1.

Sensor: A sensor is a device that detects and responds to a physical stimulus in the
environment, such as temperature, pressure, or light. The sensor converts the physical
stimulus into an electrical signal that can be processed and analyzed by other components in a
system.
Some common types of sensors include:
1. Temperature sensors, which measure the temperature of a system.
2. Pressure sensors, which measure the pressure of a fluid or gas.
3. Accelerometers, which measure acceleration or vibration.
4. Light sensors, which detect the intensity of light.
5. Infrared sensors, which detect the presence of infrared radiation.
2. Actuator: An actuator is a device that produces a physical effect or action in response to
an electrical signal, such as producing motion or generating heat. The actuator receives an
electrical signal from a controller or other system component and converts that signal into a
physical action or effect.
Some common types of actuators include:
1. Motors, which convert electrical energy into mechanical energy to produce motion.
2. Solenoids, which use electromagnetism to produce linear motion.
3. Heating elements, which convert electrical energy into heat.
4. LEDs, which convert electrical energy into light.

3. Differences between Sensor and Actuator

Sensor Actuator
It is a device that senses and measures changes It is a device that converts an electrical signal
in physical quantities. into mechanical movement.
Its input is a physical quantity. Its input is an electrical signal.
Its output is an electrical signal. Its output is mechanical work.
It takes input from the system or signal
It takes input from the environment.
conditioning unit.
It provides output to a system. It provides output to the environment.
It is connected at the input of a system. It is connected at the output of a system.
A sensor may or may not require extra power
Actuator require extra power source to operate.
source to operate.
4. Some sensors and actuators:

4.1. Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs)

Figure 1: LED interfacing

i. LED is an important output device used for visual indication in embedded systems.
ii. LED is a p-n junction diode with an anode and a cathode.
iii. To properly function, the anode of the LED should be connected to the positive
terminal of the power supply and the cathode to the negative terminal of the power
supply. A current limiting resistor is used in series with the LED to limit the current
flow through it.
iv. LED can be interfaced with a processor/controller in two ways: directly connecting
the anode to the port pin and driving the LED with the port pin at logic high, or
connecting the cathode to the port pin and turning on the LED when the port pin is at
logic low.
v. The second approach is preferred as it allows the power supply to directly source the
current, resulting in the desired brightness level for the LED.
LEDs are commonly used as indicators for power conditions, battery status, and other
situations in embedded systems. With the proper circuit design and interfacing, LED can be
an efficient and effective output device for visual indication.
4.2. 7-segment LED display

Figure 2: 7-Segment LED Display Figure 3: Common anode & cathode configurations

 A 7-segment LED display is used to display alphanumeric characters.

 It consists of 8 LED segments arranged in a specific form, with 7 segments used for
displaying alphanumeric characters and the 8th segment used to represent the decimal
point in decimal number display.
  Each segment is named A to G and the decimal point segment is named DP.
 For example, for displaying the number 4, the segments F, G, B and C are lit. For
displaying 3, the segments A, B, C, D, G and DP are lit. For displaying the character
‘d’, the segments B, C, D, E and G are lit.
 All these 8 LED segments need to be connected to one port of the processor/controller
for displaying alpha numeric digits
 The LED display can be connected to a processor/controller in either a common
anode or common cathode configuration.
 In the common cathode configuration, the anode of each LED segment is connected to
the port pins of the port to which the display is interfaced.
 In the common anode configuration, the anode of the LED display is connected to the
5V supply voltage through a current limiting resistor, and the cathode of each LED
segment is connected to the respective port pin lines.
 The current flow through each segment should be limited to the maximum value
supported by the LED display unit.
 The 7-segment LED display is a popular choice for low-cost embedded applications
such as public telephone call monitoring devices and point-of-sale terminals.
4.3. Opto-couplers:

Figure 4: An optocoupler device Figure 5: Optocoupler in Input and Output circuit

 Optocoupler is a solid state device used to isolate two parts of a circuit.

 It combines an LED and a photo-transistor in a single housing (package).
 Optocoupler is used for suppressing interference in data communication, circuit
isolation, high voltage separation, simultaneous separation, and signal intensification
in electronic circuits.
 Optocouplers can be used in either input circuits or in output circuits.
 Optocoupler is used in input circuits or output circuits of an embedded system with a
microcontroller as the system core.
4.4. Stepper motor:
A stepper motor is an electro-mechanical device that converts electrical pulses into precise
mechanical movements. It is commonly used in industrial embedded applications, consumer
electronic products, and robotics control systems. Stepper motors differ from conventional
DC motors in their operation. While DC motors produce continuous rotation in response to
the application of a DC voltage, stepper motors produce discrete rotation in response to the
DC voltage applied to them.
Based on the coil winding arrangements, stepper motors are classified into two types -
unipolar and bipolar.
Unipolar stepper motors have two windings per phase. The direction of rotation, whether
clockwise or anticlockwise, is controlled by changing the direction of current flow. In phase
1, current flows in opposite directions through coils A and C, and in phase 2, current flows in
opposite directions through coils B and D. To shift the direction of rotation, the terminals to
which the coils are connected can be switched easily. This makes the control of unipolar
stepper motors relatively simple.
Bipolar stepper motors have a single winding per phase. To reverse the motor's rotation, the
current flow through the windings is reversed dynamically. However, this requires complex
circuitry for current flow reversal.
The stator winding details for a two-phase unipolar stepper motor are shown in Fig. 7. The
stepping of a stepper motor can be implemented in different ways by changing the sequence
of activation of the stator windings.
Stepper motors are widely used in industrial and consumer electronics applications. For
example, the paper feed mechanism of a printer or fax machine uses stepper motors for its
functioning. Stepper motors are also used in robotics control systems for precise positioning
and motion control.

Figure 6: 2-Phase unipolar stepper motor Figure 7: Stator Winding details for a 2 Phase unipolar stepper motor

The stepping of stepper motor can be implemented in different ways by changing the
sequence of activation of the stator windings. The different stepping modes supported by
stepper motor are explained below:
Full Step: In the full step mode both the phases are energised simultaneously. The coils A,
B, C and D are energised in the following order:
It should be noted that out of the two windings, only one winding of a phase is energised at a
time.
Wave Step: In the wave step mode only one phase is energised at a time and each coils of
the phase is energised alternatively. The coils A, B, C, and D are energised in the following
order:

Half Step: It uses the combination of wave and full step. It has the highest torque and
stability. The coil energising sequence for half step is given below

The following circuit diagram illustrates the interfacing of a stepper motor through a driver
circuit connected to the port pins of a microcontroller/processor.

Figure 8: Interfacing of stepper motor through driver circuit