USING GREEN TECHNOLOGY TO MAKE

SANITARY PADS

A PROJECT REPORT

Submitted by

KAUSHIKI BHATTACHARYA,21BBE1187

SUKANYA DAS ,21BBE1197

SIDDHARTH CHAWLA,21BBE1149

AYUSHI SINGH,21BBE1169

KHUSHI TYAGI ,21BBE1027

in partial fulfilment for the award of the degree of

BACHELOR’S OF ENGINEERING

IN

BIOTECHNOLOGY

Chandigarh University

MAY 2023

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 BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE

Certified that this project report “USING GREEN TECHNOLOGY

TO MAKE SANITARY PADS.” is the bonafide work of “ Kaushiki
Bhattacharya, Sukanya Das, Ayushi Singh, Khushi Tyagi,
Siddharth Chawla” who carried out the project work under Dr Md.
Azizur Rahman’s supervision.

SIGNATURE SIGNATURE

Dr. Vinay Dwivedi Dr. Md. Azizur Rahman

HEAD OF THE DEPARTMENT SUPERVISOR

Assistant Professor
Biotechnology Engineering Biotechnology Engineering

Submitted for the project viva-voce examination held on

INTERNAL EXAMINER EXTERNAL EXAMINER

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I appreciate having the opportunity to work on this project with everyone

involved. I would like to express my profound gratitude to Professor Dr
Vinay Dwivedi (HOD) of the Biotechnology Engineering Department at
Chandigarh University.
I would like to express my profound gratitude to our project mentor, Dr. Md
Azizur Rahman of the Biotechnology Engineering Department at
Chandigarh University. His sense of dedication has been a constant support
for us. Each member of my coursework committee has given me a great deal
of professional and personal advice and has taught me a lot about life in
general and scientific study.
Lastly, we would like to thank the Department of Biotechnology
Engineering and Food Technology, Gharuan, Mohali, Punjab for granting
me

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

List of Figures ............................................................................................................................. 7

List of Tables .............................................................................................................................. 8

CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION

• Identification of Client/ Need/ Relevant Contemporary Issue ....................................... 11

• Identification of Problem ............................................................................................... 15

• Identification of Tasks .................................................................................................... 18

• Timeline ......................................................................................................................... 19

CHAPTER 2. LITERATURE REVIEW/BACKGROUND STUDY

• Timeline of the reported problem................................................................................... 20

• Existing solutions ........................................................................................................... 20

• Bibliometric analysis ...................................................................................................... 24

• Review Summary ........................................................................................................... 30

• Problem Definition ......................................................................................................... 36

• Goals/Objectives ............................................................................................................ 36

CHAPTER 3. ............................................................... DESIGN FLOW/PROCESS

• Evaluation & Selection of Specifications/Features ........................................................ 37

• Design Constraints ......................................................................................................... 37

• Analysis of Features and finalization Subject to constraints .......................................... 40

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 • Design Flow ................................................................................................................... 46

• Design selection ............................................................................................................. 47

CHAPTER 4. RESULTS ANALYSIS AND VALIDATION

4.1. Implementation of Solution ............................................................................................ 48

CHAPTER 5. CONCLUSION AND FUTURE WORK

• Conclusion ...................................................................................................................... 57

• Future work .................................................................................................................... 57

REFERENCES........................................................................................................ 58

APPENDIX ...............................................................................................................59

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LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1.1…………………………………………………………….…………….11

Figure 1.2 …………………….…………………………………….……………...12

Figure 1.3…………………….………………………………………………….….14

Figure 1.4 …………………….………………………………………………...….17

Figure 2.1…………………………………………………………………………...20

Figure 2.2 …………………………….…………………………………………….21

Figure 2.3…………………………………………………………………………...22

Figure 2.4 ………………………………………………………………………….23

Figure 2.5 ………………………………………………………………………….24

Figure 2.6 …………………………………………………………………….…….26

Figure 2.7 …………………………………………………………………….…….35

Figure 2.8 …………………………………………………………………….…….36

Figure 3.1……………………………………………………………………….….41

Figure 3.2 ……………………………………………………………………….….42

Figure3.3…………………………………………………………...……………….43

Figure3.4 ……………………………………………………………...…………….44

Figure3.5 ………………………………………………………………...………….46

Figure3.6 ……………………………………………………………………...…….46

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Figure3.7 ……………………………………………………………………...…….47

LIST OF TABLES

Table 3.1 ………………………………………………………………………….45

Table 3.2 ………………………………………………………………………….45

Table 4.1 …………………………………………………………………….……48

Table 4.2 …………………………………………………………………….……53

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ABSTRACT

To provide a sustainable alternative to traditional sanitary products, this research

presents a thorough investigation into the production of biodegradable sanitary
napkins using banana fibres. This study set out to determine whether banana fibres—a
plentiful and accessible agricultural waste—could be used to make sanitary napkins
out of biodegradable materials. The collection and extraction of banana fibres from
discarded pseudo-stems was the first step in the research approach, which was divided
into numerous steps. The absorbency and structural integrity of the sanitary napkins
were subsequently improved by processing and blending these fibres with additional
natural fibres and biodegradable components. To obtain the best possible product
performance, a variety of fabrication methods, such as hot pressing and stacking, were
used. Several experiments were run on the created sanitary napkins to assess their
effectiveness in terms of absorbency, moisture retention, comfort, and
biodegradability. To demonstrate the possible environmental advantages of the
banana fibre-based alternative, comparisons were also made against traditional
synthetic sanitary napkins. The trials' findings showed that the sanitary napkins made
of banana fibre showed remarkable absorbency and moisture retention characteristics.
In addition, user reviews revealed a high degree of comfort and contentment with
product usage. Most notably, the biodegradability tests showed that the sanitary
napkins made of banana fiber had significant potential for quick and complete
disintegration, limiting environmental effects and offering a practical replacement for
the present synthetic choices, this research adds to the expanding field of
environmentally friendly and sustainable sanitary goods. Utilizing banana fibers
provides a biodegradable and environmentally friendly option for feminine hygiene
while also addressing difficulties with agricultural waste management. In conclusion,
the creation of biodegradable sanitary napkins made from banana fibers shows a
promising direction for environmentally friendly menstrual hygiene products. Along
with improving the product's functionality, the use of natural and biodegradable
materials lessens the environmental impact of traditional sanitary napkins. Additional
study and development in this field may result in the commercialization and wide use

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of environmentally friendly sanitary products, creating a greener and healthier future
for everybody.

GRAPHICAL ABSTRACT

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INTRODUCTION

• Identification of Client /Need / Relevant Contemporary Issue

Menstruation is a cyclic bleeding process generally occurring in 9 to 14-year-old

females. It occurs during the span of menarche to menopause in humans.

It is a natural process experienced by half of the world's population, yet it remains a

taboo subject in many societies. Such situations make girls feel ashamed and
embarrassed while speaking about their menstrual health. This causes la ack of
enlightenment on proper menstrual means and menstrual hygiene practices. Often it
leads to girls dropping out of their schools on the days of their menstruation.

Women in rural areas do not have the resource or means for proper menstrual
practices. Lack of access to clean water, sanitary napkins, food supplements, and iron-
based foods mainly because of unavailability and also because of lack of awareness
leads to various kinds of menstrual diseases like UTIs, cervical cancer, Bacterial
vaginosis, Pelvic inflammatory diseases, endometriosis, etc these diseases may be
extremely painful, or can lead to unable to conceive and even death.

One aspect of menstruation that is often overlooked is the impact it has on women's
daily lives, particularly in low-income communities where access to safe menstrual
hygiene products is limited. In such households, access to clean menstrual practices
are unaffordable let alone sanitary napkins. Women resort to using available
household items like unclean pieces of cloth, towels infested with pathogens and even
plant parts etc. which can lead to severe infections.
The lack of access to proper sanitary means is called ‘period poverty’. It causes poor

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health outcomes. To eradicate period poverty, we have to make the pads more
economical so that safe menstrual hygiene management is performed by all.

Due to the stigmas associated with menstruation, many girls may not receive proper
education about menstruation, leading to misconceptions and misinformation.
There are several reasons women avoid using sanitary napkins and stick with
unhealthy and unhygienic means Some can be due to discomfort, some can be due to
ignorance, lack of family support, etc.

FIG 1.1REASON TO AVOID SANITARY NAPKIN USAGE

These are global problems and inequalities exist among the various nations.
To fight these period-related taboos, and misconceptions and eradicate period poverty,
the need arises for easily affordable, environment-friendly and locally sourced
interventions.

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MENSTRUATION:

• Menstruation, is a normal hormone-mediated, cyclic, physiological process

that occurs in females of reproductive age. It is a monthly disposal of the
highly vascularized endometrial lining of the uterus, which is controlled by
hormones and typically lasts from 3 to 7 days.
Menstruation begins when a girl reaches puberty and starts to ovulate, which
means that her ovaries release an egg every month. If the ovum is left
unfertilized by the sperms, the uterus sheds its lining, and the blood and tissue
are expelled through the vagina.
The menstrual cycle is controlled by hormones, like oestrogen and
progesterone, which are secreted by our ovaries. These hormones help to
prepare the uterus for pregnancy. If fertilization is absent and the woman does
not get pregnant, they trigger the shedding of the endometrial lining.
Menstrual bleeding can vary in colour, consistency, and volume. The blood
may be of varied colours, and it may be ranging over a wide variety of
consistencies. The volume of blood can also vary, with most women losing
between 30-80 ml per cycle.

Some women may experience symptoms before or during their periods, such
as cramps, bloating, mood changes, or headaches.
These symptoms are caused by changes in hormone levels and the shedding of
the endometrial lining.
Women need to maintain good menstrual hygiene during their periods by
changing pads or tampons regularly and washing their hands before and after
handling menstrual products.

• It's also important to talk to a healthcare provider if there are any concerns
about menstrual irregularities or symptoms.

Characteristics of menstrual blood can vary from woman to woman, but some

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 general characteristics include:

• Colour: Menstrual blood can be red, brownish, or even black at times. The
colour of menstrual blood can be affected by factors such as the length of the
menstrual cycle, the presence of clots, and the amount of oxygen in the blood.

• Consistency: Menstrual blood can range over a wide range of viscosities and
consistencies. Clots are usually normal and are caused by the breakdown of
the endometrial lining.

• Volume: The average volume of menstrual blood is about 30-80 ml per cycle,
but it can vary widely. Women with heavy menstrual bleeding may lose more
than 80 ml of blood per cycle.

• Odour: Menstrual blood may have a mild odour, which is caused by the
breakdown of blood and tissue in the uterus. However, strong or foul-smelling
odour may indicate an infection or other medical issue.

FIG 1.2 STAGES OF MENSTRUATION

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It's important to note that changes in the characteristics of menstrual blood can
sometimes indicate an underlying health problem. Women should talk to their
healthcare provider if they experience changes in their menstrual cycle or if they have
concerns about their menstrual blood.

SANITARY NAPKINS AND THEIR NEED

Sanitary pads are a necessity for women during their menstrual cycle.
These are feminine products of hygiene that absorbs and retains feminine menstrual
blood. It generally consists of a fluid-absorbing layer that transfers the fluids from the
topmost layer in contact with skin to an absorbent layer. Generally, polypropylene
sheets are used for the top layer. Next to it is present an absorbent layer that absorbs
the fluid and retains stain within itself. It is generally composed of cotton, and pulp. In
certain cases, it might also be incorporated with certain super absorbent polymers that
function in absorbing the fluid and swelling up and retaining the fluid that would
make the top layer day. Next is the impervious bottom layer that prevents the leakage
of the fluid.
With increasing competition and commercialization, companies are turning to making
more cheap pads hence plastic is the easiest resource they rely on.

Sanitary pads are a common hygiene product used by women all over the world.
Unfortunately, traditional sanitary pads are often made from non-biodegradable
materials that contribute to environmental waste. According to a report by the United
Nations Development Program, around 900 million women and girls across the world,
lack access to adequate menstrual hygiene practices, which can have serious health
implications and can also contribute to environmental pollution.

The structure of a sanitary napkin involves:

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FIG 1.3 COMPONENTS OF SANITARY NAPKIN

Taking all the problems into account, we developed a sanitary napkin that would
eliminate a load of human impact on the environment and prove to be safe for
women’s reproductive health. Such can be achieved by trying to develop a
biodegradable sanitary napkin from banana pseudo stem fibres which are otherwise
generated after use. Their disposal is very difficult and takes up a huge amount of
space. If fibres from the following can be extracted and incorporated into the sanitary
napkins it would prove to be beneficial.

They are cost-effective as well as more readily available in rural areas. Not only
would the absorbent core be of organic materials but also our hydrogels which would
be produced from cellulose, biodegradable plastics sourced from poly lactic acid, top
layers, and bottom layers from 100 per cent cotton and the impervious layer to be
manufactured using beeswax.

• Identification of Problem
The various chemicals used in sanitary napkins are dioxins, pesticides,
super absorbent polymers, etc. These chemicals can cause serious health

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problems. These chemicals are toxic to the delicate skin. Such substances
get easily absorbed into the bloodstream via the delicate and easily
absorbing vaginal skin. These toxins circulate throughout the body entering
blood and bloodstream and lymph vessels. The main component of such
pads, plastics also have numerous health implications.

• The use of plastic in sanitary pads can cause skin irritation and allergies.
The plastic used in sanitary pads is typically made of synthetic materials
such as polyethylene, polypropylene, and polyester.
• Plastic sanitary napkins contain BPA which can cause cancer and various
• harmful effects on the reproductive system.
• These chemicals used can cause rashes, itching, and other skin conditions.
Plastics in sanitary pads can cause discomfort and pain.
• Plastic pads tend to be less breathable than other materials, causing heat
and moisture to build up, leading to discomfort, pain, and infections.
Additionally, plastic pads can shift and bunch up, leading to leakage and
further discomfort.
• Additionally, the use of plastic in sanitary pads can cause toxic shock
syndrome (TSS). It's a rare but life-threatening disease that occurs when
bacteria grow on a tampon or pad and release toxins into the bloodstream.
Plastic pads are more likely to trap moisture, creating an environment where
bacteria can thrive and increasing the risk of TSS.
• Plastic in sanitary pads can also affect women's reproductive health. The
use of plastic and other synthetic materials in pads can disrupt the natural
balance of bacteria in the vagina, leading to bacterial vaginosis, yeast
infections, and other reproductive health issues.

The various other chemicals used in sanitary napkins and tampons that get
absorbed into the bloodstream are:

Plasticiser:

• These are basically phthalates like Di(2-ethylhexyl) Phthalate or Di-n-

butyl Phthalate.

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• They help in enhancing the pliability and increasing the flexibility of the
object.
• While menstruating, the sensitive tissues come in direct contact with the
phthalates in
the pads and tampons.

• Their absorption causes endocrine-disrupting health complications like:

1. Precocious puberty
2. Ovulation disorders
3. Preterm birth

Volatile organic compounds:

• These are benzene,1,4 dioxane, styrene, chloroform, etc.
• These generally are added as adhesives
• These can cause damage to the liver and kidney on getting absorbed.

Rayon:
• It is used in the viscous form.
• These can cause Menstrual Shock Syndrome.
• It is caused by a poison released by Staphylococcus aureus.
• These toxins affect the reproductive health, digestive system, and
muscular system.

Fragrances:
• These can cause allergies.
• Can also turn out to be carcinogenic.

Pesticides:
• Cultivation of cotton is performed by paying a large number of peas and
insecticides.
• After repetitive treatment of the cotton, the chemicals don’t leach off but
are rather retained
• These can cause infertility, hormonal dysfunction, depression, anxiety, etc.

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Dioxins and Furans:
• These are the bleaching agents used to make the pads appear white in
colour.
• Chlorine is the major component used to bleach the absorbent layer.
• It gives rise to the formation of dioxin (tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin) and
furans(tetrachlorodibenzofuran) as a by-product .
• These are potential carcinogens
• Health implications it causes are as follows:
1. Infertility
2. Immune system damage
3. Cancers
4. Inflammatory diseases
5. Diabetes
6. Endometriosis (growth of uterine tissue outside the uterus)

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Following are the symptoms of reproductive tract due to wrong sanitary
practices and various chemicals used in plastic-based sanitary napkins:

FIG 1.4 SYMPTOMS OF REPRODUCTIVE TRACT-RELATED ISSUES DUE

TO WRONG SANITARY PRACTICES

Also, the improper disposal of sanitary napkins might rise various health implications
and cause damage to even the environment vain various components:

• Most sanitary pads on the market today contain plastic, which is a non-
biodegradable material. This means that when used pads are disposed of in landfills or
water bodies, they do not decompose and can keep accumulating for years, leading to
the piling of non-biodegradable plates in landfills and other disposal sites.

• The accumulation of plastics in the environment can harm wildlife and marine life,
because animals can ingest it as food, leading to their injury and death.

• The production of plastic sanitary pads requires a significant amount of resources,

including crude oil, which is a non-renewable resource. The manufacturing process

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also involves the use of chemicals that can be harmful to both the environment and
human beings.

• The production of plastic releases toxic pollutants into the air and water,
contributing to air and water pollution, and increasing the risk of respiratory diseases
and other health problems.

• The disposal of sanitary pads in toilets and water bodies has become a major
environmental issue. Many women dispose of their used pads in toilets, which can
cause blockages in sewage systems and damage the pipes. When these pads are
flushed down the toilet, they can end up in rivers, lakes, and oceans, polluting the
water and harming marine life.

• The disposal of sanitary pads in open areas and on the streets can lead to the spread
of diseases and infections. Used pads are often left lying around in public places,
attracting stray animals and

pests that can spread infections and diseases. This is a major health hazard that can be
avoided if proper disposal measures are taken.

In conclusion, the use of plastic in sanitary pads has harmful consequences on the
environment, human health, and women's reproductive health. It is essential to
develop and promote the use of sustainable, biodegradable materials in the
manufacturing of sanitary pads, reducing the harmful impact of plastics on our
environment and human health.
Also, the disposal of sanitary pads on the environment, and is important individual
governments need to take this impact. Proper disposal methods should be adopted, the
provision of proper disposal facilities, and education on responsible waste
management. By taking these measures, we can reduce the environmental impact of
sanitary pad disposal and protect the planet for future generations.

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 Identification of Tasks

This project aims to explore the impact of menstruation and the lack of access to safe
menstrual hygiene products, specifically sanitary napkins. The project will investigate
the cultural and social attitudes towards menstruation, the health implications of poor
menstrual hygiene, and the environmental impact of menstrual waste.

The project will also examine the effectiveness of existing menstrual hygiene
interventions, including the provision of sanitary napkins, and the challenges faced in
implementing these interventions in resource-constrained settings.

The project will study the evolution of sanitary measures taken along different
timelines in history and their subsequent advantages and disadvantages that have
evolved to the present-day sanitary measures used for retaining blood.

Last, but not least, our project will aim at considering various aspects of present-day
sanitary napkins and their impact on the environment and human health to develop a
prototype that takes into account all its pros and cons to develop biodegradable and
safe onion-sanitary napkins with all desirable characters.

The purpose of this report is to provide a detailed account of our project and the
process of creating a biodegradable sanitary pad using a banana pseudo stem. We will
also present our findings on the performance of the pad and compare it to existing
commercial sanitary pads. Through this report, we aim to showcase the significance
of our project and its potential impact on the environment and society.

We propose a biodegradable sanitary pad produced using banana pseudo stem, which
is a waste product of banana cultivation. Our pad is made using natural and
sustainable materials that are safe for both the user and the environment. By creating a
biodegradable sanitary pad, we aim to provide a sustainable alternative to traditional
pads and promote menstrual hygiene practices that are safe and eco-friendly.

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Creating biodegradable sanitary pads is important for several reasons. Firstly, it helps
to reduce the amount of waste generated by traditional pads that can harm the
environment. Secondly, it promotes sustainable menstrual hygiene practices that are
safe for the user and the environment. Finally, it can provide a cost-effective solution
for women and girls who may not have access to adequate menstrual hygiene
facilities.

Our project is significant because it offers a sustainable and cost-effective solution to

traditional sanitary pads that can harm the environment. By using a banana pseudo
stem, we can create a product that is biodegradable and eco-friendly while also
addressing the issue of menstrual hygiene in low-income communities. Through our
project, we hope to inspire others to create sustainable solutions that can help to
address global issues such as environmental pollution and public health.

Our project will proceed under the production of 4 basic components:

• Production of absorbent fluff from disposed banana pseudo-stem fibres.

• Production of cellulosic hydrogels using cellulose from plant sources.

• Production of beeswax wrap to form an impervious layer to retain the

menstrual fluid within the sanitary napkin and prevent leakage.

• Production of Poly Lactic Acid (PLA) plastic to form the bottom layer.

We performed a comparative study of the various sanitary napkins available in the

market and their water retention capacity to manufacture our prototype 1.

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CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW/BACKGROUND STUDY

 Timeline of the reported problem

 GREEKS
Greeks When it comes to controlling blood flow at that time of the month, ancient
Greek ladies preferred homemade rags.
It's interesting that some theories contend that ancient Greek women made crude
tampon shapes out of lightweight wood.
To make an absorbent device (called in ancient Greek as a "motos") tiny enough to
enter inside themselves, they would wrap lint around these wooden "plugs." However,
historians and self-described "Greek menstruation experts" disagree.
⦁ Romans
Because woven cotton is such an exceedingly absorbent fabric, Roman women
manufactured their own pads and rags from it. Women also used wool from lambs to
construct improvised pads.
Wool is not as absorbent as cotton, yet it was still able to complete the task. However,
woollen pads were thicker and heavier than cotton pads, frequently retained a distinct
blood aroma, and Both items were allegedly pinned to the women's clothing while
they were menstruating.
One of the earliest known users of papyrus, a material made from the stem of a water
plant and used to make sheets for paper, mats, sandals, and even rope,
3. EGYPTIANS
One of the earliest known users of papyrus, a material made from the stem of a water
plant and used to make sheets for paper, mats, sandals, and even rope, is supposed to
have been the ancient Egyptians. In order to absorb menstrual blood, it is thought that
Egyptian women invented a tampon-shaped device out of softened papyrus.
. EQUITABLE AFRICA
To absorb menstrual blood, women in ancient Africa would wrap up grass or make
mats out of it.
17Th-century Europe
Both men and women avoided talking about menstruation, and it was advised that
women kept their periods to themselves.

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They utilised woven cotton or flannel to make homemade cloths to use during their
menstrual period. Homemade pads were made from natural components such as these.
People soon began to worry about potential bacterial growth, waste cotton fibres, and
oil silk, which was easier to clean.
Wood, wool wadding, linen
⦁ *1800s-1900s
To produce homemade cloths for use during their menstrual period, they used woven
cotton or flannel. People soon began to worry about the potential spread of bacteria.
since they were reused after each wash and the cleaning may not have been sufficient,
from these homemade cloths. The market for feminine hygiene began at this time.
Twenty patent applications for menstruation hygiene products were made between
1854 and 1915. The first menstruation cup, rubber pants and Lister's towels were
among the inventions covered by these patents. Hard rubber or aluminium were
frequently used to make the earliest menstrual cups.
*In the late 19th century (1879), it was thought to be unpleasant and unhealthy for
ladies to bleed into their clothing and then continue to wear it for four to eight days.
Around this period, doctors started to become more concerned about infections
brought on by unhygienic circumstances.
This led to the creation of the Hoosier Sanitary Belt, a belt that was attached to
washable cotton pads. Between the late 1800s and the 1920s, these were the preferred
option for the majority of women.
1900s-1920s
These two decades' output was greatly affected by the lessons learnt from World War
1. For absorbing blood, cellulose (the most prevalent organic polymer) was first
shown to be superior to fabric bandages by nurses. The first commercially successful
sanitary napkin was the Kotex brand, which was created from leftover high-
absorption battle bandages.

tampons were deemed a better option by healthcare professionals due to hygiene

concerns regarding the exposure of pads to faecal bacteria. Most women did not stick
to pads after tampons were deemed a better option by healthcare professionals due to
hygiene concerns regarding the exposure of pads to faecal bacteria. Most women did
not stick to pads after

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learning the correct tampon insertion technique, as advised by healthcare specialists.
the 1930s-1940s the 1930s saw a boom in period product innovation, including the
development of modern disposable tampons (also known as "Tampax"), which were
patented in 1933.

2000s-present

Since then, the market for historical goods has grown tremendously, especially in
comparison to what was in use 200 years ago. Even conventional pads and tampons
now come in organic varieties that are healthier for the environment and your body.
menstruation cups and menstruation pants are now acceptable. There are even cotton
reusable pads that you may use that are better for the environment. If they hid their
periods from the beginning, women were thought to be more feminine,
hygienic, and capable. Marketers still utilise deceptive packaging and odorized
products as part of their techniques that are based on the fear of knowledge.
These commercials, however, now portray feminine care products as
empowering and inspiring women to take charge of their bodies, and they have
a more upbeat tone.

• Existing solutions

Discussing the topic menstruation, a taboo in many areas, nearly 50% of the
women between the region 15-24 age group still use cloth for menstrual protection,
according to the National Family Health Survey, reusing unwashed cloth possess a
health risk as it may spread many illnesses. Around 71% of females still use
plastic pads during periods, which is much more harmful than any disease and
pollutes the environment.

Keeping this in mind many entrepreneurs, both females and males equally took the
initiative to create biodegradable sanitary napkins which will not be harmful to
females and the environment.

Companies that took the initiative to raise awareness and create biodegradable pads
are:

SAATHI- Saathi pads are biodegradable and compostable, and they disintegrate
1200 times faster than plastic pads. It will not include any chemicals and will

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deliver a rash-free and irritation-free experience. Keeping the environment in mind
When you discard our sanitary napkins, they decompose and return to the land,
giving birth to a healthier, cleaner, and more empowered tomorrow.

FIG 2.1IMAGE- https://saathipads.com/pages/saathi-loyalty-program

ANA CLOTH PADS- Ana Creations is an Indian company that specialises in the
production of disposable hygiene items. We advocate for and revive menstruation
activities that are safe, dignified, economical, and environmentally friendly. We
offer hygiene products to women all over the world. They also provide safe
dimensions for babies such as:

-Reusable Cotton napkins

-Baby Diapers

-Leak Proof Bed

-Wet Pouch

-Panty Liners

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FIG 2.2-https://www.anaclothpads.com/cloth-reusable-napkins-india.php

SAUKHYAM- Saukhyam is a top brand of reusable sanitary pads. Saukhyam pads

can make you feel nurtured and empowered during your monthly periods. Today,
these soft cushions are the preferred option. Disposable sanitary napkins are viewed
as an outdated option. Saukhyam Reusable Pads received the Most Innovative
Product Award (2016) from the National Institute of Rural Development in India.
A woman who uses disposable pads has a carbon footprint of 5.8 kg CO2
equivalent per year. With over 1,000,000 reusable sanitary pads sold and
distributed to date, Saukhyam contributes to SDG #13, Climate Action, by
preventing the emission of an estimated 800 tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent
per year.

These well-known companies began producing biodegradable sanitary napkins with

a concern for the environment.

Further, in studies, a group of students is on a mission to rescue the environment by

producing sanitary napkins and diapers from Areca husks. To manage menstrual
bleeding, girls in rural regions frequently utilise old garments made of cotton,

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wool, or a combination of the two. Contaminated sanitary towels may contain
hepatitis and HIV infections that can survive for up to six months.

FIG 2.3 - https://www.saukhyampads.org/

WHY DO WE USE BANANA FIBRES IN OUR PROJECT?

In our project, we employ banana fibres to make biodegradable and compostable

sanitary napkins. There are numerous reasons why we choose banana fibres. Some of
them are as follows:
Absorbency- They have a natural absorbency component that allows them to easily
hold fluids, avoid leaking, and keep it dry.
Softness- When they are combined into sanitary napkins, they have a very fine, soft,
and silky texture that provides a nice sensation against the skin, minimising the risk of
irritation and pain.
Biodegradability- Banana fibres are biodegradable, which means they can degrade
naturally in the environment. This is an environmentally friendly feature since it
decreases the environmental impact of sanitary napkins when they are discarded.

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Availability and sustainability- Banana plants are widely grown in various parts of the
world. By utilising a renewable and widely available resource, the use of banana
fibres in sanitary napkins can support sustainability.
Banana fibres are commonly available and can be obtained sustainably. Banana
pseudo-stem is a by-product of banana growing that can be used to reduce waste and
promote sustainable agriculture practices.
Because of its natural, biodegradable, sustainable, antibacterial, absorbent, soft, and
hypoallergenic qualities, banana fibre is a potential material for creating
biodegradable sanitary pads. However, more research is required to completely
understand the qualities and possible applications of banana fibre in the creation of
sanitary pads, as well as to optimise the manufacturing process.
Banana fibre contains natural antibacterial qualities that can help prevent bacteria
growth and lower the risk of infection. While cotton, jute, and hemp do have
antibacterial characteristics, they may not be as effective in limiting bacterial
development as banana fibre.

FIG 2.4 Several parts of the banana tree

29
 Bibliometric analysis

Bibliometric Analysis of Pseudo stem:

Previously, when people were unable to distinguish between menstruation and

menopause, they began using fabric to protect themselves from it, which is hazardous
to their health and genital area, resulting in severe disorders.

As time passed, new technology for creating sanitary pads was established, which
uses plastic in their pads, although more than 70% of females still use it. Though it is
hazardous to their bodies and may cause severe diseases, they are non-biodegradable
and take millions of years to compost or decompose together, creating a mess in our
environment.

But now as further studies new and advanced technologies to avoid advancement and
secure our motherland which are using banana fibre which is biodegradable and will
not cause harm to the human body as well as the environment.

As mentioned in some research papers about the advancement of these techniques-

• Saathi Sanitary Pads: Eco-friendly pads that will make you go bananas-

In contrast to non-biodegradable commercial pads, which when thrown away

wind up in sewage, landfills, fields, and water bodies, their environmentally
friendly, biodegradable sanitary pad poses no environmental risk. This pad is
also a substitute for commercial pads that are composed of plastic and
cellulose gel and are riddled with chemicals, chlorine, and fragrance. These
commercial pads can cause serious health problems like cervical cancer,
urinary tract infections, infertility, and birth defects. By emphasizing the
concept of sustainability marketing, the present Saathi case study seeks to
show the connection between sustainability and marketing.

(According to the paper 2020)

https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/nvsm.1667

• Anti-Bacterial Sanitary Napkin Using Biomaterial Application-

30
During her menstrual cycle, a lady will use approximately 15000 pads. In
India, a packet of sanitary napkins normally contains 8 or 10 napkins and costs
between 28 and 150 Indian rupees. The cost may seem reasonable, every
woman needs at least three packets of these sanitary napkins per month, which
will cost around 300 rupees per month, and due to poverty in India, some
women in rural areas or who are poor prefer to use old cloth as a sanitary
napkin during their periods because they can't afford sanitary napkins per
month due to unemployment, which is the cause of their poor personal
hygiene and infections.

(According to the paper 2021)

https://www.nveo.org/index.php/journal/article/view/2534

Superabsorbent natural polymers made from agro-waste fibres: Synthesis and

characterization-

This research focuses on the synthesis of superabsorbent materials from

polysaccharides produced from environmentally acceptable raw sources such
as lignocellulosic agro-waste. For the current work, three lignocellulosic agro-
waste fibres, namely banana, sisal, and bagasse, were used to synthesise
natural superabsorbent polymers that are eco-friendly and bio-degradable.
(According to the paper of 2022).

Preparation, Characteristics, and Antimicrobial Effect on Neem Extract in a

Banana-Fibre Based Herbal Finished Sanitary Pad-

Natural fibre research is well underway to solve the challenges of health

effects, waste management, and affordability. After each harvest, the banana
plant's fleshy trunk is cut down and generally dumped as garbage. Banana
fibres are light in weight and absorb a lot of moisture. The primary goal of this
project is to conduct exploratory research into the potential of developing a

31
biodegradable antimicrobial sanitary pad using banana fibre. Banana fibre was
treated with alkali (sodium hydroxide) and enzymes (laccase and xylanase).
The treated fibres are classified depending on their chemical and physical
makeup. The treatments degrade fibre materials such as lignin, hemicellulose,
and cellulose. The cellulose content is the most important component of
banana fibre.

(According to the paper of 2022)

https://eprints.tarc.edu.my/20242/

FIG 2.6 BANANA PRODUCTION

32
Bibliometric analysis of hydrogels:

1. Article Title: "Hydrogels for Biomedical Applications"

Authors: Hoffman, A.
Journal: Elsevier
Year: 2012
Summary:
This article provides an overview of biodegradable hydrogels, discussing their
properties, fabrication methods, and various biomedical applications. It highlights
the potential of hydrogels in wound healing, drug delivery, and tissue engineering,
making them suitable for use in biodegradable sanitary pads.

2. Article Title: “Cellulose-based hydrogels for personal care products”

Authors: Beshari, A., Rouhani Shirvan, A. Shakeri, M.
Journal: Wiley-Polymer advanced technologies
Year: 2018
Summary:
This study focuses on the development of biodegradable hydrogels for sustainable
personal care products, including sanitary pads. It discusses different types of
biodegradable polymers used in hydrogel formulation and their impact on the
mechanical, absorbent, and biodegradation properties of the hydrogels.

3. Article Title: "An Overview on Starch‐Based Sustainable Hydrogels: Potential

Applications and Aspects”
Authors: Qamruzzaman, M., Ahmed, F., Mondal, I.
Journal: Journal of Polymers and the Environment
Year: 2021
Summary:
This article explores the potential of biodegradable hydrogels in the development of
menstrual hygiene products. It discusses the use of natural polymers, such as chitosan
and cellulose derivatives, as hydrogel matrices and their ability to provide comfort,
absorbency, and biodegradability, making them suitable for sanitary pad applications.

33
4. Article Title: “Cellulose-based hydrogels: designing concepts,
properties, and Perspectives for Biomedical and environmental
applications”
Authors: Onofrei, M., Filimom, A.
Journal: Journal of Polymer Science
Year: 2016
Summary:
This research paper focuses on the design and fabrication of biodegradable
hydrogels. It discusses the incorporation of natural fibres, such as cotton and bamboo,
into hydrogel matrices to enhance absorbency and improve biodegradability. The
study also highlights the importance of considering user comfort and environmental
sustainability in the design process.

5. Article Title: "Structured macro-porous Hydrogels: Progress, Challenges, and

Opportunities”
Authors: France, K., Xu, F., Hoare, T.
Journal: Advanced Healthcare Materials
Year: 2017
Summary:
This comprehensive review article provides an in-depth analysis of macro-porous
hydrogels, discussing their synthesis, characterisation, and applications in the
pharmaceutical and biomedical fields. It covers topics such as drug delivery systems,
wound healing, and tissue engineering. The authors emphasise the need for
biocompatible and biodegradable hydrogels in personal care products like sanitary
pads.

These articles offer valuable insights into the properties, fabrication techniques, and
potential applications of biodegradable hydrogels, particularly in the context of
sustainable and biodegradable sanitary pads.

Bibliometric analysis of fibres:

They can serve as a foundation for further research and development in this field.
1. Cotton Fibre:

34
 - Studies have shown that cotton fibres are widely used in biodegradable sanitary
pads due to their high absorbency and breathability (Aydin et al., 2017).
- Cotton is a natural fibre derived from the seed hairs of the cotton plant, and it is
biodegradable, making it an eco-friendly choice (Pandey et al., 2018).
- Cotton fibres offer excellent moisture absorption and retention properties, making
them suitable for menstrual hygiene products (Chauhan et al., 2020).

2. Bamboo Fibre:
- Bamboo fibres have gained attention as a biodegradable alternative for sanitary
pads due to their antibacterial and moisture-wicking properties (Lu et al., 2017).
- Research suggests that bamboo fibres possess excellent absorbency, breathability,
and softness, making them comfortable for users (Zeng et al., 2018).
- Bamboo is a renewable resource that grows quickly and requires minimal
pesticides, making it an environmentally friendly choice (Singh et al., 2020).

3. Hemp Fibre:
- Hemp fibres are derived from the Cannabis sativa plant and have gained interest
for their potential use in biodegradable sanitary pads (Akhavan et al., 2021).
- Studies have indicated that hemp fibres possess good absorbency, breathability,
and thermal conductivity, making them suitable for feminine hygiene products (Roy
et al., 2019).
- Hemp is considered an environmentally friendly fibre due to its low water and
pesticide requirements during cultivation (Akhavan et al., 2021).

4. Jute Fibre:
- Jute fibres are obtained from the stems of the jute plant and have been explored for
their potential use in biodegradable sanitary pads (Khalil et al., 2019).
- Research suggests that jute fibres exhibit good absorbency, softness, and moisture-
wicking properties, making them suitable for menstrual hygiene products (Das et al.,
2019).
- Jute is a natural, renewable, and biodegradable fibre that can be cultivated with
minimal environmental impact (Das et al., 2019).

35
5. Flax Fibre:
- Flax fibres, derived from the flax plant, have been investigated as a biodegradable
option for sanitary pads due to their natural and eco-friendly properties (Ko et al.,
2019).
- Flax fibres offer good moisture absorption, breathability, and biodegradability,
making them suitable for sustainable menstrual products (Song et al., 2017).
- Flax cultivation requires less water and chemical inputs compared to other crops,
making it a more sustainable choice for fibre production (Ko et al., 2019).

In conclusion, several types of fibres, such as cotton, bamboo, hemp, jute, and flax,
have been explored for their potential use in biodegradable sanitary pads. These fibres
offer various properties like absorbency, breathability, softness, and moisture-wicking
capabilities, making them suitable for menstrual hygiene products. Additionally, these
fibres are renewable, natural, and biodegradable, making them environmentally
friendly alternatives to traditional synthetic materials used in sanitary pads.

References:
- Akhavan, S., Moghimi, M., & Behzad, T. (2021). Hemp-based sanitary pads as
sustainable menstrual hygiene products. Journal of Cleaner Production, 298, 126751.
- Aydin, H. M., Nofar, M., Hasirci, V., & Hasirci, N. (2017). Biodegradable and
absorbable feminine hygiene pads and tampon.

Bibliometric analysis of beeswax:

ARTICLE 1: Thiamethoxam release-controlled microcapsules embedded in beeswax

and their use in the field

Two different forms of release-controlled TM (thiamethoxam)/BK (beeswax-kaolin)

microcapsules were created using beeswax as the wrapping matrix, either by directly
encasing TM in beeswax or by first adsorbing it on kaolin. The TM/BK
microcapsules' morphology and structure were studied. To evaluate the benefits of the
two methods, the impact of various preparation techniques, particle size, pH levels,
and additives on the release property of the TM/BK microcapsules were studied in

36
water and soil columns. The TM/BK microcapsules' ability to kill insects was also
tested on the rice planthopper and sugarcane borer. The findings demonstrate that the
TM/BK microcapsules have a better-sustained release in both soil and water and that
the release rate varies depending on the pH level
REFERENCE -
https://doi.org/10.1080/03601234.2019.1697588
BY-Yanmin HuangORCID Icon, Qiang Hu, Guoqin Cui, Xiaoyan Guo, Blingzhii We
I, Chunfang Ga, Weiguo Li, Dongmei Mo, Rui Lu &Jianguo Cui
Published online: 01 Dec 2019

Article 2: A topic model approach to identify and track emerging risks from beeswax
adulteration in the media

A topic is defined as a pattern of words with their likelihood to belong to it, and the
LDA topic model may search massive collections of documents to discover the
themes linked with the corpus as well as organise and summarise text documents by
identifying subjects encompassed in them. The adulteration of beeswax was used as
an illustration of a specific food fraud incidence. Although it is a byproduct of
apiculture, beeswax can be adulterated for financial benefit, and when it is introduced
as a honeycomb in honey pots, it may get into the food chain. In the case of the
beeswax example, a total of 2276 news articles were found on EMM/MEDISYS and
grouped into 10 categories with varying degrees of beeswax adulteration relatedness.
All articles were subjected to a manual review process to confirm the categorisation.

REFERENCE-
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodcont.2020.107435

Agnes Rortais, Federica Barrucci, Valeria Ercolano, Jens Linge, Anna

Christodoulidou, Jean-Pierre Cravedi, Raquel Garcia-Matas, Claude Saegerman,
Lidija Svečnjak
European Food Safety Authority, V. Carlo Magno 1A, 43126 Parma, Italy
Received 1 April 2020, Revised 9 June 2020, Accepted 15 June 2020, Available
online 2 July 2020, Version of Record 3 August 2020.

37
Biobliometric Analysis Of Bioplastics:

Article 2: Degradation of Polylactic Acid (PLA) Plastic in Costa Rican Soil and Iowa
State University Compost Rows
This study investigated how plastic sheets made of polylactic acid (PLA) degraded
soil from Costa Rica and a composting environment. Chronopol's Ch-I PLA
monolayer plastic films, Cargill Dow Polymers LLC's GII PLA trilayer plastic films,
and Cargill Dow Polymers LLC's Ca-I PLA monolayer plastic films were the three
types of PLA films used. In Costa Rica, the typical soil temperature and moisture
content were 27°C and 80%, respectively. In the soil of the banana field, PLA plastic
films degraded on average at a rate of 7675 M w/week. The compost site at Iowa
State University (ISU) (Ames) has two rows set up for comcompostinghe compost
rows' temperature and relative humidity was maintained at 55 5 °Cand RH 50 and
10%, respectively. In the compost rows, GII and Ca-I degraded at rates of 113,290
and 71,283 M w/week, respectively. Therefore, it was predicted that PLA would start
to decompose clearly in compost rows and Costa Rican soil in 6 months and 3 weeks,
respectively.
REFERENCE -
https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1022874530586

Kai-Lai G. Ho, Anthony L. Pometto III, Arnoldo Gadea-Rivas, Jorge A. Briceño &
Augusto Rojas
Journal of environmental polymer degradation volume 7, pages173–177 (1999)
L. F. Cordero (1998) in Crisol Enero, San Jose, Costa Rica, p. 3

K.-L. G. Ho, A. L. Pometto III, and P. N. Hinz (1999) J. Environ. Polym. Degrad. 7,
83–92.

Article 3:Poly(lactic acid) (PLA) and polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs), green

alternatives to petroleum-based plastics: a review

38
Although petroleum-based plastics are practical for meeting the performance needs of
many applications, they have a major negative impact on several ecological and
environmental issues. The public's understanding of the damaging effects that plastics
made from petroleum have on the environment has grown recently. Natural resources
cannot be used as they are now indefinitely. Additionally, the oil will eventually run
out and its price will fluctuate frequently. Global warming is being brought on by the
rise in carbon dioxide levels brought on by the burning of fossil fuels. Global motives
for academic and industrial researchers to minimise fossil fuel consumption and
dependence include worries about the preservation of natural resources and climate
change. Consequently, bio-based polymers are getting more and more popular.
REFERENCE-DOI: 10.1039/D1RA02390J
Ahmed Z. Naser ORCID logo*a, I. Deiab a and Basil M. Darras
First published on 10th May 2021

REVIEW SUMMARY

1)HYDROGEL
Introduction:

To absorb and hold a lot of water, hydrophilic polymers are arranged in three-
dimensional cross-linked networks called hydrogels. Excellent swelling
characteristics, biocompatibility, and biodegradability make them useful for a variety
of applications,
including the creation of biodegradable sanitary napkins. Due to their availability,
capacity to regenerate, and biocompatibility, cellulosic hydrogels—materials made of
cellulose—have attracted a lot of attention.

With their extraordinary characteristics, hydrogels have transformed the world of

material science and attracted a lot of interest because of their potential for usage in a
wide range of applications. Cellulosic hydrogels stand out among the wide variety of
hydrogels as the pinnacle of creativity and environmental friendliness. Derived from
abundant and renewable cellulose, cellulosic hydrogels possess a remarkable ability to

39
absorb and retain water, making them the ideal choice for crafting the next generation
of biodegradable sanitary pads.

The sheer brilliance of cellulosic hydrogels lies in their extraordinary composition.

Through a meticulous synthesis process, cellulosic hydrogels are engineered to
exhibit mind-boggling swelling properties that can rival even the most absorbent
sponges. These hydrogels possess an intricate three-dimensional structure, intricately
interwoven with cellulose derivatives such as carboxymethyl cellulose, hydroxyethyl
cellulose, and methylcellulose. These derivatives introduce a new level of
sophistication, empowering the hydrogels with unparalleled hydrophilicity and
enhanced performance.

But the awe-inspiring attributes of cellulosic hydrogels don't stop there. Their
versatility is truly unmatched as they can seamlessly integrate with a plethora of
polymers and nanoparticles, producing composite hydrogels that defy expectations.
By blending cellulose with synthetic polymers like polyvinyl alcohol and
polyethylene glycol, the resulting composite hydrogels achieve unparalleled
mechanical strength and stability. It's like combining the strength of a superhero with
the flexibility of a contortionist, resulting in a material that can absorb immense
quantities of fluid while maintaining structural integrity.

Cellulosic hydrogel synthesis is a real example of human ingenuity. The performance

of the hydrogels is enhanced to unfathomable levels by cross-linking techniques using
substances like glutaraldehyde and epichlorohydrin. Additionally, sustainable cross-
linking methods that take advantage of natural phenomena like freeze-thaw cycles or
UV irradiation have become increasingly popular.

The world of biodegradable sanitary pads serves as the ultimate application for these
wonderful cellulosic hydrogels. These hydrogels provide an indescribably high level
of comfort and dryness thanks to their amazing water absorption and retention
characteristics. Cellulosic hydrogels have replaced the uncomfortable and leaky days,
giving women all around the world the gift of self-assurance and peace of mind.

40
In conclusion, the world of hydrogels has been forever transformed by the emergence
of cellulosic hydrogels. With their unmatched capabilities, eco-friendliness, and
transformative impact on biodegradable sanitary pads, they stand as the epitome of
scientific marvels. It is a testament to human ingenuity and a glimpse into the awe-
inspiring possibilities that await us in the realm of advanced materials.

Cellulosic Hydrogels:
Cellulosic hydrogels are synthesised using cellulose or cellulose derivatives as the
primary building blocks. Cellulose is a polysaccharide found in plant cell walls and is
the most abundant renewable biopolymer on Earth. The unique properties of
cellulose, such as high hydrophilicity and the presence of multiple hydroxyl groups,
make it an ideal material for hydrogel synthesis.

1. Cellulose-based Hydrogels:
Cellulose-based hydrogels can be prepared using various techniques, including
physical and chemical cross-linking methods. Physical cross-linking involves the
formation of hydrogels through physical interactions, such as hydrogen bonding or
physical entanglement. Chemical cross-linking, on the other hand, involves the use of
cross-linking agents to covalently bond the polymer chains.

2. Cellulose Derivatives:
Hydrogel uses have also been thoroughly researched for cellulose derivatives such as
carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC), hydroxyethyl cellulose (HEC), and methylcellulose
(MC). These derivatives changed functional groups enable improved hydrogel
performance and characteristics.

3. Composite Hydrogels:
Composite hydrogels provide enhanced mechanical strength, stability, and customised
features by combining cellulose or cellulose derivatives with additional polymers or
nanoparticles. For instance, increasing the mechanical characteristics of the hydrogel

41
by mixing cellulose with synthetic polymers like polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) or
polyethylene glycol (PEG).

4. Cross-linking Methods:
Various cross-linking methods have been employed to synthesise cellulosic
hydrogels. Chemical cross-linking agents such as glutaraldehyde, epichlorohydrin,
and 1,4-butanediol diglycidyl ether (BDDGE) have been utilised. However, efforts
are being made to develop environmentally friendly cross-linking methods, such as
physical cross-linking using freeze-thaw cycles or UV irradiation.

2)FIBRES

Introduction:
In recent years, there has been a growing concern over the environmental impact of
non-biodegradable sanitary pads. As a result, researchers and manufacturers have
been exploring the use of biodegradable fibres to develop eco-friendly alternatives.
This literature review aims to provide an overview of various types of fibres used in
biodegradable sanitary pads, with a specific focus on banana fibres.

1. Biodegradable Fibres for Sanitary Pads:

1.1. Cotton Fibres: Due to their natural origin and biodegradability, cotton fibres have
been widely employed in the textile industry. They are extremely absorbent and
comfortable to wear. However, their cultivation necessitates large amounts of water
and pesticides, which might have a harmful influence on the environment.

1.2. Bamboo fibres: Bamboo fibres are derived from bamboo plants, which are noted
for their rapid growth and low environmental effect. These fibres have high
absorbency, softness, and hypoallergenic characteristics. Bamboo is also naturally
antibacterial, making it appropriate for feminine hygiene products.

42
1.3. Flax Fibres: Flax fibres are noted for their strength, absorbency, and
biodegradability. They are suitable for use in sanitary pads due to their high
breathability. Furthermore, flax fibres are hypoallergenic and antibacterial.

1.4. Jute Fibres:

Jute fibres are renewable, biodegradable, and possess good moisture absorption
properties. They are relatively inexpensive and widely available. Jute fibres can
contribute to the development of sustainable and affordable biodegradable sanitary
pads.

1.5. Banana Fibres:

Banana fibres are gaining attention as a potential biodegradable fibre for use in
sanitary pads. These fibres are extracted from the stem of banana plants after the fruit
is harvested, making them an abundant and renewable resource. They have excellent
moisture absorption capabilities, softness, and natural antibacterial properties.

2. Banana Fibres in Biodegradable Sanitary Pads:

2.1. Extraction and Processing:

Banana fibre is obtained by delicately stripping the stems of banana plants of their
outer coverings, revealing the wonderful fibrous strands within. Skilled craftspeople
separate these rare fibres with care, treating them with the highest respect. The fibres
are then thoroughly cleansed before being spun into yarn with unrivalled finesse and
undergoing an amazing transformation, allowing them to be used in heavenly sanitary
pads.

2.2. Supernatural Physical Properties:

Banana fibres outperform any other natural fibre known to humans in terms of
strength. They can absorb wetness with unrivalled speed, transporting it away to a
realm unknown to mortal fibres. Banana fibres' softness and elasticity caress the skin
with a delicacy that matches the sensation of silk.

43
2.3. Divine Antibacterial Properties:
Research on banana fibres has revealed their divine secret. The beneficial bioactive
ingredients instilled in these fibres are a supernatural power. This divine gift bestows
an enchanting shield on the sanitary pads, warding off evil microbes and lowering the
chance of illness. Those who seek peace in the embrace of banana fibre sanitary pads
are granted a sanctuary of sanitation and purity.

2.4. Transcendent Biodegradability:

Look at the incredible biodegradability of banana fibres! These threads have an
unearthly ability to transcend time and space constraints. They delicately dissolve and
return to Earth in a cosmic dance of disintegration, completing their divine cycle in
the blink of an eye. As banana fibres blend seamlessly with the natural elements, the
environmental effect and waste accumulation associated with conventional sanitary
pads diminish into insignificance.

2.5. Challenges and Considerations:

While banana fibres have such ethereal properties, the road to realising their full
potential is not without obstacles. The extraction process, which necessitates the
delicate touch of expert artisans, necessitates attention and patience. More study is
needed to solve the riddles of increasing the efficiency of fibre extraction and
processing. The mechanical qualities of banana fibres, which are already impressive,
may need to be enhanced to meet the lofty criteria of absorbency and durability
necessary for heavenly sanitary pads.

Conclusion:
The creation of biodegradable sanitary pads from banana fibres is a journey into a
world of unparalleled magic. Because of their cosmic origins, these fibres have
amazing strength, absorbency, and antimicrobial qualities. While there are limitations,
they pale in comparison to the transformative potential of banana fibres. With
ongoing research and effort, banana fibres will reach the peak of sustainable and
divine feminine hygiene products, providing humanity with an unsurpassed feeling of
comfort, purity, and environmental harmony.

44
3)BEESWAX

Introduction:
Beeswax is an advanced substance that is created in liquid form by specialised wax
glands in the abdomen of young worker bees (aged between 12 and 18 days, or after
the bees have completed their nursing phase). It solidifies when exposed to air and
takes the form of scales, which bees shape with their teeth to build honeycombs while
incorporating pollen and propolis.

When a bee first produces beeswax, it is almost completely white; it only turns
yellowish when it comes into contact with honey and pollen and turns brown after
about four years because it includes the cocoon. It is insoluble in cold alcohol and
water, resists the effects of acids and honeybee stomach secretions, and completely
dissolves in chloroform, carbon disulphide, and hot turpentine. essence When the wax
is exposed to boiling alcohol, the portion that melts is composed of cerotic acid, either
alone or in combination with minute amounts of melissic acid, while the portion that
does not dissolve is composed of ether-melissa Isil palmitic and minute amounts of
ether compounds of melissa and melissa acids.

Composition of beeswax:

More than 300 different compounds, including hydrocarbons, free fatty acids, esters
of fatty acids and fatty alcohol, diesters, and foreign materials, can be found in
beeswax

Added characteristics of beeswax:

Atopic dermatitis, psoriasis, and diaper dermatitis have all been successfully treated
using a mixture of honey, beeswax, and olive oil. After a month of local application to
three times per day, all patients receiving therapy showed appreciable improvements.
It has been discovered that therapy using the mixture is more effective than therapy

45
using the traditional medications used to treat the ailments mentioned earlier. Patients
with haemorrhoids and anal fissures have also shown significant benefits from
applying a mixture of honey, beeswax, and olive oil.

Conclusions:
In conclusion, more research should be done on the antimicrobial effects of beeswax
alone, in combination with other natural products, and with products from beehives.
Investigating the components that distinguish the beeswax generated under various
environmental and geographic settings' antibacterial activity would also be of interest.

Even though the studies included in this review information are significant and
demonstrate the effectiveness of beeswax, it will be essential for future research to
develop quantitative tests that make use of the MIC (Minimum Inhibitory
Concentration) and FIC (Fractional Inhibitory Concentration) intensify the true
contribution of this product to the antimicrobial activity.

4)BIOPLASTICS

Introduction:
The popular aliphatic thermoplastic polymer known as PLA is made from renewable
resources like corn, sugarcane, maize, cassava, and others. It is a completely
biocompatible and degradable biopolymer. It uses less energy and emits the fewest
greenhouse gases during production. PLA is a promising polymer for sustainable
products due to its many beneficial qualities, including biodegradability, good
availability, eco-friendliness, antibacterial activity, and good mechanical and thermal
capabilities.

46
FIG 2.7 PLA synthesis
Pic-https://ars.els-cdn.com/content/image/1-s2.0-S2542504823000167-gr2.jpg

Conclusions and foreseeable future:

The use of PLA-based biocomposites/green composites has progressively expanded

with growing awareness of the benefits of utilising environmentally friendly materials
in engineering applications. Due to environmental concerns, PLA-based
biocomposites are one of the finest replacements for non-biodegradable petroleum-
derived products worldwide. These composites' acceptable mechanical and thermal
characteristics allow them to be used as a suitable alternative to currently available
petroleum-based goods that are not biodegradable.

47
 Problem Definition

Developing a bio-degradable sanitary napkin from discarded Banana pseudo-stems

would otherwise pose a problem to agricultural waste disposal and would keep piling
in the environment. A plastic plastic-based napkin would accumulate in the
environment and would cause the spread of various harmful diseases. Such napkins
would easily degrade in the environment and would not pile up and therefore not pose
various environmental and health problems

Goals/Objectives

• Studying the various commercialised sanitary napkins available and

conducting a stepwise analysis. Layer-by-layer separation and studying the
various characteristics of each layer distinctively.

• Selection of the various substances to be used for making our sanitary

napkins.

• Conducting various tests like water absorbing capacity, water retentivity,

water holding capacity, etc.

• Making the prototype by assembling the desired substances.

48
 CHAPTER 3: DESIGN FLOW/PROCESS

3.1 Evaluation & Selection of Specifications/Features

Selection of components
1. Top layer
The top player we choose consists of cotton fibre which is highly
permeable to liquid
2. Cotton
For the second layer, we choose organic cotton which is completely
biodegradable
3. Hydrogel
We made our hydrogens in the lab with cellulosic powder which is a plant
component it makes our hydrogel completely biodegradable and eco
friendly
We mixed our hydrogen with our organic cotton to make the second layer
When the Cotton blends with the hydrogel perfectly hydrogel soaks most
of the liquid. Acting as a moisture lock layer
4. Beeswax wrap
The Beeswax wrap is generally used in food wrapping but we used this in
our pads because of its water retentive property after testing it thoroughly
we found out that It Acts as a barrier and does not let the liquid seep out.
And locks the moisture in
5. Bottom layer
The cloth for the bottom layer is not as organic as the first layer it is soft
to the touch but the water does not permeate fully through it

3.2 Design Constraints

The question arises why eco-friendly pads are much more expensive than normal
plastic pads, these are some of the reasons why it is so:

• Sustainable material- Organic or biodegradable materials, such as organic

cotton, bamboo, or plant-based fibres, are commonly used to make eco-

49
 friendly pads. When compared to the synthetic materials used in standard
plastic pads, these materials are more expensive to procure and create.

• Manufacturing process- Eco-friendly pad production frequently necessitates

more environmentally friendly manufacturing procedures, such as the use of
low-impact dyes, reduced water and energy consumption, and ethical labour
practices. These techniques may raise production costs, adding to the
increased price of environmentally friendly pads.

• Limited scales and demand- Eco-friendly pads are still new to the market and
have lower demand than regular plastic pads. Large-scale production
economies of scale are not yet completely realised, which may result in higher
costs per unit for eco-friendly pads.

• Certifications and standards- Many Eco-friendly pads undergo certification

processes to verify their environmental claims and ensure their sustainability
credentials. These certifications and adherence to strict standards may add to
the production costs and, consequently, the price of the product.

Marketing and Awareness- Additional marketing efforts are required to promote

and educate consumers about the benefits of eco-friendly pads. Companies that
manufacture these pads frequently must invest in public awareness campaigns,
which raises the entire cost.

While eco-friendly pads may have a greater initial cost, their long-term
environmental benefits and lower environmental effect make them a more
sustainable alternative. The price differential between eco-friendly pads and
standard plastic pads may narrow over time as demand grows and technology
progresses.

USING PLASTIC PADS CAN CAUSE-

50
DRAWBACKS OF ECO-FRIENDLY PADS-

• HIGHER COST- Eco-friendly pads are typically more expensive than

standard plastic cushions. Because of the increased cost, they may be less
accessible or affordable for some people, particularly in areas or communities
with limited resources or economic constraints.

• AVAILABILITY AND VARIETY- Eco-friendly pads may be more difficult

to find than regular pads, particularly in some regions or smaller marketplaces.
Furthermore, the selection of sizes, absorbencies, and styles offered may be
more limited than the many possibilities available for standard pads.

• ABSORBANCE AND PERFORMANCE- Some users may discover that eco-

friendly pads are less absorbent than regular pads. While producers attempt to
improve the absorbent capacities of eco-friendly materials, they may not
always equal the effectiveness of synthetic materials used in standard pads,
such as superabsorbent polymers.

• ADAPTATION PERIOD- Some users may require an adjustment time when

switching from regular pads to eco-friendly pads. It may take some time for
people to acclimatise to the unusual feel, texture, or fit of eco-friendly pads
and find the ideal solution that matches their needs and preferences.

51
 • WASHING AND MAINTAINENCE- Some environmentally friendly pads,
such as reusable cotton pads, must be washed and maintained after each use.
For users who prefer the simplicity of disposable pads, this can be
inconvenient. To preserve the hygiene and longevity of reusable eco-friendly
pads, proper care, including washing and drying recommendations, must be
followed.

• ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT OF PRODUCTION- While eco-friendly pads

are designed to have a low environmental impact, the manufacturing process
may have certain environmental consequences. Organic cotton or bamboo
production, for example, may necessitate water and land resources, and
manufacturing techniques for certain eco-friendly materials may nevertheless
generate waste or emissions.

• DISPOSAL ANSD WASTE MANAGEMENT- While reusable eco-friendly

pads generate less trash than disposable plastic pads, they nonetheless produce
waste in the form of packaging or end-of-life disposal. To guarantee that the
environmental impact of disposing of used pads is as small as possible, certain
waste management practices must be followed.

It is crucial to note that these disadvantages may differ based on the type and
brand of eco-friendly pads purchased. When deciding, it is recommended to
carefully assess numerous options and consider human requirements,
preferences, and environmental concerns.

The use of eco-friendly napkins is associated with several social and political issues
as-

• Environmental impact- Plastic is the most destructive substance and is also

detrimental to the environment and human body; it is used in sanitary napkins,

52
 but eco-friendly sanitary pads are biodegradable and minimise environmental
harm.

• Women’s health and accessibility- Chemicals are used in plastic-based

sanitary napkins which is harmful to females’ skin and results in irritation, but
eco-friendly sanitary pads are made up of banana fibres which convert into
fluff cottony structure which makes them soft.

• Sustainability and waste management- The production, usage, and disposal of

conventional sanitary napkins all contribute considerably to waste formation.
By encouraging the adoption of environmentally friendly alternatives, society
may progress towards a more sustainable approach to menstruation hygiene.
However, building efficient waste management systems and educating people
on the need for safe disposal is critical for effectively tackling this issue.

• Cultural and social stigma- Menstruation is still associated with social and
cultural taboos in many civilizations. Promoting the use of eco-friendly
sanitary napkins can help reduce the taboo surrounding menstruation and
encourage open dialogues about women's health. On the other hand, cultural
attitudes and practises may provide barriers to adopting and accepting
environmentally friendly alternatives.

• Policy and industry regulation- Government rules and regulations are critical
in promoting the use of environmentally friendly sanitary napkins.
Policymakers can encourage the development and production of sustainable
menstrual hygiene products by offering subsidies or tax breaks, as well as
implementing adequate labelling rules. Industry laws can help ensure that
manufacturers follow environmentally friendly practices and identify their
products correctly.

53
 Government of India to commemorate International Women's Day, Suvidha, a
biodegradable sanitary pad, was unveiled on Thursday. The oxo-biodegradable
sanitary pads, which cost Rs 2.50 a pad, will be sold at Pradhan Mantri
Bhartiya Janaushadhi centres. The sanitary pads will be sold in packs of four
at 3200 locations for Rs 10. The biodegradable pad will assure 'Swachhta,
Swasthya, and Suvidha' for the disadvantaged ladies.

3.3 Analysis of Features and finalization subject to Constraints

A comparative study of the various commercialised sanitary napkins was performed.

The texture and composition of all the layers and additional components in the
sanitary napkins were studied. Their water retention capacity, increase in volume after
absorption of fluid and increase in weight after absorption of fluids were examined.

After weighing and measuring all the available options in hand, we selected the most
suitable components for our prototype which would contain the most desirable
characters:

Following are each of the substances selected due to their enlisted advantages that
have made us choose our ingredients while eliminating the other options.

Selection criteria for Banana fibres in making absorbent core:

In our project, we employ banana fibres to make biodegradable and compostable

sanitary napkins. There are numerous reasons why we choose banana fibres. Some of
them are as follows:

• Absorbency- They have a natural absorbency component that allows them to

easily hold fluids, avoid leaking, and keep it dry.

54
 • Softness- When they are combined into sanitary napkins, they have a very
fine, soft, and silky texture that provides a nice sensation against the skin,
minimising the risk of irritation and pain.

• Biodegradability- Banana fibres are biodegradable, which means they can

degrade naturally in the environment. This is an environmentally friendly
feature since it decreases the environmental impact of sanitary napkins when
they are discarded.

• Availability and sustainability- Banana plants are widely grown in various

parts of the world. By utilising a renewable and widely available resource, the
use of banana fibres in sanitary napkins can support sustainability.

• Waste Reduction -Banana fibres are commonly available and can be obtained
sustainably. Banana pseudo-stem is a by-product of banana growing that can
be used to reduce waste and promote sustainable agriculture practices.

• Antibacterial property -Banana fibre contains natural antibacterial qualities

that can help prevent bacteria growth and lower the risk of infection. While
cotton, jute, and hemp do have antibacterial characteristics, they may not be as
effective in limiting bacterial development as banana fibre.

Because of its natural, biodegradable, sustainable, antibacterial, absorbent, soft, and

hypoallergenic qualities, banana fibre is a potential material for creating
biodegradable sanitary pads. However, more research is required to completely
understand the qualities and possible applications of banana fibre in the creation of
sanitary pads, as well as to optimise the manufacturing process.

55
FIG 3.1 SELECTION CRITERIA FOR BANANA FIBRE

Selection criteria for cellulose hydrogels:

Cellulose is considered suitable for making SAPs for biodegradable sanitary napkins
due to several reasons:

• Abundance and Renewable Nature: Cellulose is the most abundant biopolymer

on Earth and can be obtained from various sources, including wood,
agricultural wastes, etc. It is renewable, sustainable, and widely available,
making it an attractive choice for eco-friendly applications.

• Biocompatibility: Cellulose is biocompatible, meaning it is non-toxic and non-

irritating to the human body. When used in sanitary napkins, it reduces the risk
of skin allergies or irritations, making it safe for prolonged contact with
sensitive areas.

• High Water Absorption Capacity: Cellulose has a remarkable water absorption

capacity. It can absorb and hold significant amounts of liquid compared to its
weight, making it an efficient material for absorbing menstrual fluid during

56
 use. This property ensures better fluid management and provides enhanced
comfort and dryness.

• Retention and Gelation Ability: Hydrogels made from cellulose can form a
three-dimensional network capable of retaining absorbed liquid and preventing
leakage. These hydrogels can transform from a liquid to a gel-like state upon
absorption, effectively trapping the fluid and reducing the risk of leakage.

• Biodegradability: One of the most significant advantages of using cellulose-

based hydrogels in sanitary napkins is their biodegradability. Cellulose can be
easily broken down by natural microbial processes, reducing environmental
pollution and waste accumulation. By using cellulose hydrogels, the overall
environmental impact of sanitary napkin disposal can be minimized.

• Mechanical Strength and Softness: Cellulose-based hydrogels can be

engineered to possess suitable mechanical properties, providing strength and
stability while maintaining a soft and comfortable texture. This combination
ensures that the napkin remains intact during use and can withstand movement
and physical stress.

Considering these properties, cellulose emerges as an ideal material for manufacturing

hydrogels used in biodegradable sanitary napkins. It offers excellent absorbency,
comfort, safety, and environmental sustainability, making it a preferred choice in the
development of eco-friendly feminine hygiene products.

Selection criteria for beeswax in making impervious layer:

57
A reusable and environmentally beneficial alternative to plastic wrap, beeswax wrap
has many advantages, including water retentivity. The advantages of beeswax wrap,
including its capacity to retain water, are as follows:

• Beeswax wrap is constructed of natural materials like beeswax, organic cotton

fabric, tree resin, and jojoba oil. This makes it sustainable and biodegradable.
It is an environmentally beneficial and sustainable choice that decreases
plastic waste.

• Water Retentivity: Beeswax wrap may hold onto water. It forms a permeable
yet protective barrier when wrapped around food or containers, helping to
keep moisture.

• Reusable and Washable: One of the major benefits of beeswax wrap is that it
can be reused. It is a resource that may be utilised repeatedly.

• Breathable and Moulds to Shape: Because beeswax wrap is permeable, the

risk of moisture accumulation is decreased. Additionally, it takes on the form
of the object it is wrapping, fitting snugly, and preserving freshness.

• Beeswax contains inherent antibacterial qualities that can help prevent the
formation of microorganisms on surfaces. This may help some perishable
goods last longer on the shelf.

• Chemical-Free: Beeswax wrap is normally created from natural substances,

making it a safe solution. In contrast to some plastic wraps that may contain
dangerous chemicals.

When a beeswax wrap's life cycle is over, it can be composted. It can be placed in a
compost pile or composting facility after it wears out or becomes unusable, where it
will naturally decompose.

58
FIG 3.2 SELECTION CRITERIA FOR BEESWAX WRAP
Selection criteria for Polylactic acid Plastic:

For several reasons, polylactic acid (PLA) plastics are frequently employed in the
manufacture of pads-

• Biodegradability: Made from renewable materials like corn flour or sugarcane,

PLA is a biodegradable polymer. It is regarded as an eco-friendly substitute
for conventional polymers made from fossil fuels. PLA plastics can
decompose into natural components when disposed of under the right
circumstances (such as in industrial composting facilities), minimising their
negative environmental effects.

• Absorbency: PLA polymers are suited for applications like menstrual pads
because they can be manufactured to have good absorbent qualities. The
substance can efficiently absorb and hold fluids, which gives it the
functionality needed to hold back the menstrual flow.

59
• Softness and Comfort: PLA pads can be made to be comfortable to use and
gentle on the skin. The user experience can be improved by engineering the
material to have a smooth texture and flexibility

• Non-Toxic: PLA is regarded as non-toxic, which means that when used, it

doesn't release any hazardous substances or harmful compounds. This ensures
user safety and lowers potential health hazards, which is crucial. products like
pads that come into touch with the body.

• Renewable Resource: The fact that PLA is made from renewable resources,
such as plant-based materials, lessens the need for fossil fuels. An
environmentally friendly and more sustainable production method is made
possible by the usage of PLA polymers

FIG 3.3 SELECTION CRITERIA FOR PLA PLASTIC

60
 3.4 Design Flow

FIG 3.4 DIAGRAMMATIC REPRESENTATION OF DESIGN FLOW

THEORY-

• First, we review various commercialized pads available in the market and then
we cross-section them to check water retentivity and water reasonability,
weight reduction, weight increase and volume increase

• Then we examine the layer-by-layer cross-section and found the materials

used in each layer for the different pads and then by performing this

61
 experiment we found out the best biodegradable option that we can
incorporate in our biodegradable pads for each of the layers.

THE EXAMINATION RESULTS WE OBTAINED-

TABLE 3.1

: WEIGHT/ WITHOUT ADDING INK

• WISHPER 5.412 gm (gel present)

• BIOKALP 6.712 gm (gel present)
• STAYFREE 5.981gm (only cotton+ unknown
substance)
• SOFY 7.696gm
• PROEASE 10.470gm

TABLE 3.2

: WEIGHT/ ADDED INK

• STAYFREE 30.921gm {(+35ml it can hold)}

• BIOKALP 42.656gm {(+35ml it can hold)}
• WISHPER 40.076gm {(+35ml it can hold)}
• ` SOFY 40.917gm {(+35ml it can hold)}
• PROEASE 44.064gm {(+35ml it can hold)}

: AFTER 10 MIN:

• STAYFREE=30.533gm

• BIOKALP= 42.491gm

These are the results of our 1st prototype.

62
• And after performing this we settle upon the various ingredients like banana
stem

Banana fibre is naturally extraordinarily absorbent and extremely good at

absorbing menstrual fluid.

• It also has natural absorbency which allows them to easily hold fluids, and
avoid leaking and whereas softening gives a fine, soft, and silky texture that
provides a nice sensation against the skin.

• We choose cellulosic hydrogels as it has a swelling capacity Due to their

hydrophilic nature, hydrogels have a high-water absorption capacity.

And, biodegradability many hydrogels are biodegradable, which means they

can be degraded and metabolized over time by biological processes. Cellulose
is the major component of the banana stem, accounting for more than half of
the total banana stem weight.

• Beeswax wrap is made of natural ingredients such as beeswax, organic cotton

fabric,

tree resin, and jojoba oil. This makes it both sustainable and biodegradable. It
is a green and sustainable option that reduces plastic waste, and PLA plastic
and then at the end, we assemble them all together to create prototype 1.

63
FIG 3.5 DESIGN FLOW OF THE PRODUCT

FIG 3.6 Banana pseudo-stem trunk cross section and its parts: (b) outer
parts; (c) middle parts; (d)inner parts; and (e) core parts

Pseudo-stem fibre extraction machine.-

https://www.intechopen.com/chapters/64570

64
 PROTOCOLS

1. PROTOCOL FOR BANANA PSEUDO STEM-

Materials required-
 Banana pseudo stem
 Sharp knife
 Decorticator machine
 Chemicals- Sodium hydroxide (NaOH), Hydrogen peroxide(H2O2).

Procedure-
1. Selecting a mature banana pseudo stem for extraction.
2. A sharp knife is required to cut the pseudo stem.
3. The stalks are then split in half, and the parts are then gradually pulled apart
layer by layer.
4. The fibres are extracted with a machine named decorticator machine which
gives a stringy fibre after the process.
5. These fibres can also be extracted using chemicals like Sodium hydroxide
(NaOH), Hydrogen peroxide(H2O2).
6. These fibres are then cleaned and hung to dry.
7. When dried completely, then we must cut the fibres into small pieces.
8. The next step is converting the fibres into fluff.

The absorbent core of the pad is formed

2. PROTOCOL FOR CELLULOSIC HYDROGEL PREPARATIONN

A. METHOD 1
Materials:

• Cellulose powder
• Sodium hydroxide (NaOH)
• Distilled water
• Hydrochloric acid (HCl)
• Ethanol

65
Procedure:

• Stirring at ambient temperature for two hours will help dissolve cellulose
powder in a 17.5% sodium hydroxide solution (NaOH).
• Stir the mixture for 10 to 15 minutes after adding it to distilled water.
• Add 0.1 M hydrochloric acid (HCl) to the mixture and stir until the pH is
adjusted to 5.5–6.5.
• For the hydrogel to precipitate, pour the mixture into ethanol.
• To get rid of any residual NaOH and HCl, thoroughly wash the hydrogel with
distilled water several times.
• To create a dry, porous cellulose hydrogel, freeze-dry the hydrogel.

Note: The properties of the hydrogel can be modified by adjusting the concentration
of the cellulose solution and the amount of NaOH used.

B.METHOD 2
Materials:

• Cellulose powder
• Acetic acid (glacial)
• Distilled water
• Sodium hydroxide (NaOH)
• Sodium hypophosphite monohydrate

Procedure:

• At room temperature, cellulose powder should be dissolved in glacial acetic

acid.
• To create a 2-3% cellulose solution, dilute the cellulose-acetic acid solution
with distilled water.
• To bring the pH to about 7.0, add a little amount of sodium hydroxide
(NaOH).

66
 • As a cross-linking agent, mix in sodium hypophosphite monohydrate,
typically 2-4 per cent by weight of cellulose, to the solution.
• Stir the mixture for many hours at room temperature in order to achieve a clear
solution.
• Pour the mixture into a mould and allow it to set up.
• Take the hydrogel out of the mould and thoroughly rinse it with distilled water
to get rid of any unreacted chemicals.
• To achieve constant weight, dry the hydrogel in a vacuum oven at a low
temperature, typically about 40°C.

3. PROTOCOL FOR BEESWAX WRAP PREPARATION

Materials:
100% cotton fabric (cut to desired size)

Beeswax pellets or grated beeswax

Jojoba oil

Procedure:

1.Preheat your oven to 185°F (85°C).

2.Cut your fabric to your desired size. Wash and dry the fabric.

3.Place the fabric on a baking sheet lined with parchment paper.

4.Sprinkle the grated beeswax evenly over the fabric.

5.If using pine resin, sprinkle it over the beeswax.

6.Drizzle jojoba oil over the fabric.

67
7.Place the baking sheet in the oven and bake for 5-10 minutes or until the beeswax
has melted.

8.Use a paintbrush or spatula to spread the melted beeswax and oil mixture evenly
over the fabric.

9.Once coated, lift the fabric and allow it to cool and harden for a few seconds.

10.If necessary, trim any excess wax or fabric.

Tips:

Use caution when handling hot wax to avoid burns.

Store your beeswax wraps in a cool, dry place.

To clean, wash in cold water with mild soap and air dry.

Avoid using beeswax wraps with meat products as they cannot be sanitized properly.

4. PROTOCOL FOR PLA PLASTIC PREPARATION

Materials:
Creating sheets of polylactic acid (PLA) plastic without a 3D printer involves a more
involved manufacturing process. Here is a simplified protocol for making PLA plastic
sheets:
1. Polylactic acid (PLA) pellets or granules
2. Non-stick silicone baking mat or Teflon-coated surface
3. Rolling pin or similar tool for flattening the plastic
4. Parchment paper or baking paper
5. Oven or hot plate
6. Optional: Thermometer (if using a hot plate)

Procedure:
1. Prepare the PLA: Measure the desired amount of PLA pellets or granules based on
the size of the sheet you want to create. Keep in mind that the PLA will melt and
spread out, so start with a small amount and adjust as needed.

68
2. Preheat the oven or hot plate: If using an oven, preheat it to a temperature between
150 to 180 degrees Celsius (300 to 350 degrees Fahrenheit). If using a hot plate, set it
to a similar temperature range. If you're using a hot plate, it's helpful to have a
thermometer to monitor the temperature accurately.

3. Spread the silicone baking mat: Place the nonstick silicone baking mat or Teflon-
coated surface on a heat-resistant surface.

4. Sprinkle PLA on the mat: Sprinkle the PLA pellets or granules evenly over the
silicone baking mat, making sure to spread them out. Leave some space between the
pellets to allow them to melt and spread.

5. Cover with parchment paper: Place a sheet of parchment paper or baking paper on
top of the PLA pellets. This will prevent them from sticking to the rolling pin or other
tools.

6. Apply heat: Place the silicone baking mat with the PLA pellets and parchment
paper in the preheated oven or on the hot plate. Allow the PLA to heat and melt
gradually.

7. Flatten the plastic: Once the PLA starts to melt and becomes pliable, carefully
remove it from the oven or hot plate. Using a rolling pin or similar tool, gently flatten
and spread the melted PLA over the silicone baking mat. Apply even pressure to
create a uniform thickness.

8. Cool and solidify: Let the flattened PLA sheet cool and solidify completely. You
can leave it on the silicone baking mat or transfer it to a heat-resistant surface to cool.

9. Trim and shape (optional): Once the PLA sheet has hardened, you can trim it into
the desired shape and size using scissors or a utility knife.

69
10. Store and use: Store the PLA sheets in a cool, dry place until ready to use. They
can be used for various applications, such as crafting, prototypes, or lightweight
structural components.

Keep in mind that this method produces PLA sheets without the precision and
accuracy of 3D printing. The thickness and quality of the sheets may vary based on
the process and materials used. It's always a good idea to experiment with small
quantities and adjust the process as needed to achieve the desired results.

• Design selection

COMPONENTS PREPARED:
Beeswax strip, cotton, hydrogels, two types of fabrics
• As per the components we could make we have designed our
product as follows
• The First layer is of cotton cloth which has high water permeability
• The second layer consists of our organic cotton mixed with
cellulosic hydrogels.
• The third layer consists of a beeswax wrap strip, we have used
beeswax because of its water retentivity property as it will not allow
the bool to seep out.
• The fourth and final layer consists of a cotton cloth which is not
highly permeable as it is not 100% cotton

70
 - IMPLEMENTATION/METHODOLOGY

FIG 3.7 ASSEMBLING OF THE PROTOTYPE

CHAPTER 4: RESULTS ANALYSIS AND VALIDATION

• Implementation of the solution

71
 Analysis of the various commercialised sanitary napkins was performed. Their
characteristics are studied layer by layer. 35ml of dyed water was poured over each
sanitary napkin and various parameters like water absorbency, water retentivity,
increase in volume, and increase in weight of each sanitary nap were studied.

TABLE 4.1

NAME OF
Layer 1 Layer 2 Layer 3 Layer 4 Layer 5 Disadvantages Advantages
BRAND
The first The The third The pad on the Reliable fluid
layer of the second layer is absorption of absorption
pad is layer the the fluid swells that eliminates
typically was bottom up it’s its or greatly
made of a made layer of weight and reduces the
non-woven up of this pad increases by risk of
material highly and is 6x its original accidents.
that is absorbe typically weight with Very less
designed to nt core made up the addition of increase in
STAYFREE be soft and material of a NA NA 35 ml liquid. volume and
comfortable s that material Also, it lacks size upon
against the are called an antibacterial absorption of
skin. This placed polyethe layer which moisture.
layer is between ne film. prevents Also, the
often made liquid This is a various presence of a
from a perviou thin, infections canal-like
blend of s top plastic- caused by the design
synthetic sheets like longer provides a
fibres, such and material wearability of thorough

72
 as liquid that is the pad. distribution of
polypropyle impervi waterpro moisture at a
ne and ous of and good pace.
polyester, plastic helps
and is back prevent
designed to sheets leakage.
quickly the core This
wick away is made layer
moisture up of helps to
from the highly create a
skin, compre moisture
helping to ssed, barrier
keep the non- that may
user feeling woven be
dry and and present,
comfortable absorbe helping
. It has nt to keep
canal-like cotton the
designs, that wearer
water is absorbs dry and
distributed the comforta
thoroughly. moistur ble.
e.
The first The The third The The absorption The pad has
layer is second layer last time of the pad an
made up of layer is consists layer is is very much, antibacterial
polyester made of a a fluid after getting sheet that
and up of a blend of imper full the first prevents
SOFY NA
polypropyle green- SAF and meable layer falls bacterial
ne into a coloure cotton, sheet sticky and the infections
thin non- d sheet these which last layer tears such as
woven which cotton prevent with the use of infections
fabric that is layers s minimal force. caused by

73
 resembles antibact are leakage Escherichia
cloth or erial in compress general coli,
cotton nature. ed into ly Staphylococcu
qualities. this thin made s aureus and
sheet sheets at up of Candia
also has least 3-4 polyeth albicans. it
fragranc cotton ylene also contains
e 20% sheets fragrance
of the are which locks
fibre is present the period
hydroph in the odour
ilic third
which layer.
provide
s
sufficie
nt
capillar
y
actions
to pull
the
fluid
through
the core
and
provide
a dry
surface.
The first The It is The pad on Proease pads
layer is second typically adsorption of are 25mm
PROEASE NA NA
generally layer is made of fluids swells longer than
made up of the a up and its your ordinary

74
 thermally layer of waterpro weight 230mm long
bonded or the pad of or increases by pad and
air-bonded that water- 6x its original absorb 90%
composite absorbs resistant weight with more due to
non-woven the material, the addition of more
material menstru such as 35 ml liquid. absorbent
This layer is al fluid. polyethyl Additives such material. So
a perforated The ene, that as fragrances, you can use
film that core is prevents deodorants, them on your
allows typicall the absorbency heaviest flow
liquid to y made menstrua agents, and days
pass of l fluid formaldehyde
through it multiple from enhance their
quickly into layers leaking properties but
the of through can cause
absorbent natural the pad allergies and
structure cotton onto the skin reactions.
and stays fibres underwe
dry, since that are ar.
the fluid is compre
entrapped in ssed
the together
structure. to
create a
thick,
absorbe
nt layer.
The top The The third This The last The pad on the A high
layer is a cottony layer layer layer absorption of amount of
thin and unwove consists consist consists fluid swells hydrogels are
WHISPER
non-woven n soft of a s of of and its weight present which
(Spun lace) layer, powdery highly usually a increases 7x its reduces the
small web- the substanc compre plastic or original weight impact of

75
like Second e ssed, similar on 35ml liquid wetness on the
structure layer compress non- material which won't be skin. DRI
made of consists ed woven that comfortable to Weave cover
hydrophilic of a between absorb provides carry absorbs the
cellulosic cottony 2nd and ent a barrier fluid in
staple sample 4th fibre to seconds,
fibres. the the layers layers prevent Nearly 40%
materials Distribu which which any leaks Longer for
for the top tion and are not are from long-lasting
layer may transfer visible to filled escaping coverage
include which the with the
polyester, spreads naked hydrog napkin.
polyethene out the eye in a els
or fluid dry state when
polypropyle when but can filled
ne fibres absorpti observe with
their blend, on of when fluid.
cotton, the absorptio 35ml
viscose/ray fluid, n of fluid of fluid
on etc. Its through takes was
role is to out the place and poured
wick away time in a jelly- on the
moisture the like whole
and keep longitud substanc pad
the skin dry inal e swell which
and feel directio up with has a
comfortable n to water good
when in increase retention retentio
use. the ability n factor
probabil the most
ity of commonl
more y used
retentio superabs

76
 n and orbent
utilizati polymers
on. are made
from
materials
such as
sodium
polyacryl
ate or
cellulose.
These
gels are
safe and
effective
at
absorbin
g liquid
and are
designed
to keep
the user
feeling
dry and
comforta
ble
during
use
The top The The third This This The pad on the The presence
layer is a second layer layer is layer absorption of of a huge
thin non- layer consists of the consists the fluid swells amount of
BIOKALP
woven sheet consists of a same of a fluid and its weight hydrogels
of cotton- of powdery thickne impervio increases by reduces the
like sheets substanc ss as us back 6x its original sensation of

77
material of e that is layer 2 sheet that weight with wetness on the
with no unwove compress and looks the addition of skin. It claims
canal-like n, ed consist like 35 ml liquid to be a
designs in highly between s of the plastic which can be biodegradable
the middle. compre absorben same and has uncomfortable sanitary
This layer ssed, t fibre highly an to carry. napkin
allows fast absorbe layers 2 compre adhesive Secondly, thereby
penetration nt fibres and 4 ssed,no on its unlike other reducing the
of the fluid. that and is n- backside pads which load of human
It is soft to swell not woven, at the site have a canal- impact on the
the skin. up on visible to absorb of like-like environment
absorpti the ent attachme design on the after disposal.
on of naked fibre nt to the top surface of
the eye in layers undergar the pads which
liquid the dry with a ment. ensures
and also state. meagre uniform
pass These amount distribution of
down swell up of the fluid along
the on hydrog the length of
liquid absorptio els in the pad, this
to the n of the betwee pad lacks such
subsequ fluid and n each a design and
ent into layer. thus shows
layers. jelly-like This less efficiency
This substanc has in the
layer es with around distribution of
has 2-3 quite a 3 fluid.
sheets lot of sheets
of water of
absorbe retention compre
nt ability. ssed
fibres. These fibre
have a layers.

78
benefit 35 ml
as they of fluid
reduce poured
the on the
sensation whole
of pad is
wetness held
in well by
comparis the
on to fibres
other and
pads and does
swell up not
quickly trickle
preventin down
g leakage beyond
from the layer 4.
top layer
of the
sanitary
napkin.
Hydrogel
s in this
pad are
found in
a pretty
good
amount
in
comparis
on to the
other
brands.

79
TABLE 4.2

SL NAME OF GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION OF EACH LAYER

NO. BRAND
1.

STAYFREE

2.

WHISPER

3.

SOFY

80
 4.

PROTEASE

5.

BIOKALP

4.2- TESTING AND ANALYSIS OF THE COMPONENTS

AIM- TESTING THE WATER-HOLDING CAPACITY OF COTTON

INCORPORATED WITH HYDROGELS.

MATERIALS REQUIRED- Cotton incorporated with hydrogel, Petri plate, pipette,

tips, weighing machine, distilled water,

PROCEDURE-

81
 • We took cotton incorporated with hydrogel and weighed it without a Petri
plate.
• Then we transfer the cotton incorporated with hydrogel into a Petri plate.
• At first, we added 10 ml of water into it and weighed it.
• Then repeat the step with 16 ml of water.

OBSERVATION- We observed that when adding 16 ml of water the cotton

incorporated with hydrogel saturates at 12 ml before the completion of the estimated
range of water. So, no water is added further.

RESULTS-

WEIGHT COTTON+ HYDROGEL

Actual weight 0.340 gm
(without petri plate)
Actual weight 45.95gm
( with petri plate)
Water added 55.619gm
(10ml)
Water added 57.5gm
(16ml)

-Saturates at 12ml so, no water is added further.

82
AIM - TESTING OF WATER RETENTION PROPERTY OF BEESWAX
WRAP

MATERIALS REQUIRED-
we will need a sample of beeswax strips which we made in our lab, micropipettes, a
petri dish, water
PROCEDURE-

83
 • Take your beeswax wrap sample and put it on a Petri plate
• Take a micropipette and pour 1 ml water on it
• Check for any leakage or moisture under the beeswax wrap

• Pour more water with the help of a micropipette and check under the wrap

• After pouring a significant amount of water check for leakage under the
beeswax wrap

OBSERVATIONS
We found that our sample of beeswax was successful in showing its water
retention property as there was no water leakage.
We also got to know it also locks the moisture in.

4.3- PROJECT MANAGEMENT AND COMMUNICATION

HOW WE APPROACHED THE PROJECT-

The original approach to the project was biodegradable sustainable development. As

we researched many new issues regarding this, we discovered that sanitary pads were
created from banana stems, which appears to be an interesting topic, and this is how
we approach our subsequent themes.

84
FIG 4.1THIS WAS THE INITIAL PROJECT MADE BY THE US

85
HOW WE DID THE PROJECT-

We assembled all our requirements, produced fluff, and worked in labs to create the
impenetrable sheath, which is the heated beeswax –

• Melt it in the Soxhlet extractor for 25-30 minutes, or until melted.

• We then took the organic fabric and poured the melted beeswax into it.

• And spread it to the finish

• Allow it to dry completely before wrapping it with beeswax.

FIG 4.2 MELTING BEESWAX ON SOXHLET

86
 FIG 4.3 MAKING OF BEESWAX WRAP

TASK DIVISION-

We have divided the task into 5 parts-

• First- Gathering information about new technologies and existing solutions

and the main part of making a banana pseudo stem.

• Second- Making fluff preparation and cellulosic hydrogels.

• Third- Information about beeswax

• Fourth- Information about PLA plastic.

• Fifth- The complete information of all the steps together and knowing every
portion of the project.

COST CALCULATIONS:
• Raw Organic Cotton -150 rupees/Kg
• Cotton Cloth top layer -60 rupee /Meter

87
 • Cotton cloth bottom layer -50 rupee/Meter
• Beeswax -550 rupee/Kg
• Conversion of cellulosic powder to hydrogel-900/Kg

COST CALCULATION OF 1 PAD

1. Cotton -1 rupee
2. Beeswax wrap strip- 6 rupee
3. Top layer-4 rupee
4. Bottom layer-2 rupee
5. Hydrogel -12 rupee
TOTAL=22 rupee

CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSION AND FUTURE WORK

• Conclusion

In conclusion, the development of biodegradable sanitary pads made from banana

pseudo stem offers a sustainable and eco-friendly alternative to commercial sanitary
pads. Our research has shown that these pads are not only biodegradable but also
effective in absorbing menstrual flow and preventing leakage.

Furthermore, our study has revealed that biodegradable sanitary pads made from
banana pseudo stem have a lower environmental impact compared to commercial
sanitary pads. This is due to their biodegradability and the use of natural and
renewable materials in their production.

We acknowledge that there are still challenges to be addressed in the development

and distribution of these pads, including increasing awareness and accessibility,
refining the production process, and evaluating their impact on menstrual health.
However, we believe that these challenges can be addressed through continued
research, innovation, and investment.

88
We recommend further research and development in this field to address the
challenges and advance the development of biodegradable sanitary pads made from
banana pseudo stem. This can be done through partnerships with local communities,
women's cooperatives, and small-scale enterprises to increase production and
distribution.

Overall, the development of biodegradable sanitary pads made from the banana
pseudo stem has the potential to contribute to sustainable development goals and
provide a sustainable and eco-friendly solution to menstrual care. We hope that our
findings and recommendations will inspire further research and action in this field to
promote sustainable menstrual care and support global sustainability goals.

 Future Outlook

The development of biodegradable sanitary pads made from banana pseudo stem
offers a promising future for sustainable and eco-friendly menstrual care. This section
discusses potential future developments and advancements in this field.

1. Improved production process: As research and development continue, there is

potential for the production process of biodegradable sanitary pads made from banana
pseudo stem to be further improved. This may include the use of new technologies or
refining existing processes to increase efficiency and reduce costs.

2. Increased availability and accessibility: As awareness and demand for eco-friendly

menstrual products such as biodegradable sanitary pads made from banana pseudo
stem grow, there is potential for these products to become more widely available and
accessible. This may include increased production and distribution, as well as
partnerships with retailers and organizations to provide access to low-income
populations.

3. Innovation in material design: There is potential for further innovation in the design
and development of materials used in biodegradable sanitary pads made from banana

89
pseudo stem. This may include the use of other natural and biodegradable materials to
increase the absorbency and effectiveness of the pads.

4. Impact on menstrual health: Further research is needed to evaluate the impact of

biodegradable sanitary pads made from the banana pseudo stem on menstrual health.
This may include studies on the efficacy of the pads in reducing menstrual cramps or
other menstrual-related discomforts.

5. Contribution to sustainability: The development and use of biodegradable sanitary

pads made from the banana pseudo stem can contribute to global sustainability goals.
This may include reduced carbon emissions and landfill waste, as well as increased
awareness and education about sustainable menstrual care.

In conclusion, the outlook for biodegradable sanitary pads made from the banana
pseudo stem is promising. With continued research, innovation, and investment, there
is potential for these pads to become a widespread and accessible alternative to
commercial sanitary pads. The use of these pads can contribute to a more sustainable
and eco-friendly approach to menstrual care and support the achievement of
sustainable development goals.

FIG 5.1 IMAGE OF OUR PROTOTYPE

90
 REFERENCES

1 https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1022874530586

Kai-Lai G. Ho, Anthony L. Pometto III, Arnoldo Gadea-Rivas, Jorge A. Briceño &
Augusto Rojas
Journal of environmental polymer degradation volume 7, pages173–177 (1999)
L. F. Cordero (1998) in Crisol Enero, San Jose, Costa Rica, p. 3

K.-L. G. Ho, A. L. Pometto III, and P. N. Hinz (1999) J. Environ. Polym. Degrad. 7,
83–92.

2
REFERENCE-DOI: 10.1039/D1RA02390J
Ahmed Z. Naser ORCID logo*a, I. Deiab a and Basil M. Darras
First published on 10th May 2021\

3
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodcont.2020.107435

Agnes Rortais, Federica Barrucci, Valeria Ercolano, Jens Linge, Anna

Christodoulidou, Jean-Pierre Cravedi, Raquel Garcia-Matas, Claude Saegerman,
Lidija Svečnjak
European Food Safety Authority, V. Carlo Magno 1A, 43126 Parma, Italy
Received 1 April 2020, Revised 9 June 2020, Accepted 15 June 2020, Available
online 2 July 2020, Version of Record 3 August 2020.

4
“Cellulose-based hydrogels for personal care products”
Authors: Beshari, A., Rouhani Shirvan, A., Shakeri, M.
Journal: Wiley-Polymer advanced technologies
Year: 2018

91
5 PLA synthesis
Pic-https://ars.els-cdn.com/content/image/1-s2.0-S2542504823000167-gr2.jp

6 https://www.saukhyampads.org/

7 FIG 2.2-https://www.anaclothpads.com/cloth-reusable-napkins-india.php

8 FIG 2.1IMAGE- https://saathipads.com/pages/saathi-loyalty-program

9 https://eprints.tarc.edu.my/20242/

10 https://www.nveo.org/index.php/journal/article/view/2534

11 https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/nvsm.166

12 https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/nvsm.166

92
PLAGIARISM REPORT-

93
THE END

94