CHAPTER 2

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE AND STUDIES

This chapter contains works of several authors who conducted the same study about the

integration of rekenrek in learning multiplication. The literary works being written in this chapter

gave different ideas and knowledge that helped the researchers in making this study successful.

Rekenrek

A useful tool in primary mathematics and early childhood education, the rekenrek

is a strong and adaptable mathematical instrument. The rekenrek, sometimes called the number

rack or arithmetic rack, is a Dutch invention that helps young students develop their number

sense and mathematical comprehension (Marlow 2023). Educators and teachers use the rekenrek

to include pupils in interactive, hands-on learning. Because of its simplicity, it helps students

develop a conceptual knowledge of mathematical operations by encouraging them to explore and

manipulate numbers in a concrete and meaningful way. Since the rekenrek helps pupils visualize

and absorb numerical relationships, it is beneficial in assisting kids in developing mental math

skills. The use of manipulative instructional materials in teaching mathematics helps make

abstract ideas concrete. This is a teaching strategy that uses physical objects that are designed to

represent concrete mathematical ideas that are abstract. It is described as physical things or

concrete objects students may use to investigate and acquire an understanding or comprehension

of a mathematical idea. The most common manipulatives are number lines, spinners, decimal

blocks, geoboards, integer tiles, tools for measurement, fraction tiles, geared clocks, and a

graphing mat. The usage of these affords realistic means for students to learn abstract

mathematical topics. Lazaro (2021) based on their study and development of their research has
fulfilled the use of chess as a manipulative material to teach mathematics, specifically the

addition and subtraction of fractions, improves the learning achievement of the student in this

subject. In turn, thanks to the use of chess as a board game in an educational chess version, it has

been observed that, in addition to helping to achieve the learning of mathematical objectives, the

motivation of the students increases. In addition, the children said they felt more important

because they considered chess to be a game of elders.

Moreover, Bafaqih F., and Armanto D.,(2019) stated that the learning tools based on TPS

learning to improve mathematical representation capabilities developed already meet the valid,

practical, effective criteria and an increase in mathematical representation abilities using learning

tools based on the Think Pair Share cooperative approach that has been developed. Based on the

study of Dias MP., Arruda SG., and Passes MM., (2019) such student actions are not ‘attuned’

to the teaching action, that is, they are not direct responses to the teacher’s demands, but they can

occur despite the demands. Such considerations can lead us to some situations experienced in the

school routine; although planned it’s the execution of a class is a teamwork that involves the

teacher and the students. Rekenreks counting frames are frequently among the first math

manipulatives that a kid would use, according to Prodigy (2022). Many even use these kinds of

bead counters before they start school. These straightforward arithmetic frames are a helpful

teaching tool that incorporates the ideas of the number line, individual counters, and base-ten

models. Students can practice counting or help with simple addition and subtraction problems by

moving the beads from one end to the other. The greatest value of rekenrek counting frames is

for younger pupils, such as those in pre-K and primary school. Students are prepared to go on to

more varied manipulatives once they have mastered counting and single-digit math problems.

This progression's foundation is the educational notion of scaffolding, which is the process by
which students build on the knowledge and abilities they already possess. The foundational stage

is counting and solving single-digit math problems to make sure pupils understand the basics of

numbers. Introducing a range of manipulatives aids in helping students apply and generalize their

grasp of mathematical concepts to various situations. This method encourages critical thinking

and problem-solving abilities by going beyond rote memory to promote a deeper and more

comprehensive understanding of mathematical ideas. Rekenreks are essential for building

number sense. It provides learners with a real, physical object to help develop and deepen their

understanding of numbers (Han2Mind, 2022. Learning with physical tools and materials could

make it easier for young learners to grasp mathematical operations. It promotes teachers’

efficiency and improves learner performance. On the contrary, Novak 2024 connoted that using

rekenrek cannot represent every situation. For instance, it is often difficult to use manipulative

instructional materials to represent an equation that involves fractional or decimal coefficients.

Thus, using rekenrek only covers basic mathematical operations and does not cover more

complex operations.

Additionally, the primary purposes of the rekenrek are elementary mathematics and early

childhood education. The rekenrek may lose its relevance and become inadequate when pupils

move on to increasingly difficult mathematical concepts. Teachers may need to implement new

resources or strategies to meet the demands of senior students studying complex mathematics.

Higher grade levels introduce pupils to mathematical ideas that call for increasingly abstract and

varied representations. The two rows of 10 beads each in a five-and-five arrangement that make

up the rekenrek might not offer enough flexibility to show complex mathematical relationships.

As pupils handle more complex and abstract mathematical concepts, teachers may need to

incorporate other resources or teaching strategies to meet their changing demands.

Hence, Kim and Park (2019) to investigate the impact of Rekenrek on the proportional reasoning

abilities of Grade 5 students performed a randomized controlled study. While the control group

was instructed using traditional methods, the experimental group was instructed using Rekenrek.

The experimental group outperformed the control group in their ability to reason appropriately,

based on the results.

Rekenrek promotes a concrete understanding of numerical concepts in primary

mathematics and early childhood education and is a useful and adaptable tool. For younger

pupils, its hands-on approach and simplicity make it especially useful in supporting the

development of basic math abilities. However, because the rekenrek can only express a limited

number of complex relationships, it may lose relevance when pupils move on to more difficult

mathematical ideas. As students move into higher grades and face increasingly abstract

mathematical problems, teachers may need to use new resources and pedagogical approaches to

adapt to their changing demands. Rekenrek continues to be an essential scaffolding tool in

advanced math education, despite its limitations. It helps pupils progress from simple counting to

a more comprehensive understanding of mathematical concepts. According to (Smartick, 2023)

believe that Rekenrek is based on the natural way of learning numbers. It implies that Rekenrek

can help learners develop their cognitive competency.

Learning Multiplication

Multiplication is an arithmetic is an arithmetic operation where we find the product of

two or more numbers. A times B means, B is repeatedly added to Several times (BYJU’s, 2022).

There are three (3) parts of multiplication, the multiplicand, multiplier, and the product. The

multiplication symbol is denoted by a slanting cross sign (x) and also sometimes by a dot (.).

“Sometimes I try and get the answer, but I ask my mom for help because she has a calculator on
the computer.” Most of the time, this second-grader’s response reflects our own – if you need to

multiply two numbers, just use a calculator. Why then do we learn how to do multiplication

without a calculator? The standard answer is that you never know when you won’t have a

calculator. This argument, however, is becoming less relevant with the increasing ubiquity and

accessibility of computing devices. Memorizing the multiplication table is a major challenge for

elementary school students: there are many facts to memorize, and they are often similar to each

other, which creates interference in memory.

Furthermore, solving multiplication problems continues to be a fundamental part of the

elementary mathematics curricula. Even more important than knowing multiplication facts.

Thus, while understanding the mathematical aspects of multiplication is necessary—it provides a

way to solve multiplication exercises, and it underlies the knowledge of how to use

multiplication for particular goals—rote memory helps one become proficient in arithmetic.

Indeed, in several countries, typical multiplication lessons include not only conceptual learning

but also rote memorization of the multiplication table using various strategies, e.g., recitation or

songs (Olfos & Isoda, 2021). Because multiplication facts are stored as individual facts in

memory, they are subject to the limits of human memory, in particular to the interference

induced by the similarity between items: memorizing similar items is hard because they interfere

with each other. Some individuals have particularly high sensitivity to similarity-induced

interference (“hyper-sensitivity to interference”), and consequently, they find it extremely hard

to learn the multiplication table (Dotan & Friedmann, 2019), The errors of elementary school

students to understand the concept of multiplication and division are that they find it difficult to

understand lessons, lack mastery, are not accustomed to or trained in multiplication and division,

and lack accuracy in performing multiplication and division operations (Milton et al., 2019) In
addition, the teacher when teaching multiplication and division only focuses on repeating

numbers continuously. The teacher should explain the meaning of multiplication and division to

make it easier for students. Multiplication is defined as the addition of numbers, while division is

defined as measuring or subtracting numbers (Coskun, 2019). In general, students who can

understand and complete multiplication can certainly divide. Multiplication and division are

related to each other or have a relationship (Deringöl, 2019; Polotskaia & Savard, 2021)

In line with this idea, learning multiplication facts depends on language skills and

memory ( Xu et al., 2021) this is true also for arithmetic facts other than multiplication); and

phonological skills predict arithmetic abilities (Korpipää et al., 2020). Thus, while understanding

the mathematical aspects of multiplication is necessary—it provides a way to solve

multiplication exercises, and it underlies the knowledge of how to use multiplication for

particular goals—rote memory helps one become proficient in arithmetic. Indeed, in several

countries, typical multiplication lessons include not only conceptual learning but also rote

memorization of the multiplication table using various strategies, e.g., recitation or songs (Olfos

& Isoda, 2021). Because multiplication facts are stored as individual facts in memory, they are

subject to the limits of human memory, in particular to the interference induced by the similarity

between items: memorizing similar items is hard because they interfere with each other. This

similarity effect is evident when learning arithmetic facts (Katzoff et al., 2020;)As a means to

overcome the difficulty caused by the similarity between facts, we propose a simple teaching

method based on two foundations. The first foundation is similarity versus dissimilarity: similar

multiplication facts are hard to memorize because they interfere with each other, but it may still

be easy enough to memorize a set of dissimilar multiplication facts (Katzoff et al., 2020). Thus,

learning the full multiplication table is hard, but it should be possible to learn a subset of
multiplication facts as long as they are dissimilar from each other (e.g., 9 × 9 = 63 and 7 × 4 =

28). Somewhat in line with this idea, studies that examined how similarity affects multiplication-

table learning in other populations with difficulties—specifically, mathematical or memory

difficulties—showed a strong effect of similarity (Dotan & Friedmann, 2019).

Instructional Material

Building a bridge between the teacher's instruction and the student's understanding is the

main goal of teaching materials. They are very helpful in clarifying ideas, giving instances, and

providing learning-reinforcing tasks. Curriculum-aligned, age-appropriate, and customize d to

meet the individual requirements of each student are characteristics of effective instructional

materials. Textbooks, workbooks, multimedia presentations, audiovisual aids, interactive

simulations, and internet resources are just a few examples of the many formats that teaching

materials might take. These resources have been thoughtfully selected and created to

complement the curriculum, accommodate a range of learning preferences, and improve the

educational process as a whole. Teachers can accommodate various learning styles and establish

a dynamic and engaging learning environment by utilizing a wide range of instructional

resources. These resources not only disseminate knowledge but also encourage critical thinking.

Additionally, (Syarifuddin et al., 2022) say that any type of content that a teacher uses to

carry out the learning process qualifies as teaching material since it helps pupils meet learning

objectives. Instructional materials help the teachers in delivering the lesson. Integrating

instructional materials in the class shows a significant effect on the pupils learning. The

researchers have looked at the best ways to give learners instructional information and the ways

that various instructional materials in particular cognitive processes. Giving students additional

instructional visualizations is one way to improve text-based lessons (Guo et al., 2020). Teachers'
abilities to effectively elicit and incorporate all learners' opinions in sense-making and direction

varied in studies with different storylines (Alzen et al., 2020). Supporting teachers in drawing out

and intentionally utilizing ideas from learners whose voices are less likely to be heard in class or

picked up by others is a constant issue for instructional materials and professional development.

There are 4 types of instructional materials as stated by (LearnBrite 2023). These are the textual

materials, visual materials, audio materials, and interactive materials.

Furthermore, (Mngometulu & Makgabo, 2023; Naddumba & Athiemoolam, 2022) said

that the inability of students to understand the material could prevent them from actively

participating in class, which would cause them to lose interest in studying. In the context of

education, a student's inability to understand the content can start a domino effect that could have

negative implications. Insufficient comprehension of the subject matter frequently results in a

student's unwillingness to actively engage in class discussions. This hesitation then serves as a

trigger for a decline in interest in learning.

As specified by the blog (Twinkl, 2022), research has indicated that the secret to

significant success is a well-planned learning environment that utilizes the teaching and learning

resources that are readily available in conjunction with highly motivated educators. A teacher can

improve their students' learning experiences by using teaching/learning materials. It is a

departure from the "chalk and talk" method of instruction, in which the teacher essentially

lectures to students. A teacher can provide the kids with learning opportunities by using

teaching/learning materials. So, teachers support more autonomous, activity-based learning

rather than just teaching their students. Manipulatives are tangible items used to aid in a student's

learning. Manipulatives can be an excellent tool to maintain focus and keep those who are more

kinaesthetic learners involved in the learning process. When it comes to addressing problems in
disciplines like arithmetic, using physical objects can be quite helpful. They can be used to

instruct students in addition, subtraction, division, and multiplication.

Moreover, (Hepler, R., et al 2023) lessons can be taught to students using a variety of

teaching resources. Graphic organizers, teacher-made tools, or only conventional materials are

available for use by educators. But this isn't the best method of instruction. The best teachers will

employ a broad range of teaching strategies and materials to effectively persuade students to

understand the concepts and content mandated by the standards. Lane, S. (2022) says that an

essential part of teaching and learning is the use of instructional materials. They can be utilized

to give practice opportunities, aid in the learning of new concepts, and reinforce and enhance the

lesson's content. A framework for learning is offered by instructional materials. Instructional

materials can offer a framework that facilitates more effective learning for pupils when used

appropriately. With a clear plan and collection of resources, students can stay on course and

prevent becoming bogged down or disoriented by the subject matter.

As stated by the (blog, 2021), the teacher may boost the learners' ability to acquire and

retain information by investing in top-notch tools that motivate them. This will set the stage for

their long-term academic success. The teacher may easily establish curriculum foundations by

providing themselves and their classroom with a wide selection of high-quality teaching

materials. (Linkedin 2022) states that instructional materials are tools for learning. During

instruction, learner-centered resources are employed in the classroom. This indicates that

students, not always teachers, are the main beneficiaries of using instructional materials. To aid

the learner in understanding the subject, instructional materials are introduced. Without the use

of teaching materials, a teacher can cover a subject and yet have a very high level of
understanding from the students. The goal of using educational materials is to quickly improve

effective comprehension of the subject.

Mathematical Operations

Arithmetic operations is a branch of mathematics, which involves the study of numbers,

and operations of numbers that are useful in all the other branches of mathematics. It comprises

operations such as addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division (BYJU 2022). There are

four (4) basic mathematical operations namely, addition, subtraction, multiplication, and

division. According to GreekforGreeks (2023), addition is defined as the arithmetic operation in

which one number is added to another number and obtains a result, which is called the “sum”. It

uses the + symbol and has the basic parts called the addends, addition symbol, and sum. The

addends are the two (2) quantities being added together to get the sum. From the dictionary of

Merriam-Webster 2024, subtraction means the operation in which the deduction of one number

from another is being done. As discussed in the previous paragraphs, multiplication refers to the

repeated addition (BYJU, 2022). Lastly, division means the separation of something into parts or

groups (Cambridge Dictionary, 2024).

These mathematical operations also consist of different properties. The four (4) properties

of addition are commutative, associative, distributive, and additive identity (Vedantu, 2024).

According to Fun2Do Labs (2021), the properties of subtraction are identity property of

subtraction, order property of subtraction, and subtracting a number by itself property. Khan

Academy (2024) connoted that the properties of multiplication are commutative property,

associative property, and identity property. Divisions have five properties according to Fun2Do

Labs (2021) which are; division by one, division by zero, division by itself, division by ten, and

division by hundred.
 Mathematics helps strengthen reasoning and critical thinking. It helps us think

analytically and reason logically about the world. The same steps you take to understand a

problem, identify the knowns and unknowns, and then solve them can be applied to other areas

of your life (Ranch, 2022). Mathematics encourages creative thinking by introducing a logical

and systematic approach to problem-solving. With mathematical concepts such as algorithms and

symbols, individuals learn to organize their thoughts regularly and systematically. This creative

thinking not only improves your understanding of math problems but also extends to other areas

of your life, promoting clarity and effectiveness in decision-making and problem-solving. By

internalizing these structured thought processes, individuals can break down complex problems

into manageable steps and devise strategies to successfully solve them. Finally, analytical and

reasoning skills developed through mathematics help individuals face challenges with confidence

and precision, promoting success in academic and international situations.

On the contrary, Smith 2023 connoted that, a disadvantage of learning mathematics is

that some people have difficulty learning math. Unlike subjects such as literature and history,

which rely on reading and writing, mathematics requires a solid understanding of abstract

concepts and problem-solving skills. Developing these skills can be difficult for some people,

making math harder and harder. That is why most of the children would say, they hate math.

When they hear the word “mathematics” the first thing that would come to their minds would be

“difficulties, solving, problems, and many numbers” which would scare them.

Manipulative Mathematics Tools

In mathematics manipulatives, instructional materials are concrete objects designed to

help learners develop number sense and a deeper understanding of mathematics concepts by

having something hands-on to work with (Liu, 2024). These materials are employed by teachers
to introduce, practice, or remediate various mathematical ideas, encouraging social interaction

and enhancing understanding through multisensory experiences. This has shown the outcomes in

students’ learning, aiding in the development of strong mathematical skills and promoting

confidence.

The use of manipulation in teaching mathematics helps make abstract ideas concrete.

This is a teaching strategy that uses physical objects that are designed to represent concrete

mathematical ideas that are abstract. It is described as physical things or concrete objects

students may use to investigate and acquire an understanding or comprehension of a

mathematical idea. The most common manipulatives are number lines, spinners, decimal blocks,

geoboards, integer tiles, tools for measurement, fraction tiles, geared clocks, and a graphing mat.

The usage of these affords realistic means for students to learn abstract mathematical topics.

Lazaro D.,(2021) based on their study and development of their research that has been fulfilled

the use of chess as a manipulative material to teach mathematics, specifically the addition and

subtraction of fractions, improves the learning achievement of the student in this subject. In turn,

thanks to the use of chess as a board game in an educational chess version, it has been observed

that, in addition to helping to achieve the learning of mathematical objectives, the motivation of

the students increases. In addition, the children said they felt more important because they

considered chess to be a game of elders.

Based on the study of Bafaqih F., and Armanto D., (2019) the learning tools based on

TPS learning to improve mathematical representation capabilities developed already meet the

valid, practical, effective criteria and an increase in mathematical representation abilities using

learning tools based on the Think Pair Share cooperative approach that has been developed.

Based on the study of Dias MP., Arruda SG., and Passes MM., (2019) such student actions are
not ‘attuned’ to the teaching action, that is, they are not direct responses to the teacher’s

demands, but they can occur despite the demands. Such considerations can lead us to some

situations experienced in the school routine; although planned it’s the execution of a class is a

teamwork that involves the teacher and the students. Hurts and Linsell's (2020) findings showed

an increase in math understanding and reasoning skills through the use of manipulative

instructional materials. Lange (2021) connoted that the implementation of manipulative

instructional materials in mathematics concepts offers students a different way of learning and

being engaged in the content area. Evidence suggests if manipulatives are utilized constructively,

they have a significant outcome on a student’s math skills.

Furthermore, Rojas R.,(2023) study revealed a significant difference in the performances

of the Grade 2 Indigenous People’s Education (IPEd) learners before and after the utilization of

teacher-made manipulative learning materials in teaching. The manipulative learning materials

which are letters framed or mounted on cardboard where learners had to master the sounds of the

letters and providing them with video presentations that show lessons on the production of

sounds and other interactive activities where learners can join in manipulating the computer

contribute to the improvement of the learner’s level of performance thus, intervening an effective

learning material in teaching word recognition skills. Based on the study of Boz M., Uludağ G.,

& Erdoğan S., (2020). In their research results are taken into consideration, preparing appropriate

learning environments and including the manipulative materials in these environments are

important in enabling preschool children to gain and improve early mathematical skills. In this

direction, the teachers should actively use the manipulative materials in preschool mathematics

education and provide appropriate learning opportunities for children. The research in which the

opinions of the preschool teachers on the effects of the manipulative materials on the early
mathematical skills will be revealed may be performed and therefore, the current situation is

determined and the teachers may be supported with various training programs. In addition,

teachers may design their mathematical materials with the children in their classroom, and the

effects of these materials may be examined with longer use of them. The longitudinal research in

which the effect of the early mathematical skills acquisitions of the children or supporting these

skills on their mathematical success in the following years is examined may be planned.

Using mathematics manipulatives during a lesson brings hands-on learning to the

classroom. This can appeal to a multitude of different learners (Prodigy, 2022). Incorporating

math manipulatives in lessons adds a dynamic, hands-on element to classroom instruction. By

engaging tactile senses, it caters to diverse learning styles and enhances comprehension and

retention for students of all abilities. Crowe (2022) connoted that manipulative instructional

materials allow students to work with math in the way that is best for them. By working

independently with math manipulative instructional materials, a student is better able to work at

their own pace and spend more time on concepts or problems that are particularly difficult for

them. Therefore, manipulative instructional materials play a vital role in helping learners

understand the complexity of the content in a lesson.