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• Introduction
• General model
• Static transfer
• Dynamic transfer
What are the important parameters of a
measurement system?
Force sensor sensitivity
Resistance R
120
Temperature T
12 N Force F
Force sensor
• Influence of the force (measured Resistance R
quantity) on the sensor output:
R K
a
F 125
R Y
120
F
Y
Y T, Y 0.26103 /C (steel)
Y T
Material’s stiffness (Young’s modulus of
the steel bar) changes with the
temperature:
modified slope
xi – interfering input
– adds an offset
xm – modifying input
– changes the slope (sensitivity)
y – measured quantity
General model
xi Fi
xd – desired quantity
xi – interfering input
General model
x
Examples
• Temperature and a strain gauge
V
Uout
Static transfer characteristics
• Acquisition of static transfer • Components of the static
characteristics: transfer characteristics:
‐ All the inputs are kept Range
constant, except for one which Sensitivity
is varied stepwise (static Offset
calibration) Drift
‐ Measure the output after all Linearity
the transients have Hysteresis
disappeared Repeatability
‐ This is called static calibration Resolution
xd Fd mF d
Threshold
Stability
xm y
xi Fi mFi
Measurement range
• Input range (input span): the interval within which the input
values can vary
Range xmax xmin
Calibration curve k
S’
S
y y
non‐linear
linear
x xo x’o x
dy
Sensitivity S
dx x x 0
Offset
x F y
Full scale
y max
2Sxmax (% of the FS)
x
Full scale
y yo S x (1Sx or 2Sxmax )
Measuring Systems whichever is bigger
Reference line – least squares fit
• Assume
ye ax b
(x3, y 3)
• Minimize total distance ye ax b
N
(x1, y1)
D yi axi b
2
i1
D D
0, 0 (x2, y2)
a b
N N N N N N N
i i N i i N
1 1 1
x y x y i i x 2
N i1 i1
y x x y
i i i
a i1 i1 i1
2
b y ax i1 i1
2
1 N 1 N
N N
xi N xi
2
x N xi
2
i
i1 i1 i1 i1
Example of linearity
Actual response
Idealised response
xmax
Linearity (%)
FS
Hysteresis
• Response depends on history xmax
Hysteresis (%)
‐ Magnetic polarisation FS
‐ Piezoelectric polarisation
‐ Friction y
2ymax x
2xmax
FS
Example: pressure sensor datasheet
FS
FS
x
Stability
• The ability to maintain a response y for a constant x and during
a given time period
• Probable error
Errorprobable i
x 2
x resolution
• Threshold – resolution at the origin (input = 0)
Resolution at
x the origin
Transfer characteristics of conditioning circuits
Noise
Sensor Conditioning reduction Acquisition
and signal
processing
Example: voltage divider
Rs
U out U 0
Rs R
Rs Rs
U out U out U 0
Rs Rs R
Rs Rs 1
U 0
Rs R 1 Rs
Rs R
For Rs R Rs
Rs Rs Rs
U out U out U 0 1 Linear with Rs
Rs R Rs R
Rs
Max sensitivity for R = R s. In that case U out U 0
4R
Example: Wheatstone bridge
1 R
U out U 0 U0
2 2R R
R
U0
R
4(R )
2
R
U0
4R
extension l / l 0
compression l / l 0
gauge
Deformation of the Resistance change Voltage drop
Force F
test object of the gauge in the circuit
l F R l U R
K I
l A Y R l U R
Wheatstone bridge – sensitivity optimisation
R
U out U0
2R
R
U out U0
4R
R R
U out U U out U0
R 0 2R