CHAPTER 2

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE AND STUDIES

This chapter contains works of several authors who conducted the same study about

the integration of rekenrek in learning multiplication. The literary works being written in

this chapter gave different ideas and knowledge that helped the researchers in making this

study successful.

Rekenrek

A useful tool in primary mathematics and early childhood education, the rekenrek

is a strong and adaptable mathematical instrument. The rekenrek, sometimes called the

number rack or arithmetic rack, is a Dutch invention that helps young students develop

their number sense and mathematical comprehension (Marlow, 2023). Educators and

teachers use the rekenrek to include pupils in interactive, hands-on learning. It helps

students develop a conceptual knowledge of mathematical operations by encouraging them

to explore and manipulate numbers in a concrete and meaningful way because of its

simplicity. Since the rekenrek helps pupils visualize and absorb numerical relationships, it

is beneficial in assisting kids in developing mental math skills. The use of manipulative

instructional materials in teaching mathematics helps make abstract ideas concrete. This is

a teaching strategy that uses physical objects that are designed to represent concrete

mathematical ideas that are abstract. It is described as physical things or concrete objects

students may use to investigate and acquire an understanding or comprehension of a

mathematical idea. The most common manipulatives are number lines, spinners, decimal

blocks, geoboards, integer tiles, tools for measurement, fraction tiles, geared clocks, and a
graphing mat. The usage of these affords realistic means for students to learn abstract

mathematical topics. In the study of Lazaro (2021), the study and development of their

research has fulfilled the use of chess as a manipulative material to teach mathematics,

specifically the addition and subtraction of fractions, improves the learning achievement

of the student in this subject. In turn, thanks to the use of chess as a board game in an

educational chess version, it has been observed that, in addition to helping to achieve the

learning of mathematical objectives, the motivation of the students increases. In addition,

the children said they felt more important because they considered chess to be a game of

elders.

Moreover, Bafaqih F., and Armanto D. (2019) stated that the learning tools based

on TPS learning to improve mathematical representation capabilities developed already

meet the valid, practical, effective criteria and an increase in mathematical representation

abilities using learning tools based on the Think Pair Share cooperative approach that has

been developed. Based on the study of Dias MP., Arruda SG., and Passes MM. (2019),

such student actions are not ‘attuned’ to the teaching action, that is, they are not direct

responses to the teacher’s demands, but they can occur despite the demands. Such

considerations can lead us to some situations experienced in the school routine. Although

planned, itis the execution of a class is a teamwork that involves the teacher and the

students. Rekenreks counting frames are frequently among the first math manipulatives

that a kid would use, according to (Prodigy, 2022). Many even use these kinds of bead

counters before they start school. These straightforward arithmetic frames are a helpful

teaching tool that incorporates the ideas of the number line, individual counters, and base-

ten models. Students can practice counting or help with simple addition and subtraction
problems by moving the beads from one end to the other. The greatest value of rekenrek

counting frames is for younger pupils, such as those in pre-K and primary school. Students

are prepared to go on to more varied manipulatives once they have mastered counting and

single-digit math problems. This progression's foundation is the educational notion of

scaffolding, which is the process by which students build on the knowledge and abilities

they already possess. The foundational stage is counting and solving single-digit math

problems to make sure pupils understand the basics of numbers. Introducing a range of

manipulatives aids in helping students apply and generalize their grasp of mathematical

concepts to various situations. This method encourages critical thinking and problem-

solving abilities by going beyond rote memory to promote a deeper and more

comprehensive understanding of mathematical ideas. Rekenreks are essential for building

number sense. It provides learners with a real, physical object to help develop and deepen

their understanding of numbers (Han2Mind, 2022). Learning with physical tools and

materials could make it easier for young learners to grasp mathematical operations. It

promotes teachers’ efficiency and improves learner performance. On the contrary, Novak

(2024) connoted that using rekenrek cannot represent every situation. For instance, it is

often difficult to use manipulative instructional materials to represent an equation that

involves fractional or decimal coefficients. Thus, using rekenrek only covers basic

mathematical operations and does not cover more complex operations.

Additionally, the primary purposes of the rekenrek are elementary mathematics and

early childhood education. The rekenrek may lose its relevance and become inadequate

when pupils move on to increasingly difficult mathematical concepts. Teachers may need

to implement new resources or strategies to meet the demands of senior students studying
complex mathematics. Higher grade levels introduce pupils to mathematical ideas that call

for increasingly abstract and varied representations. The two rows of 10 beads each in a

five-and-five arrangement that make up the rekenrek might not offer enough flexibility to

show complex mathematical relationships. As pupils handle more complex and abstract

mathematical concepts, teachers may need to incorporate other resources or teaching

strategies to meet their changing demands.

Hence, Kim and Park (2019) to investigate the impact of Rekenrek on the

proportional reasoning abilities of Grade 5 students performed a randomized controlled

study. While the control group was instructed using traditional methods, the experimental

group was instructed using Rekenrek. The experimental group outperformed the control

group in their ability to reason appropriately, based on the results. Smartick (2023) believed

that rekenrek is based on the natural way of learning numbers. It implies that rekenrek can

help learners develop their cognitive competency.

Rekenrek promotes a concrete understanding of numerical concepts in primary

mathematics and early childhood education and is a useful and adaptable tool. For younger

pupils, its hands-on approach and simplicity make it especially useful in supporting the

development of basic math abilities. However, because the rekenrek can only express a

limited number of complex relationships, it may lose relevance when pupils move on to

more difficult mathematical ideas. As students move into higher grades and face

increasingly abstract mathematical problems, teachers may need to use new resources and

pedagogical approaches to adapt to their changing demands. Rekenrek continues to be an

essential scaffolding tool in advanced math education, despite its limitations. It helps pupils
progress from simple counting to a more comprehensive understanding of mathematical

concepts.

Learning Multiplication

Multiplication is an arithmetic is an arithmetic operation where we find the product

of two or more numbers. A times B means, B is repeatedly added to several times (BYJU,

2022). There are three (3) parts of multiplication, the multiplicand, multiplier, and the

product. The multiplication symbol is denoted by a slanting cross sign (x) and also

sometimes by a dot (.). “Sometimes I try and get the answer, but I ask my mom for help

because she has a calculator on the computer.” Most of the time, this second-grader’s

response reflects our own – if you need to multiply two numbers, just use a calculator.

“Why then do we learn how to do multiplication without a calculator? The standard answer

is that you never know when you won’t have a calculator”. This argument, however, is

becoming less relevant with the increasing ubiquity and accessibility of computing devices.

Memorizing the multiplication table is a major challenge for elementary school students:

there are many facts to memorize, and they are often similar to each other, which creates

interference in memory.

Furthermore, solving multiplication problems continues to be a fundamental part

of the elementary mathematics curricula. Even more important than knowing

multiplication facts. Thus, while understanding the mathematical aspects of multiplication

is necessary—it provides a way to solve multiplication exercises, and it underlies the

knowledge of how to use multiplication for particular goals rote memory helps one become

proficient in arithmetic. Indeed, in several countries, typical multiplication lessons include

not only conceptual learning but also rote memorization of the multiplication table using

various strategies, e.g., recitation or songs (Olfos & Isoda, 2021). Because multiplication

facts are stored as individual facts in memory, they are subject to the limits of human

memory, in particular to the interference induced by the similarity between items:

memorizing similar items is hard because they interfere with each other. Some individuals

have particularly high sensitivity to similarity-induced interference (“hyper-sensitivity to

interference”), and consequently, they find it extremely hard to learn the multiplication

table (Dotan & Friedmann, 2019), The errors of elementary school students to understand

the concept of multiplication and division are that they find it difficult to understand

lessons, lack mastery, are not accustomed to or trained in multiplication and division, and

lack accuracy in performing multiplication and division operations (Milton et al., 2019). In

addition, the teacher when teaching multiplication and division only focuses on repeating

numbers continuously. The teacher should explain the meaning of multiplication and

division to make it easier for students. Multiplication is defined as the addition of numbers,

while division is defined as measuring or subtracting numbers (Coskun, 2019). In general,

students who can understand and complete multiplication can certainly divide.

Multiplication and division are related to each other or have a relationship (Deringöl, 2019

& Polotskaia & Savard, 2021)

In line with this idea, learning multiplication facts depends on language skills and

memory ( Xu et al., 2021) this is true also for arithmetic facts other than multiplication);

and phonological skills predict arithmetic abilities (Korpipää et al., 2020). Thus, while

understanding the mathematical aspects of multiplication is necessary—it provides a way

to solve multiplication exercises, and it underlies the knowledge of how to use

multiplication for particular goals—rote memory helps one become proficient in

arithmetic. Indeed, in several countries, typical multiplication lessons include not only

conceptual learning but also rote memorization of the multiplication table using various

strategies, e.g., recitation or songs (Olfos & Isoda, 2021). Because multiplication facts are

stored as individual facts in memory, they are subject to the limits of human memory, in

particular to the interference induced by the similarity between items: memorizing similar

items is hard because they interfere with each other. This similarity effect is evident when

learning arithmetic facts as a means to overcome the difficulty caused by the similarity

between facts, we propose a simple teaching method based on two foundations (Katzoff et

al., 2020). The first foundation is similarity versus dissimilarity, similar multiplication facts

are hard to memorize because they interfere with each other, but it may still be easy enough

to memorize a set of dissimilar multiplication facts (Katzoff et al., 2020). Thus, learning

the full multiplication table is hard, but it should be possible to learn a subset of

multiplication facts as long as they are dissimilar from each other (e.g., 9 × 9 = 63 and

7 × 4 = 28). Somewhat in line with this idea, studies that examined how similarity affects

multiplication-table learning in other populations with difficulties—specifically,

mathematical or memory difficulties—showed a strong effect of similarity (Dotan &

Friedmann, 2019).

Instructional Material

In the study of Syarifuddin et al. (2022), it is stated that any type of content that a

teacher uses to carry out the learning process qualifies as teaching material since it helps

pupils meet learning objectives. Instructional materials help the teachers in delivering the

lesson. Integrating instructional materials in the class shows a significant effect on the
pupils learning. The researchers have looked at the best ways to give learners instructional

information and the ways that various instructional materials in particular cognitive

processes. Giving students additional instructional visualizations is one way to improve

text-based lessons (Guo et al., 2020). Teachers' abilities to effectively elicit and incorporate

all learners' opinions in sense-making and direction varied in studies with different

storylines (Alzen et al., 2020). Supporting teachers in drawing out and intentionally

utilizing ideas from learners whose voices are less likely to be heard in class or picked up

by others is a constant issue for instructional materials and professional development.

There are 4 types of instructional materials as stated by (LearnBrite 2023). These are the

textual materials, visual materials, audio materials, and interactive materials.

Furthermore, Naddumba & Athiemoolam (2022) said that the inability of students

to understand the material could prevent them from actively participating in class, which

would cause them to lose interest in studying. In the context of education, a student's

inability to understand the content can start a domino effect that could have negative

implications. Insufficient comprehension of the subject matter frequently results in a

student's unwillingness to actively engage in class discussions. This hesitation then serves

as a trigger for a decline in interest in learning.

As specified by the blog Twinkl (2022), research has indicated that the secret to

significant success is a well-planned learning environment that utilizes the teaching and

learning resources that are readily available in conjunction with highly motivated

educators. A teacher can improve their students' learning experiences by using

teaching/learning materials. It is a departure from the "chalk and talk" method of

instruction, in which the teacher essentially lectures to students. A teacher can provide the
kids with learning opportunities by using teaching/learning materials. So, teachers support

more autonomous, activity-based learning rather than just teaching their students.

Manipulatives are tangible items used to aid in a student's learning. Manipulatives can be

an excellent tool to maintain focus and keep those who are more kinesthetic learners

involved in the learning process. When it comes to addressing problems in disciplines like

arithmetic, using physical objects can be quite helpful. They can be used to instruct students

in addition, subtraction, division, and multiplication.

Moreover, lessons can be taught to students using a variety of teaching resources.

Graphic organizers, teacher-made tools, or only conventional materials are available for

use by educators. But this isn't the best method of instruction. The best teachers will employ

a broad range of teaching strategies and materials to effectively persuade students to

understand the concepts and content mandated by the standards (Hepler et al., 2023). Lane

2022 connoted that an essential part of teaching and learning is the use of instructional

materials. They can be utilized to give practice opportunities, aid in the learning of new

concepts, and reinforce and enhance the lesson's content. A framework for learning is

offered by instructional materials. Instructional materials can offer a framework that

facilitates more effective learning for pupils when used appropriately. With a clear plan

and collection of resources, students can stay on course and prevent becoming bogged

down or disoriented by the subject matter.

As stated by the Block (2021) the teacher may boost the learners' ability to acquire

and retain information by investing in top-notch tools that motivate them. This will set the

stage for their long-term academic success. The teacher may easily establish curriculum

foundations by providing themselves and their classroom with a wide selection of high-
quality teaching materials. (Linkedin, 2022) states that instructional materials are tools for

learning. During instruction, learner-centered resources are employed in the classroom.

This indicates that students, not always teachers, are the main beneficiaries of using

instructional materials. To aid the learner in understanding the subject, instructional

materials are introduced. Without the use of teaching materials, a teacher can cover a

subject and yet have a very high level of understanding from the students. The goal of using

educational materials is to quickly improve effective comprehension of the subject.

Building a bridge between the teacher's instruction and the student's understanding

is the main goal of teaching materials. They are very helpful in clarifying ideas, giving

instances, and providing learning-reinforcing tasks. Curriculum-aligned, age-appropriate,

and customized to meet the individual requirements of each student are characteristics of

effective instructional materials. Textbooks, workbooks, multimedia presentations,

audiovisual aids, interactive simulations, and internet resources are just a few examples of

the many formats that teaching materials might take. These resources have been

thoughtfully selected and created to complement the curriculum, accommodate a range of

learning preferences, and improve the educational process as a whole. Teachers can

accommodate various learning styles and establish a dynamic and engaging learning

environment by utilizing a wide range of instructional resources. These resources not only

disseminate knowledge but also encourage critical thinking.

Mathematical Operations

Arithmetic operations is a branch of mathematics, which involves the study of

numbers, and operations of numbers that are useful in all the other branches of
mathematics. It comprises operations such as addition, subtraction, multiplication, and

division (BYJU, 2022). There are four (4) basic mathematical operations namely, addition,

subtraction, multiplication, and division. According to Greek for Greeks (2023), addition

is defined as the arithmetic operation in which one number is added to another number and

obtains a result, which is called the “sum”. It uses the + symbol and has the basic parts

called the addends, addition symbol, and sum. The addends are the two (2) quantities being

added together to get the sum. From the dictionary of Merriam-Webster (2024), subtraction

means the operation in which the deduction of one number from another is being done. As

discussed in the previous paragraphs, multiplication refers to the repeated addition (BYJU,

2022). Lastly, division means the separation of something into parts or groups (Cambridge

Dictionary, 2024).

These mathematical operations also consist of different properties. The four (4)

properties of addition are commutative, associative, distributive, and additive identity

(Vedantu, 2024). According to Fun2Do Labs (2021), the properties of subtraction are

identity property of subtraction, order property of subtraction, and subtracting a number by

itself property. Khan Academy (2024) connoted that the properties of multiplication are

commutative property, associative property, and identity property. Divisions have five

properties according to Fun2Do Labs (2021) which are; division by one, division by zero,

division by itself, division by ten, and division by hundred.

Mathematics helps strengthen reasoning and critical thinking. It helps us think

analytically and reason logically about the world. The same steps you take to understand a

problem, identify the knowns and unknowns, and then solve them can be applied to other

areas of your life (Ranch, 2022). Mathematics encourages creative thinking by introducing
a logical and systematic approach to problem-solving. With mathematical concepts such

as algorithms and symbols, individuals learn to organize their thoughts regularly and

systematically. This creative thinking not only improves your understanding of math

problems but also extends to other areas of your life, promoting clarity and effectiveness

in decision-making and problem-solving. By internalizing these structured thought

processes, individuals can break down complex problems into manageable steps and devise

strategies to successfully solve them. Finally, analytical and reasoning skills developed

through mathematics help individuals face challenges with confidence and precision,

promoting success in academic and international situations.

On the contrary, Smith (2023) connoted that, a disadvantage of learning

mathematics is that some people have difficulty learning math. Unlike subjects such as

literature and history, which rely on reading and writing, mathematics requires a solid

understanding of abstract concepts and problem-solving skills. Developing these skills can

be difficult for some people, making math harder and harder. That is why most of the

children would say, they hate math. When they hear the word “mathematics” the first thing

that would come to their minds would be “difficulties, solving, problems, and many

numbers” which would scare them.

Mathematics is important to learn because it offers the fundamental framework for

comprehending the relationships, patterns, and structures found in the world around us. It

fosters the critical thinking, problem-solving, and logical reasoning skills necessary for

success in a variety of fields, such as economics, science, technology, and engineering.

Additionally, mathematics is used in many aspects of daily life, such as personal finance

management, data interpretation, and decision-making. Gaining knowledge of

mathematics helps one appreciate the underlying principles of the universe's beauty and

elegance on a deeper level. Furthermore, in the current digital era, mathematical literacy is

becoming more and more important for resolving complex problems and fostering

innovation and advancement.

Manipulative Mathematics Tools

In mathematics manipulatives, instructional materials are concrete objects designed

to help learners develop number sense and a deeper understanding of mathematics concepts

by having something hands-on to work with (Liu, 2024). These materials are employed by

teachers to introduce, practice, or remediate various mathematical ideas, encouraging

social interaction and enhancing understanding through multisensory experiences. This has

shown the outcomes in students’ learning, aiding in the development of strong

mathematical skills and promoting confidence.

The use of manipulation in teaching mathematics helps make abstract ideas

concrete. This is a teaching strategy that uses physical objects that are designed to represent

concrete mathematical ideas that are abstract. It is described as physical things or concrete

objects students may use to investigate and acquire an understanding or comprehension of

a mathematical idea. The most common manipulatives are number lines, spinners, decimal

blocks, geoboards, integer tiles, tools for measurement, fraction tiles, geared clocks, and a

graphing mat. The usage of these affords realistic means for students to learn abstract

mathematical topics. Based on their study of Lazaro (2021), the development of their

research that has fulfilled the use of chess as a manipulative material to teach mathematics,

specifically the addition and subtraction of fractions, improves the learning achievement
of the student in this subject. In turn, the use of chess as a board game helped a lot in an

educational chess version, it has been observed that, in addition to helping to achieve the

learning of mathematical objectives, the motivation of the students increases. In addition,

the children said they felt more important because they considered chess to be a game of

elders.

Hurts and Linsell's (2020) findings showed an increase in math understanding and

reasoning skills through the use of manipulative instructional materials. Lange (2021)

connoted that the implementation of manipulative instructional materials in mathematics

concepts offers students a different way of learning and being engaged in the content area.

Evidence suggests if manipulatives are utilized constructively, they have a significant

outcome on a student’s math skills.

Furthermore, Rojas' (2023) study revealed a significant difference in the

performances of the Grade 2 Indigenous People’s Education (IPEd) learners before and

after the utilization of teacher-made manipulative learning materials in teaching. The

manipulative learning materials which are letters framed or mounted on cardboard where

learners had to master the sounds of the letters and providing them with video presentations

that show lessons on the production of sounds and other interactive activities where

learners can join in manipulating the computer contribute to the improvement of the

learner’s level of performance thus, intervening an effective learning material in teaching

word recognition skills. Based on the study of Boz et al., (2020), their research results are

taken into consideration, preparing appropriate learning environments and including the

manipulative materials in these environments are important in enabling preschool children

to gain and improve early mathematical skills. In this direction, the teachers should actively
use the manipulative materials in preschool mathematics education and provide appropriate

learning opportunities for children. The research in which the opinions of the preschool

teachers on the effects of the manipulative materials on the early mathematical skills will

be revealed may be performed and therefore, the current situation is determined and the

teachers may be supported with various training programs. In addition, teachers may design

their mathematical materials with the children in their classroom, and the effects of these

materials may be examined with longer use of them. The longitudinal research in which

the effect of the early mathematical skills acquisitions of the children or supporting these

skills on their mathematical success in the following years is examined may be planned.

Using mathematics manipulatives during a lesson brings hands-on learning to the

classroom. This can appeal to a multitude of different learners (Prodigy, 2022).

Incorporating math manipulatives in lessons adds a dynamic, hands-on element to

classroom instruction. By engaging tactile senses, it caters to diverse learning styles and

enhances comprehension and retention for students of all abilities. Crowe (2022) stated

that manipulative instructional materials allow students to work with math in the way that

is best for them. By working independently with math manipulative instructional materials,

a student is better able to work at their own pace and spend more time on concepts or

problems that are particularly difficult for them. Therefore, manipulative instructional

materials play a vital role in helping learners understand the complexity of the content in a

lesson.