohydrates) and what proportion of each we should be eating to meet our daily
energy requirements. Each of these macronutrients has a different energy density, that is amount of kj
delivered per one gram of that macronutrient. It becomes even more complicated when we start thinking
about micronutrients (e.g., vitamins, minerals) where daily intake may vary between adults due to differences
in age, sex, health conditions, dietary deficiencies/insufficiencies or even certain the medications consumed
on a regular basis.
There are a number of different ways in which we can determine the nutritional value of the foods
we eat. A simple one is to examine the nutritional panels on food packaging (In Australia, the presence of
these info panels on all packaged foods is required by law). In the panel will be an identification of how many
serves this package contains, the nutritional breakdown (at least a cursory breakdown of macronutrients) of
a single serve. The is also a breakdown for a 100 gram (or 100 ml) serve (this is so you can compare the
nutritional composition of like foods). An example of a nutritional panel is given in Figure 9. For fresh foods
or foods, you have cooked yourself, you could use an online food diary such as that one at myfitnesspal.com.
Here you can add the foods you have consumed, in the volume you consumed them for each meal (or snack)
and you will be presented with the total energy and nutrient contribution (macro- & micronutrient) of your
meal. Online resources such as these can be very useful as it can take a lot of the work out of tracking the
foods/drink you consume daily. See Figure 10.
94
Figure 9. Understanding a Nutrition Panel. From www.healthdirect.gov.au/how-to-read-food-labels
Figure 10. Example Breakfast Food Diary Entry on Myfitnesspal.com.
In the lab, we will examine the nutritional information panels on a number of food products.
95
Activity 1. Respiration
1. Match the following acronyms with their correct definition.
VT VC RV FEV1 TLC ERV
FEV1/FVC IRV IRC VE
A. The total volume of your lungs.

B. The amount of air you can expel after a normal respiratory cycle.
C. The amount of air you can move into your lungs after you have completed a quiet
respiratory cycle.
D. The volume of air exhaled in the first second of a maximal effort exhalation.
E. The amount of air that you move into and out of your lungs during a single respiratory
cycle.
F. The amount of air you can take into your lungs over and above the tidal volume.
G. The amount of air that remains in your lungs after a maximal exhalation.
H. The maximum amount of air you can move into and out of your lungs during a single
respiratory cycle.
I. The volume of air breather in each minute.
J. A ratio describing the proportion of the forced vital capacity expired in the first one second of a
maximal expiration.
2. What is the name of the skeletal muscle primarily driving inhalation?

______________________________________________________________________________
3. Why is it that compressing the thoracic cavity causes us to exhale?

____________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
Activity 2. The Polygraph
1. In the phonocardiogram, what biological action is causing the periodic frequency ‘burst’ in the signal?
___________________________________________________________________________________
2. Describe how the respiratory sinus arrythmia would appear in an ECG.

_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
3. Describe the relationship between the R-R interval and heart rate in beats per minute.
______________________________________________________________________________
Activity 3. Nutrition
1. Which of the following is more energy dense – 20 g Fat, 35 g Alcohol, or 40 g Protein?

_______________________________________________________________________________
2. List three factors that would inform the recommended daily intake of Kj to maintain body weight.
_______________________________________________________________________________
96
Methods
Activity 1. Respiration
Setup
1. Determine who in the group will be the participant. They should not have a condition whereby they
experience difficulty breathing (asthma or a current cold). Make sure the participant is sitting comfortably.
2. The participant should hold the spirometer pod (see Figure 11) so that the side of the pod with arrow if
point towards them (the tubes should be directed towards the ceiling). Attach the sterile mouthpiece over
the end of the pod. Attach the nose clip to the soft part of your nose (this ensure that all air breathed in
& out will occur via the mouth & therefore be registered with the equipment).
3. Press ‘Start’ on LabChart. You will need to ‘zero’ the system initially. Right click the Red ‘Flow’ drop down
menu (top right corner) and select ‘bioamplifier’. Then click the ‘zero’ button. Press OK and return to the
main screen.
4. When LabChart is recording, the participant should insert the mouthpiece into their mouth. They should
try to make a seal with their lips around the mouthpiece to ensure that no air ‘leaks’ whilst breathing
through the mouthpiece.
Figure 11. Spirometer Pod used with LabChart.
Data Collection
Resting Breathing
1. Complete at least one minute of normal tidal breathing through the mouthpiece.
2. Complete a forced, maximal breath. Inhale as much as you physically can, then breathe out as much as
you can as quickly as you can. It may have several practice attempts to become acclimatised to this
procedure. Make sure you are ‘rested’ when you perform the actual measurement.
Post Physical Activity

1. Press ‘Stop’ to end the recording with LabChart. The participants should remove their spirometer pod
from their mouth and rest it on the table. They should remove their nose clip and leave it on the table
with the spirometer pod.
2. The participant will walk to the bottom of the CH building and then back to the lab. This amount of stair
walking should be sufficient to see a change in your breathing using spirometry.
97
3. Once the participant has returned, press start on LabChart. The participant will then reinsert the
spirometer mouthpiece and apply the nose clip. Record one minute of tidal breathing (you do not need
to do the maximal breath again).
Data Analysis
Tidal Breathing
1. Click on the LabChart window (channel 1 with flow speed, or channel 2 with flow volume – it does not
matter) and drag to highlight the entire normal tidal breathing (do not include the forced breathing
record). Make sure you have highlighted the entire signal.
2. In the tool panel in LabChart click the spirometry report icon (see Figure 12) to generate your tidal
breathing results.
3. Repeat for the post physical activity tidal breathing signal.
Forced Breathing
1. Click on Click on the LabChart window (channel 1 with flow speed, or channel 2 with flow volume – it does
not matter) to highlight the signal recording for the forced breath you wish to analyse. Try the following
analyses (See Figure 12).
a. Click the ‘Spirometry Data Window’ icon – to gain the flow and volume traces (these will
look different from the ‘raw’ data you normally see).
b. Click ‘Flow-Volume Plot’ – to gain the flow/volume plot showing inhalation/exhalation
volumes over time
c. Click ‘Report’ icon – to gain quantitative results
Figure . LabChart Tool Panel for Spirometry Analysis.
Setup
1. Wrap the pneumotrace band around the participants chest (at the bottom or, or just below the
sternum). It should be snug, but not too tight (basically it should not slip down).
2. Slip the cardiac microphone under the pneumotrace band. For the best results it should be applied to
bare skin (i.e., under clothing) and at about the location used to hear the mitral valve ‘lub’ heart sound
(see Stethoscope heart sounds in P2).
3. Prepare the necessary electrode attachment sites & attach the three electrodes for recording the ECG
(See the ECG notes in P2).
4. Attach the pressure transducer to the participants thumb to record peripheral pulse (see ECG notes in
P2).
5. The participant should be sitting comfortable with their arms resting on the table (remember, this is to
ensure minimal EMG artefact contaminating the ECG).
98
BIO10004 – Semester 1 Data Collection
1. Ensure you have the ‘Polygraph’ setup file open. Press ‘Start’ on LabChart to begin recording.
2. The participant should perform some quiet breathing to begin with. After about a minute, instruct that
participant to begin a maximal but slow inhalation, followed by a maximal but slow exhalation (press
‘enter’ on the keyboard when they start inhaling, finish inhaling and when they finish exhaling). Once
complete you can press ‘stop’ on labchart.
Data Analysis
1. Adjust the time course resolution (i.e., the small & large ‘mountain’ in the bottom right corner to either
condense or expand the time scale, respectively) as well as the voltage resolution (the ‘-‘ & ‘+’ buttons
on the left of each channel in the labchart window) so that you can easily contrast the signals for the
pneumotrace band (i.e., channel 1) and the ECG (i.e., channel 4).
2. During the inhalation phase of the maximal breathing cycle, calculate the mean R-R interval of at least
three consecutive ECG rhythms (this will give you two R-R intervals), ideally towards the end of
inhalation. Repeat during the exhalation phase. Calculate heart rate (HR = 60 / R-R).
Activity 3. Nutrition & Nutrition Panels.
1. From the food packaging provided, select two similar products (ideally ones you are not familiar with),
e.g., cereal. Examine the nutrition panels of these foods/drink, recording total energy (kj), as well as
total protein, carbohydrate, and fat per serve, but also per 100g/100ml of the product.
Figure 13. Energy Density (kj) Per 1-gram Macronutrient
99
Results
Activity 1. Spirometry
Table 1. Resting Tidal & Post Physical Activity Tidal Breathing.
Measure Rest Post Physical Activity

Breathing Frequency
Tidal Volume
Minute (Epoch) Volume
Table 2. Maximal/Forced Breathing

Measure Forced Breath # 1 Forced Breath # 2
Peak Inspiratory Flow (L/s)
Peak Expiratory Flow (L/s)
FEV1
FVC
FEV1 /FVC Ratio (as %)
Sketch of Phonocardiogram in Relation to the ECG
Action in the Heart Causing ‘Pulsation’ Signal in Phonocardiogram: __________________________
Sketch of Pneumotrace Signal in Relation to the ECG (Show the respiratory sinus arrythmia)
100
Estimated Heart Rate (Across 1 Complete Respiratory Cycle): ____________________________
Mean R-R Interval During Max Inhalation: ________________________

Mean Heart Rate during Max Inhalation: ________________________
Mean R-R Interval During Max Exhalation: ________________________

Mean Heart Rate during Max Exhalation: ________________________
Activity 3. Nutrition & Nutrition Panels
Table 3. Nutritional Information for Food Product 1.
Name: Per Serve Per 100g/100ml

Total Energy (kj) _________ kj _________ kj
Total Protein ______g / _______ kj ______g / _______ kj
Total Fat ______g / _______ kj ______g / _______ kj
Total Carbohydrate ______g / _______ kj ______g / _______ kj
Total Sodium
Table 4. Nutritional Information for Food Product 2.
Name: Per Serve Per 100g/100ml

Total Energy (kj) _________ kj _________ kj
Total Protein ______g / _______ kj ______g / _______ kj
Total Fat ______g / _______ kj ______g / _______ kj
Total Carbohydrate ______g / _______ kj ______g / _______ kj
Total Sodium
101
Discussion
Activity 1. Spirometry
1. Was the participants FVC similar to their estimated VC, based on biological sex, height, and age (See
print out in class)? Explain.
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
2. Why do breathing rate and tidal volume (subsequently minute volume) increase following physical
activity?
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
3. In a healthy adult, what would be the most likely factor contributing to a low FEV1/FVC ratio?
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
4. The FEV1/FVC ratio can be used to help diagnose an obstructive breathing disorder. In a person with
such a condition, how might this ratio appear?
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
5. What is the difference between an obstructive breathing conditions and a restrictive breathing
condition? How can the FEV1/FVC ratio help distinguish these?
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
Activity 2. The Polygraph.
1. What is the relationship between the ECG and the ‘pulsations’ in the phonocardiogram?
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
2. What is the relationship between the ECG and the signal from the pressure transducer on the thumb?
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
3. What is the RSA? Was it evident in the data you collected?

_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
4. During controlled breathing exercise for helping lower stress/anxiety, a patient will typically inhale
deeply, hold their breath, then exhale as deeply as possible but for as long as they can. How does this
help minimise the physical symptoms of stress/anxiety?
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
102
Activity 3. Nutrition and Nutrition Panels.
1. If you are deciding which of two similar products to purchase (e.g., Coco Pops or Weet-bix) based upon
nutrition content, what information would you use in these products’ nutrition panels? Why?
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
2. Sometime nutritional panels have the acronym RDI against certain nutrients (e.g., vitamins). What does
RDI mean? What are two factors that could influence someones RDI for a given nutrient?
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
1. Comparing two similar products (in this case beverages) based on limited information such as kilojoule or
calorie content is not always the best way to determine which product is ‘healthier’. A 300ml glass of
Coca-Cola provides 469 kilojoules (112 calories) whereas a 300ml glass of milk (whole milk) provides 828
kilojoules (198 calories).
List 4 macronutrients that milk provides that Coca-Cola does not.

_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
103
Name ________________________________
Day/Date ______________/__________________
Time ________________________________
Partner 1 ________________________________
Partner 2 ________________________________
Partner 3 ________________________________
Partner 4 ________________________________
Pre-Lab Homework
Activity 1 Spitometry
Activity 2 The Polygraph
Activity 3 Nutrition
Tutor Name _____________________________________________
Tutor Signature _____________________________________________
Date __________________
104
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Anatomy and Physiology Practical Manual

BIO10004 Anatomy and Physiology 2023 SEM 1

Dr. Ali Al-Rubaie

Anatomy Laboratory Tutorial 1 (A1):

Synovial joints are further classified into groups based on

A description of each of these six joints is presented in the table below.

Frontal/Coronal Plane Transverse Plane Sagittal Plane

Divides the body into top and bottom sections

Activity 3: Integumentary System

B. Choose one of these joints in the human body:

Elbow Shoulder Hip

What movement is facilitated at this joint?

B. List the 3 types of muscle tissue in the body.

Laboratory Sessions: Activities, Results and Discussion

Activity 1: Anatomical Terminology.

Proximal Medial Inferior Lateral Posterior

Term Definition Example

Activity 2: Systems of the Human Body.

Activity 3: Cells, Tissues and the Integument

B. Label the following parts of a neural cell on the image below.

Cell body Nucleus Axon Axon hillock Dendrites

C. In your groups, answer the following questions about the skin:

1. How many layers make up the skin? __________________________________________

D. In your groups, label the image below.

Activity 4: Joints and the Skeletal System

Name of bone Type of bone

Synovial joint type Example of joint in the body

Activity 5: Movement and Muscles

Flexion Supination Depression

Extension Pronation Elevation

• Rectus Femoris muscle: _________________________________________________

Activity 1 Anatomical Terms

Activity 2 Organ Systems

Activity 3 Cells, Tissues, Integument

Activity 4 Joints, Skeletal System

Activity 5 Movement and Muscles

Student Signature _____________________________________________

Tutor Name _____________________________________________

Tutor Signature _____________________________________________

Physiology Laboratory Tutorial 1 (P1):

1. Investigate the effect of molecular size on the rate of diffusion.

Diffusion & Osmosis

Figure 3. Mechanisms of Heat Transfer. From Martini et al.

Figure 4. Homeostatic Control of Body Temperature. Source unknown.

Eye Movement: The electro Oculogram (EOG)

Description of relationship for Temperature

1. How is osmosis different from regular diffusion?

Activity 3. Body Temperature & Temperature Control

1. Why does surface temperature vary across the body?

Activity 4. The Electrooculogram (EOG)

1. What is the name of the potential we are measuring using electrooculography?

Figure 7. Previous Baselines for MB and PP.

Figure 6. Diffusion Experimental Setup.

Figure 8. Osmosis Experimental Setup.

Activity 3. Body Temperature & Temperature Control

The Infrared Thermometer

The Infrared (Thermal) Camera

Figure 10. Infrared (Thermal) Camera.

Figure 9. Infrared Thermometer.

Activity 4. Electrooculography & the EOG

Task 1. Preparation of skin for electrode attachment

Figure 13. Lead Setup & Input to Powerlab for EOG.

Task 3. Shifting Gaze to Follow a Swinging Pendulum (Smooth Pursuit Movement)

Figure 15. Smooth Pursuit Movement (‘+’ at Left, ‘-‘ at Right)

9. 10. ___

11. _ 12. _____