15

Achievements of Vi
Vienna Congress
nrevent wars, Vienna Congress came into existence but it
..,d to prevent wars thougn t Was sucCessful in initiating an era of
maintaining peace by
by diplomacy, negotiations and by
joint efforts of
major powerful nations.
Defeat of Napoleon Bonaparte, the Emperor of France in the
. ehattle of Waterloo on 18 June, l815 created many
problems.
He was sent to island in the South Atlantic, the island of St. Helena
here he died in 1821. The downfall of Napoleon brought into its
train some complicated and difficult problems which baffled solutions.
Almost all the countries of Europe were profoundly affected by those
problems. So, a conference of the heads of the European countries
was held at Vienna, the capital of Austria in 1815. This conference
is known as the Congress of Vienna in the history of Europe. Major
powers were Austria led by Metternich, Russia led by Czar Ålexander
1, England led by Castlereagh and Prussia etc.
Main Problems Before the Congress. The overthrow of Napoleon
Bonaparte brought with it a lot of complicated problems which were
difficult to be solved. Main problems were as follows :
l. Reconstruction of Europe. Napoleon had brought change in
the map of Europe to a great extent. Consequently, the political
Situation of the European states was also changed. Some states Iike
Belgium, Holland, Switzerland, the Grand Duchy of Warsaw, the
States of Italy and Germany had become more powerful, while sOme
big countries like Russia, Austria and Prussia etc. have suffered due to
OPposition to Napoleon Bonaparte. Thus, the reconstruction ol
Europe and the reorganisation of the Napoleonic empire was the main
problem which was to be tackled by the diplomats of the Vienna
Congress. C.D. Hazen, an historian, has remarked:
"As all the nations of Europe had been profoundly affected by his
enterprises,
of the so all were profoundly effected by his fall. The destruction
Napoleonic regime must be followed by the reconstruction of
 133
132 VIENNA CONGRESS
ACHIEVEMENTS OF
assemblage of celebrities.
Europe. This work of HISTORY OF EUROPE been seensuch an
beforehadthere Austria and Russia, the kings of Prussia,
of Vienna". Accordingreconstruction
to
was
"The undertaken by Never emperors of
Dernmark, a multitude of lesser
princes, and all
acceptable to France combinedLipson,
to with establishmenttheof
Europe" were main problems. the pursuit of a policy a govt. Congres There
werethe
Bavaria,
Wurtemburg,
of Europe of whom
Metternich and Talleyand were the
diplomats
2.The Church.
Pope had occupied Before the outbreak of the
French
acceptableh most
the conspicuous.»
representatives who
influenced most the
decisions of the
a dominant place
the people but also the in Revolution
Roman Catholic faith. Not The mentioned below :
represented by the emperor,
Francis
had to pay respect and kings and emperors of the Congress were as Austria was Congress was
to the orders of the European countries Austria-Hungary. As the
supreme authority to decideobey the religious Pope. He was the by its able Chancellor, Metternich.Francis Ispent amount of
emperor
questions
circumstancesthechanged in 1789 when the leaders and disputes. But I and capitalof Austria, Metternich was appointed
of the French convened in the entertainment of the guests. According to Hayes, "It
confiscated property of the Church and sold
the common people. The Civil Revolution
it to the farmers f800.000 on the President of the Congress. played by Austria and
and the Convener and of fact of a decisive part
the powers of the Clergy and Constitution of the Clergy had reduced reactionary of his age and
the church became an made them subservient to govt. Thus, was a recognition was diplomat and the great decisions of the Vienna
Metternich." He revolutionary changes. The
lost his traditional andinstitution under the state. In this way, the Pope ideology ofMetternich.
wanted to curb by the political
an subordinate branch ofestablished
the
authority and the church became mostly influenced
Congress were maintain peace by co-operation of
major powers.
Pope but later on imprisoned state. Napoleon made
him. With the downfallcompromise with He desired to which took a
leading part in
of the country of Russia along
the battle of Waterloo, the
problem of the church and theNapoleon
came to forefront. The diplomats Pope
in
again
Russia. Russia was Alexander I, the emperor
Napoleon. Czar Congress. According to
of the Vienna Congress defeating participated in the Vienna Vienna was Alexender I,
much inclined to re-establish the religious were very with his ministers, powerful monarch at disastrous invasion of
authority of the church. dignity of the Pope and the
This problem was a complicated Hazen, "The most who, ever since
Napoleon's therefore felt
Europe." He,
representatives at the Vienna Conference had to solve it.one that the Emperor of Russia large as a liberator of Ergong, "When
According to Roberton the map and
3. Suppressionof the Russia, had loomed due.
Revolutionary Ideas. The French Revolution be given his his hand men...
of 1789 gave a new message of liberty, equality and fraternity that he should assembled he (Czar) put I hold it with 200000
people of the all countries. These to the congress is ours
tne emphorically......Polandout."
popular in Europe even after the fallrevolutionary feelings were very
of Napoleon Bonaparte. As the
deelared
who will drive us the king of Prussia and his minister
Hardenberg was
diplomats of the Vienna We shall see William II,
the political system ofCongress had firmly determined Conference. of Prussia
Europe as it existed before 1789,
to reconstruct Prussia. Fredericktake part in the The delegates Theyfixed
it was came to Humboldt.
essential for them to suppress these revolutionary Hardenberg namedexpansion of their power.
south. They
thought that the revolutionary feelings were like a feelings. 1hey assisted by a specialist
militarism andkingdom of Saxonyto the to grab
So the suppression of these contagious diseasSe. believed in the desired
Europe and major powers.
dealt with by the diplomatsfeeling was also an intricate the rich in
of Vienna Congress. problem to be their attention upon powerful stateconsent of other of
Main Representatives at the Vienna wanted to make Prussia apossible bytheCastlereagh and the Duke
may be p kept in his
began with great pomp and show and in it Congress. The congress as much land as Minister Lord
England. Lord
Castlereagh
delegates were to
very
except Turkey were invited. all countries of Europe England. Foreign delegates of British new colonies
The
The Vienna Congress is considered to be an Wellington werethe of his country. form of some
important diplomatic Compensationin the
mind colonial interest power but
gathering in which all the powers much cager to find major
Prominent rulers, famous statesmen,were represented except Turkey.
able diplomats and politicians, extend the empire. not
included as The delegate of
Europe. full
generals and eminent scholars of almost all the countries of Europe France was of diplomat. He took
came to participate in the conference. In the words of France. Originallyincluded in concert
shrewd
historian C.D. also
Hazen : later on, it was He was a
France was Talleyrand.
 135
134 CONGRESS
VIENNA
ACHIEVEMENTS OF
already been
advantage of the mutual jealousy of the HISTORY OF EUROP is clear that
some secret
powers.
treaties had
They had taken some important
Talleyrand that other
to the able diplomacy of Thus, it four decisions were to be
FFrancediplomats. It was among the big Those
secretive manner. legitimacy through the
concert of Europe and principle of became due concluded
decisions in a to give them
legitimacy was acceptedmember of
Besides the above, many other delegates pior
inthe
Vienna Congress
of almost all registered Although the
of Europe except Turkey came to the Congress of Vienna. complicated
Other prominent participant Cardinal Salvi wasin the Vienna countries
participate of the
Congress. System and
Working someimportant based on any
The representatives of
Denmark, Sweden,
the delegate of Ro
Bavaria,
Congress. anna
TheCongress was convened to solve
working of this
Conference was not
all countries
were
came to attend this conference. Wurtemburg
According to an historian :
alsh problems, yet the representatives of almost
treaties had been
concluded
"The Congress of Vienna was one of the principle. The
universalselfishness. Although the secret not remain united as
their
gatherings in the history of Europe by reason most important diplomatic adent in countries could
of importance, of the
number, variety and gravity of the questions presented among the allies, those loose,
and interests were antagonistic. system was very the
brilliancy of its was remarkable even for an age settled. The the working and
to the theatrical membership
shortcoming, provision of voting
diplomacy of accustomed this
In addition todisarray. There was no and complicated problems
"All that was most brilliant in Napoleon." According to Robert Ergang,
Europe found its way to Vienna." iegular and in resolutions. The serious
the opinions of
those
presentation of the solved without ascertaining or extended at the
Background of the Vienna Congress Although the Congress of ofvarious states
were were reduced
powers. According
Vienna was held after the downfall of Napoleon boundaries of the states ofmajor
Bonaparte certain
arrangements had been agreed upon by the allies (England, states. The
dancing houses at the whim
all ministers
plenipotentiary
Russia, dinners and in session to which
Prussia and Austria) before the meeting of Vienna Congress. These "Therewas no
four had their own mutual secret big to an historian, spite of the
may be stated under :
agreements. Some of those treaties were invited." Congress of Vienna. Inselfish motive
of the Congress and thedevised in order
() According to the treaty of Abu (1812), it was decided to join Basic Principles working ofthe were
Shortcomings and loose fundamental principles be statedas under
:
Norway with Sweden. some
of the diplomats, problems. The principles may foreign minister
(11) As per the treaty of Kelig (1813), it was to solvethe difficult Taileyrand, the to this, it was
must be compensated for the loss of a part of itsdecided
that Prussia
Principle ofLegitimacy. According
of their
treaty of Tilsit (1807). territory under the 1. The the deviser of this principle. who had been deprivedshould be
of France was those rulers Napoleon Bonaparte former
(ii)The treaty of Rickhenbeich (1813) rights of
decided that the their states by tothe
Poland among Austria, Prussia and Russia.decided the Tripartition of
In this way to wipe out thrones and driven from determinedto take
back EuropeHazen
C.D.
states
existence of free Poland. re-established. They had beforer 1789. Historian of
legitimacy
(iv) The treaty of Chaumont (1814), this condition which existed general, the doctrine Europe, thatis,
the principle of mutual co-operation. The allies treaty was based upon
"It was understood
that, in rearrangement of
driven from
one another for at least two had decided to support
followed in determining the theirthrones and atthe hands
decades. should l be deprived of themback again giventheir
(v) The treaty of Toplitz (1813) decided that the
boundaries of the principle that princes shouldreceivedynasticrulers were
Austria must be restored as they existed in 1805. their states by NapoleonInthis wayold
(vi) The treaty of Par1s (1814) was of collective Europe." Diplomatsthought
treaties concluded before the defeat of the most important of all thd Power. they
thrones again. of came so
Napoleon. of the Balance European warsEurope,it was
It was decided that the boundarjes of
France must be ascertained 2. The Principle France, cra of the whole ofbalanced,sothat
according to the situation obtainabl e in January due to dominance of the peace
of shouldbe responsiblefor
these treaties many decisions were also taken about1792. In addition to
ensure countries
decided. In orderto wwas held necessaryto
of different
Venetia, Lombardy, Portugal etc, According to anHolland, Belgium,
historian, agreed that the power another. Franceit wasthought
territorial arrangement of the congress were in large part dictated"The no country could threaten Therefore,
the necessity of keeping pledges made before it met."
by disturbing the peace of Europe.
136 37
CONGRESS
HISTORY OF EUROPR ACHIEVEMENT'S OF VIENNA
control her power. The political power of gain, the Grand Duchy of
Saxony and Prussia was augmented to keepHolland, FranceBavaria, respectively. In addition to thisAs a result of gaining these
and peace may be preserved in Europe.
3. The Principle of Rewards and
Sardinia,
within its limits Turkey was also given to Russia.
Warsaw
important territories, Russia acquired prominence in the
European
Punishments.
principle, it was decided that those states which
against Napolean Bonaparte were to be rewarded, had
According
helped the
to this
allies
politics.
Austria-Hungary. According to the doctrine of the
balance of
Austria, was given
tobe punished which had but those under the possession of
supported states
to this, it was also concluded that thoseNapoleon Bonaparte. In addition Were power. Belgium which was to it Lombardy and
compensated by awardingaddition
kingdoms should be Austria was
to Holland. provinces of Northern Italy. In to this, the
that had either been
destroyed or damaged by the acts and
Napoleon Bonaparte. As the allies took Compensat
warS eofd Venetia, the and Illyria were also
given to Austria
of Napoleon, so it was also decided to an active part in the downfall provinces to Tyrol, Galicia
compensate them by giving them Hungary. was the foremost
Some new territories. of the colonial empireSea, Malta and the
Britain. The expansionHelgoland in the North
got
desire of Britain. SheMediterranean, Cape
IMPORTANT DECISIONS OF THE CONGRESS OF Ceylon (Sri Lanka) and the
VIENNA Ionian Islands in the
Keeping in view the principles accepted at the Vienna Colony in South Africa.
and the secret treaties that Congress Mauritius, St. Lucia and
had been also got Tobago,
following important decisions were takenconcluded among the allies,
in the Congress of Vienna. In addition to this, she
additions to the British empire,
the sea
France. Problem of France was the main question Trinidad. On account of these foremost in the continent of Europe.
According to the principle of Legitimacy, the House ofto be decided. power of England became two-fifths portion of the kingdom
of
re-established in France. Bourbon was Prussia. Prussia gained about from Sweden and the large territornes
was enthroned in France.Count
de Provence, the Pomerania
He was called Louisbrother
of Louis XVI Saxony, the province of Rhine. In addition to this, she also acquired
general opinion of XVIII. It of the
and Danzig. Consequently,
political disturbancesdiplomats that France was responsible was the on both banks
in Poland), ThormBaltic.
that had occurred in Europe for the Westphalia, Posen (a citycoast line on the Prussia was inclined
1815. Therefore, between 1739 Prussia rounded out her Hardenberg, the
to seventy millionFrance was Itasked to pay the war expenses to acquire the provinces
of Alsace, Lorraine also. but Prussian
Francs. was also concluded that theamountng
allies of 150,000 soldiers Prussia presented his claim for these provinces
would stay in France under the army of delegate of Alasace Lorraine remained in
France.
the British general, the Duke command of request was rejected and
been of Wellington till the was decided in
geographical expression as itquestion
made. The full
payment
in 1791. In orderboundaries of France were
to maintain peace determined as they were
hao ltaly. Italy was only
disposition of Italy was a
of great
states like Holland, and order in numerous petty states. The Congress. Italy had been
Europe in future, Vienna
importance that was decided at naely, Naples, Rome, Lombardy,
were strengthened toPiedmont, Prussia, Austria
check aggression of France in bordering on Franee small states Piedmont etc.
was forced to give back future. France divided intoseveral Tuscany, Sicily, Sardinia, restored to the
all art pictures Venetia, Parma, Modena,
Napoleon. which were collected by
According to Principle of
legitimacy, these states were Sardinia and
to
Holland and Belgium. The rule of the Piednmont and Genoa were given Sardinia
old dynastic rulers. re-established in this new joint state.south-east
established
Belgium
in Holland
according to the House of Orange was re
the House of Savoy was situated on the
was given to Holland.
of Austria. The Previously, doctrine of
this was under theLegitimacy. Was made strong
because this state was barrier against the
diplomats were and would prove to be a strong Venetia were
strong barrier in of the view that possession border to France and
provinces of Lombardy established in the
both the countriesthe north of France. This was aHolland wrong
might be a French aggression. The dynasty was again
nullified in 1830 bydiffered in language and religion etc. decision as conferred to Austria. The Bourbonwhile Rone was given to the Pope.
Naples,
Russia. revolution. and it was provinces of Sicily and
Louise, the wife of Napoleon prnces
Bonaparte.
so Russia Czar Alexander I was prominent P'arma was given to Marie
and Tuscany were given to the
Finland andgainedBessarabia.
much from the Vienna figure at Vienna Congress
These were Congress. She retained the
The provinces of Molena family of Austria.
connected with the imperial
conguered from Sweden and dominating power in ltaly, Mettemich
In this way, Austria became the
 J9
138 VIENNA CONGRESS
ACHIEVEMENT'S OF
HISTORY OF EUROPE rewards and punishments.
wanted to form a federation of these
states, but he According tothe principle ofwas divided into three parts.
successful in his scheme due to the could not be Poland. punished. This big country disappered
opposition of Poland wasgivento Russia. Prussia and Austria.
Thus Poland
Pope. In this way condition of Italy became
in 1789. Historian C.D. Hazen
Sardinia
nearly the same asandit was
the being
cachindependent country.
states : given below :
No union or federation of these as an important resolutions may be stated set
others. Other international
Metternich's desire that Italy should simply States was effected. It wer
be a collection of independent of the Congress established an
were differences
() The delegates rules etc. Prior to this, there the international
states, should be only a 'geographical expression' and norms and proceedings of
Thus Italy remained divided such it
in petty states dominated by Austria.was." un and its
powers regarding theof the delegates, their rights,
among the European order of precedence international rules and
Germany. Before the advent of conferences, the established some
was divided into more than 360 pettyNapoleon Bonaparte, Germany
states. A confederation of the uniforms etc. This
conference
for the
International friendship and
sound basis
Rhine was established by Napoleon. After the downfall traditions which gave seas were declared open for trade.
a
the question of the reorganisation of the German states of Napoleon, co-operation. All the opinion against
came
the diplomats of the Vienna Congress. In order to prevent the before members of the Congress expressed their unjust, immoral
growth (ii) The system as cruel
and development of the feeling of constitutionalism, They declared this from each country of
nationalism and the slave system.human dignity. It was urgedabolition of the slavery.
liberalism, Federal Act was passed. According to this Act, a loose
a
and against the sincere attempts towards the Conference.
confederation of Germany was established for the maintenance of Europe to make an humanitarian act of Vienna
internal and external security of Germany. Each member (state) of this Abolition of slavery was SETTLEMENT OF
confederation had promised "to defend the whole Germany as well as EVALUATION OF THE
CRITICAL VIENNA CONGRESS
each individual state of the confederation against any attack and
declarations of high
mutually to guarantee all the possessions of each member." The Congress was convened with lofty of the Vienna
organisation of confederation according to historian served to prevent The Vienna that the diplomats
It was declared reconstruction
two dangers most feared: a unification of Germany under liberal morals and principles. an honest and just attempt for the was expected
auspices and the complete independence of various states. Congres would make system of Europe. It
of the politicalCongress would prove beneficial tor
A Federal Diet was also established for the
smooth working or ne and reorganisation of the Vienna jus! and equilable
central administration. The emperor of Austrja was that the settlementof a durable peace based upon a
of this Diet. The delegates of each state were to made the President the establishment may be said that
be
rulers of the respective states and not be elected by nominated by no division of power. It principles. Although
based on any soundthe Vienna Congress
the whole of Germany came under the leadership of the people. Thus 1.The decisions
were not
down by
Austria-Flungary. tundamental principles were laid example, it
diplomats. Fordeprived
Switzerland. There were nineteen cantons in Switzerland. One nree were overlooked the by had been of
principles
representative from each canton came to attend the Vienna CongreSS. Dut these that the rights of those rulers who re-establishedin their
Three new cantons were added to Was decided Bonaparte should
be tollowed.
federal government consisting of all Switzerland and an independent their thrones by Napoleon legitimacy should be Naples,
the twentytwo cantons wis of such as
established. All the European powers recognised respective kingdoms i.e. principle
applied in cases of
states
was not
tollowed
Swiss federation. Thus Switzerland became an neutrality ol tnis But this principle has been principle of legitimacy
democratic republic. independent 1ederal Saxony and Genoa etc. Thus seltish.
of Vienna CongresS.were greedy and
Denmark. the king of Denmark had helped Napoleon
As properly by the statesmen Congress
Bonaparte Vienna
against the allies, therefore, the province of Norway was taken In fact, the diplomats ofC.D. Hazen : operation of
from it and was given to
Sweden. Thus it was punished. away ln the words of historian negotiations the attempt
Sweden. The provinces of Pomerania and Finland "It is impossible to discover
iin these brokers neglectedto " Each
were snatched these titled endeavours.
away from Sweden and Norway was any lofty principle. Not that nobility of their and provinces as he
given to Sweden.
Spain. According to the principle of to convince Europe of the grab as many lands
Bourbons was re-established in legitimacy, the old House of representative was eager to
Spain.
 14
140 CONGRESS
OF VIENNA
ACHIEVEMENTS
could, It has therefore, been HISTORY OF EUROPE omission
In spite of all these
and commission."beneficial in many ways
was not 'congress' at all, remarked that "the mistakes both
of
mistakes. this conference
proved
to divide the spoils of but it was merely the
the vanquished." meeting
of
of the Congress Vienna errorsand first occasion
2. The Congress
ignored the liberal victos such as:
1It heralded the
beginning of a new era. It was the Europe had
countries of
nationality. The diplomats introduced many principle and feeling of
of Europe the representatives of almost allthe problems. It gave birth
international
major
selfish interests. changes
ohen to solve the
Belgium toaccording
to their own in the man brotherhood.
Holland, The annexation of gathered at one place goodwill, co-operation and
international
Lombardy
Sweden, Finland to Russia and Venetia to
Austria, to the feeling of has observed
the principle of was not based on any sound Norwayor onto Historian J.A.R. Marriot reactionary
nationality. In the same principle Congress of Vienna was
divided into different small states way, Italy and Germany were "Although the work of the the close of an old epoch but the
All these mostly under the control of
decisions were taken under nonetheless it marks not only
Austria.
against the principle of nationality to the influence of Mettemich beginning of anew. blood wars
Italy and Germany. The keep Austria as leading power in Congress saved Europe from the horrible and Congress
way, as if it were theirdiplomats 2. Vienna of the
reorganised Europe in an arbitrary years. The main objective
own property.
Historian for a period of about forty Europe through the joint efforts of major
remarked:"The
whom the ideas Congress
of
of Vienna was a congress C.D.
of
Hazen has was to establish peace insucceeded to a great extent as no war was
Crimean War of
aristocrats, to
nationality and democracy as proclaimed powers and in this they e. from 1815 to the
French Revolution were forty years, i
rcarranged Europe incomprehensible or loathsome. The by the fought for about
it were their own according their own desires,
to rulers 1854-56.
prevalent in whole
personal disposing of it as if slavery. The slave system was
of people was anproperty," Not to take into account the It abolished resolution
aspirations, unjust act.
3.
of the
of Europe. The diplomatsmade
Vienna Congress passed a This was,
3. The an appeal to abolish slavery.
representatives
excluding Turkey came to of almost all the
countries of
against this system and
which was
reform accomplished by the Vienna
those did not Vienna to participate in the
Europe a great humanitarian
In fact,members
they represent people of
the conference, but Congress. the diplomacy
the rulers. Nowere the rulers themselves or thetheir respective countries. of intemational organization, of pcace by
4. It laid the foundationunderstanding
ministers or and maintenance
in this represent
conference. Whileative of the
people of any country officers
was invited by conference and mutual powers.
feelings of the people oftakingthe
the decisions, the
congress ignored the joint co-operation and efforts of major
although the Congress of
decisions lacked goodwill country concerned. Conclusion, Thus, it may be stated that shorteomungs in
words of C.D, Hazen :
of the people and Consequently,
permanency. In the
and there were many
Vienna committed many mistakes was "an honest attempt to prevent
that it
the They the settlement, yet it is true I815."
spoils witnessed the
years had been victory. Theyunedifying
of Tuture wars and the best that
could have been devised in
saw the scramble of the "provided the
conquerors that the Vienna Congress Accordung to
monarchs 10 .D.M. Ketelbey, has opined
peoples, denouncing
pleasures." precisely in Napoleon
acting for
of Europe, who for
the same way,not respectingit the rights of Teal foundation on which
later Europe was
"There
to build."
a century and no
was no great war forremained
whenever suited their tant and Temperley, setlement bas1s for
4. The territorial
Congress major war until I853, the lett as a tradition behind
Iiberty, cquality and ignored the revolquite
utionarypopular
ideas. The feelings of thirty years, the systenm of Congress. Hazen says
work of They ignoredfraternity
conterences. But
countries. were
these principles in the I the practice of international
be no settleent because
they
settlement reconst ruction and
taking into temporary. Inthefact,recogni
while undertaking
no sation of Europe. This madegrea
Europa
the
the Ignored the factors that alone
could
Theirs (the diplomats) would make the settlennent pemäncat.
to witness repeated,
after 1815 was destinedcardinal
revolItutiis,onaryconsimovements progressisettlement
deration began. could permanent
vAne a democratic ideas. wIthou Ihe history of Europe attempts lo tectity this error of the
and often successful, According to Prot. Fyfle, "Standing on the
therefore, generally Said that eminent historian Consequent
has
"he Congress ofstated :
iy Congress of Vienna,"
boundary line between the two ages, the
legislation of Vinna forms
Vienna a landnark in history".
 ACHIEVEMENTS OF VIENNA CONGRESS
142 HISTORY OF EUROPE 14J
4. It did not take into account the revolutionary ideas.
POINTS TO REMEMBER
In spite ofthese drawbacks, the Vienna Congress became successful
Afer the downfall of Napoleon a Congress was held at Vienna :.
1815 which has been called as the Congress of Vienna. in : era,
(i) initiating a new
Main Problems before the Congress of Vienna were : (i) the establishment of peace, tranquility for about 40 years
1. Reconstruction of Europe. and
slavery.
2. The Problem of the Church and of Pope. (ii) the abolition of
2. Suppression of the revolutionary upheavals. Conclusion. It was the foundation on which diplomacy by conference,
maintenance of; peace by co-operation of major powers and foundation
Main diplomats at the Vienna Congress
of international
organization was laid.
1. Austria Chancellor Metternich and the king Francis I.
2. Russia Czar Alexander I and his ministers.
3. Prussia - King Frederick William III along with bis advisers
Hardenberg and Humboldt.
4. England Foreign Minister Lord Castlereagh and Duke of
Wellington.
5. France Talleyrand, the Foreign Minister.
6. Rome Cardinal Salvi.
Previous Treaties. The Treaty of Abu (1812), The Treaty of
Kelig (1813), The Treaty of Riekhenbeich (1813), The Treaty of
Toplitz (1813), The Treaty of Chaumont (1814), The Treaty of Paris
(1814).
The Working System of the Congress of Vienna. Its working
was very loose and irregular. The representatives were greedy and
selfish.

Basic Principles accepted by the Congress of Vienna

1. The Principle of Legitimacy.
2. The Principle of the Balance of Power.
3. The Principle of Rewards to supporters and Punishments to
opponents.
Important Decisions. Some of the decisions were taken on thë
basis of the above-mentioned principles. The political changes w
done in France, Holland, Belgium, Russia, Austria, England, Prus
Italy, Germany, Switzerland, Denmark, Sweden, Spain, Poland and n
some other countries. The declaration of the international norMs, ru
and the abolition of the slavery were also the important decisiola
Critical Evaluation. There were following defects in the settlement:
1. It was guided by self-interest and self-aggrandizemeil
2. lt ignored the principle of nationality and of liberty.
3. Itignored the progressive feelings of the peoples of Euro
countries.
 28
Eastern Question
Decline of Turkish power who ruled over lot of countries of
Russia desired to
eastern Europe created eastern question because
Russia to do so. As
grab Balkan states but other powers did not allow
Question. After
such ambition of European powers created Eastern
Second World War Russia succeeded in achieving her aim but now
many states.
again eastern European countries have been divided into factor in
Ambition of Russia to annex Balkan states was the constant
Eastern question.
Russian ambition to dominate Turkey and grab her Balkan state
ambitions
created eastern problem and made it apple of discord. "The
Turkey were a
of Russia to expand her influence at the expense of
the Great
constant factor in the Eastern Question from the day to Peter
to the war of 1914." Expansion of Russia was opposed by other
problem. Russia was
European nations so it became international
bound to the Balkan peoples by the ties of religion because they were
of same great church and race and the Russian
Czar claimed the right
the Czar's sympathy ran
of protecting them from Turkish misrule. Butincrease
in the same direction as his ambition to her territory and
influence and beneath his benevolent intention there was the transparent
Mediterranean.
design of securing the desired influence and access to the view, viz., to
Russian policy in the Near East had two aims in states
dismember Turkey in order toincrease her influence in Balkan
prove
and to seize Constantinople as the prize, and if that would
difficult then to dominate Turkey by forcing upon the Sultan a
number of unequal treaties which would keep Turkey in a state of
treaties
Vassalage under Russian overlordship. Several such unequalBucharest
already existed such as those of Katchuk-Kainardji (1774) and
to intervene in
eC., which gave the Czar some kind of limited right
the internal government of the Porte (Turkey).
Anglo-Russian Rivalry
was
The lengthening shadow of the Russian bear in the Near East
Very disquieting to the British Lion. Suspicion about Russian designs
 292 293
EASTERN QUESTION
HISTORY OF EUROPE which
upon Turkey was the keynote of the British pan-Slavic movement in the Balkans,
ministers as they began to see in the policy - British feared the growth of the which was stirring the race consciousness
serious menace to British interests in the
that the establishment of Russian
Russian
Eastern empire. aforeign
aggrandisement was encouraged by Russia and which contained lot of Slav subjects.
of the Slavs in Austrian empire own
control over Balkan statesThey feared movement might sap the loyalty of her
She felt nervous that the
Constantinople would prove a threat to
empire. Hence, they watched with keen British hold upon Indian
and empire. Henceforth, it became
Slav subjects in her own southern leading Slav state in the Balkans,
her
nolicy to cripple and confine the
advancement which suspicion every Russian whose growing nationalism was a
Thus over the Easternthreatened to interfere with the gateway to Asia
question their developed something viz., Serbia and Bulgaria etc. Austrian empire.
antagonism between Britain menace to the integrity of the
century England stood forth and Russia. Throughout thelike chronic
nineteenth French Policy
as the
Russian aggression. British policy aimedprotection of involved issues commercial
by preserving at checking Turkey against To France, the Eastern Question mnainly
the traditional ally of
the integrity of the
Ottoman Russian advance and religious, rather than political. She was
and Disraeli were the chief Empire. Lord Palmerston an occasions in the eighteenth
believed in the possible exponent this policy. They firmly
of Turkey and had befriended her on many trading privileges
obtained special
suitable opportunity, sheregeneration of Turkey and held that,
given
century. As a consequence she had
interested in developing themn, specially
power. It should be notedmight again become a strong and stable and concessions she was mainly
the traditional protector of the
Russia in check for a longthat England was successful in holding in Syria and Egypt etc. She was also
and in the East and
time but she could not Roman Catholic Christians in the Turkish empire
dismemberment
and
of the Ottoman
subject people aspired Empire because Turkeyprevent the once it caused Crimea War. France also
claimed traditional and old
really
that while posing as the for independence. It is somewhat was weak or
friendship but in spite of this France was never a consistent Question
had managed to put a champion of the integrity of ironical enthusiastic protector of Turkish empire. To her the Easternposition in
pockets particularly in valuable share of Turkey, England
Turkish spoils into her own was mainly one which concerned her naval and commercial
Austrian Interests Berlin conference of 1878. the Mediterranean.
German aims
than Austria' s interests in the Balkan
those of Russia and Great Britain,region were perhaps more vital As regards Germany it was a house divided
among themselves so
country with only a short She was an almost the affairs of the Near East did not appeal to her till the last quarter
her position was coast-line the head of the Adriatic
at land-locked century. Even after unification Bisnmarck held
of the nineteenth
traffic. Hence, precarious. So she was badly where himself aloof from Balkan complications and remarkedPomeranian
that "the
economically it
secure outlet to the sea, and was essential that she
for this she must
situated for sea-borne
should have a
single
whole Eastern Questions was not worth the bones of a which wvas held
of the grenadier." But in 1878 at the Congress of Berlin
absence south-cast i.e.
of good ports, towards Turkish expand in the direcion
Empire. under his Presidentship he posed as an "honest broker' but administered
of her Secondly, in the
the Henceforth, Germany
along the Danube
territory and to valley, andgreatso it volume
was in her commerce passed
a check to Russia in order to befriend Austria.
in the East, fraternising
began to develop greater diplomatic activities permission
the prevent the
if hermouth of the river
interest to expand for German
southward move
establishment of Russian
Danube. This Russia was probably supremacy
her
a
with Turkey, drilling her army and securing
capitalists to build the Baghdad Railway. According to historian
unchecked. Thus in towards
Constantinople
this way Austria was
Balkans. In the first half was
sure to do,
allowed to go an
Hayes, The basic importance of Turkey before the
statesmen between 1815 and 1870 was whether Turkey was to
continental
be
take any active of the Russia's rival in the and if it was to be wiped out, what was to take her place.
part in nineteenth
vigilant watch upon the affairs of Turkish century, Austria did not
wiped out,
Causes of the decay of the Ottoman Empire
ofcounter Russia's BalkanRussia's empire, but kept a
dynasties.
Germany, she ambitionsadvancement,
But after the Metternich sought to
with the doctrine of legitimate rule
Perhaps the main cause of decay of the Turkish Empire was
administrative inefficicney. The Turks nevertodisplayed any aptitude for
order to find turned with expulsion of Austria from Italy and civil and efficient government. According historian Mariott, "Turk
compensation increasing
at the interest to
the
expense of Turkey. south-east Besides
in is a fighter, but not a great administrator. Everywhere the administration
294 295

was paralysed by insubordination and

HISTORY OF EUROPE EASTERNQUESTION

to
were lovers of wealth and corruption. Thelife. Turkish enoughto follow the policy of divide and rule and
also was clever
women and of of
of Sultan over the provincial
dignitaries luxurious
called So the nulers make use
of the jealousies of the power to prolong the longevity
and other agents, was deplorably
defective Pashas and control her empire.
Viceroys in outlying provinces like
more like semi-independent
and weaker.
Egypt, Algiers and The gover
Sulmtaorn'ss Thus according to Lord Moraly, "The
shifting untractable and
rival peoples and antagonistic
administrative officials. Thus the tributary princes thanTunis, behaved interwoven tangle of conflicting interests ofname of Eastern Question."
faiths that is united under the easy According to W. Miller, "The
dismembermentsubordinate
on in process of
Turkey even before the rise of the
Balkans : Balkans in Turkish was going Consequently constant wars took place.
mountainous means mountain Chri
and
stia
it
n is nations of
to the neàr eastern question may be defined as the problem of filling up the
country between Donu applied
about the Agansean. The same the vacuum created by the gradual disappearance of the Turkish empire
lack of
administrative
weld together into a capacity was from Europe." The Balkan states of Serbia, Greece and Bulgaria etc.
Turkey had amassed political whole emphasised
the desparateby her inability to tried to replace Turkey by becoming independent. Russia tried to grab
many races of differentduring her inzenith of power. Shedominions which and dominate it. Britain tried to protect Turkey by threats and war
attempt to assimilate them, nor tosouth eastern Europe, had
Conference etc. But
religions subdued
but made no with Russia such as Crimean War and Berlin
her policy and
subjects nor to fuse them into one make them loyal and obedient after Berlin Conference of 1870, Britain changed
such as Egypt, Sudan,
began to grab territories under Turkish rule
contempt for the conquered
gather taxes from them, people body-politic. Full
the Turkish rulers of hatred and
cared Iraq and Palestine etc. But after World War
Balkan states became
but they are still
state as far as leaving them in a
kind of only to Russian satellites and Muslim states as free states
cmpire was builtadministration was concerned. semi-independence cockpit of modern world.
up by Secondly, the Turkish
empire lacking any other military power, and when this declined, the SUMMARY
the onslaught of the cohesive force, began to fall in weakness and to
peoples. Subject peoplerise were of
aggressive nationalism ofpieces before 1. Russia desired to take advantage of Turkey's
the Balkan increase her territory and influence.
Muslims so religious conflict wasChristians but Turkish rulers of Turkey encouraged by Russia
Dismemberment Delayed continuous menace to peace. were 2. Being tempted by weaknessrevolution
and influenced by French
Balkan states revolted
Like Poland Turkey in her and gained independence.
provided moribund state might have easily Turkey and British policy to
a
territorial
But the "sick feast to the mighty 3. Russian ambition to dominate
Question an international problem.
man" of Europe and greedy protect it, made Eastern
recuperative showed
they could powers,toand his political heirsshrewdness
European
and powei 4. Taking advantage of jealousies of major powers, Turkish
succeed the had to wait long unusual empire continued up to 1914
assuming different aspects in
which delayed the inheritance.
dismemberment There were three main berore
factors different periods.
asdeclining
of
late as power, Turkey.
the Turks (1825-1832) AND
First,
1788 defeat theretained their fighting genius,although a THE GREEK WAR OF INDEPENDENCE
ITS IMPACT
and could
Secondl
thirdly y,
by European nations Habsburg forces of
were involved in theirAustrian empire.
centre of her geographical
It was European position. own quarrels, The Result of Serbia
In 1453, Turks captured Constantipole
and extended their sway in
only in the politics. Europe wasTurkey was remote from the
least concerned with Turkey. eastern part of Europe. Turks were Muslimms and subjects wvere
nineteenthandcenturywas thatninettheeentEastern
interests h century with Turkey. It was only in the Christians. The first national rising in the Balkan
rule. It was
peninsula
led by Kura
took place
George, a
problem. To these causeslifted into the Question aroused European nations in Serbia in 1804 against Turkish
inspiration due to French revolutions Turkey
and
ries of the major may also beprominence
Austriarivaland
of an international
added the conflicting interests
pig-dealer who got
sickness. For a time the Turks were driven away
from Serbia but they
Nepoleonic
solution and Russia etc.theThese European
madePowers particularly of England, regained it in 1815. Europe was then in the grip of the
wars therefore could not take any notice of this
movement and so the
prevented adoption the question very difficult of
of any agreed settlement. Turkey orbs had to fight alone. In 1817 Kara George was murdered by a
296
HISTORY OF EUROPE EASTERN QUESTION
297

rival party headed by Milosh Obrenovitch. who nW insurrections broke out simultaneously in Moldavia under
e.

leadership of the Serbian cause. After many years of war andassumed the revolt, and Russizn ie
Hypsilanti, and in the Moria. The Prince expected
Milosh strongly supported by Russia, secured from
recognition of Turkey
negotiations Prince that Czar Alexander I was the founder of
the Holy
help, but forgot the influence of Metternich and. as such, woukd
measure of autonomy for Serbia and the
his ownsome
ight Alliance and under Hvpsilanti
as the "Hereditary Prince of the Serbs". Serbia, though still which may change status quo.
cf
not support a revolution and the movement fizzled out for a short
to Turkey, became autonomous state with a
hereditary
under Russian influence. Within a short time this stateprincely tributary
house
came indar
Vas defeated by the Turks
rising
the islands of the Egean, the
Russian influence. Thus Serbia was first state to initiate revols t time.

Turkish empire. But in the Morea and in The Greeks began the war with a
proportions.
assumed formidable Turks and other acts of
merciless cruelty.
Turkey and Greece wholesale massacre the
of followed by the Turks by
Greece is a country of ancient civilisation. According to CD. set was too faithfully
The evil example thus The into one of muual s
war thus developed
Hazen, *The Greeks were submerged by the Turkish flood but not massacre of Greeks. with the utmost
conducted on both sides (1821
ks
destroyed", so the second step in the dismemberment of the Ottoman extermination, and was the fist six years
atrocities. For
Empire was taken by the Greeks being encouraged by Serbian ferocity and blood-curdling were left to their own
intervene and Greeks revolutionaries
the powers did not and had
success. Among the subject races of the Sultan of Turkey the Greeks 27) to
was against giving help was not so much for the
had been treated with marked favour and toleration. They had been efforts. Metternich concem of other countries
situation for
entrusted with high administrative posts and were allowed to control to fight alone. Theattitude of Russia who might exploit the insurrction
Greeks as for the his dread of
a large share of industry, trade and commerce etc. In the islands and aggrandisement. Metternich, withthe Greeks as rebels wa0 00
on the coasts of the Egean they enjoyed practical autonomy and better her own authority, looked upon itself out
treatment than subjects of other Balkan states. Their religion was against legitimate fate. He wanted to letthis revolt "bun the Czar of
must be left to their and
King of Prusia Lord Canning
fully tolerated. But towards the end of the eighteenth century the civilisation". The
beyond the pale of by Metternich to follow his view. spect for
national consciousness of the Greeks was stimulated by an intellectual Russia were persuadedher doctrine of non-intervention and
non-intervention.
revival which recalled the glories of the ancient Hellas. Into the soil of Great Britain with same policy of
thus prepared, the French Revolution had flung broadcast the seeds of Turkey, followed thethe situation, which made toreign
the integrity of came a change in vassal, Mehemet
new ideas which awakened aspirations for national independence. there
But by 1827inevitable. called upon his Mehemet Ai,
The Sultan had
The First practical important manifestation of this new spirit took the intervention lbrahim, the son of of
Shape of a secret society founded in 1814, and known as Philke Egypt to come to his help, opposition before him. The tall year,
ia,
Aliof and swept all Athens next
Hetairia. Its objects were to disseminate nationalist doctrines, to expel landed in the Morea capture of
followed by the cause was onthe
the Turks from Europe and to revive the old Greek empire of thne Missolonghi in l826, Greek resistance. The Greek Europe for a
backbone of spread through
East. The society expected Russian support because the Greeks and broke the of sympathy heritage. Loud were the
A wave and old cultural cradle
the Russians belonged to the same orthodox Greek church ad point of collapse.
such a glorioussubjugation of Greece which is the
because of the same branch of Christianity, and because the downfall people with reintorNed
the ruthless sympathy of the people was feared that
o1 Turkey would contribute to Russian aggrandisement and expansion protests against civilisation. The European powers died in
OT intluence. Relying upon Russian support, and encouraged by of Europeanof the rulers because, the wavering Alexander l The
example of Serbia, the Hetairia began armed preparation for a revolt by the fear action. The Nicholas l.
take isolated more resolute brother,himselt und to
Russian mightsucceeded
at tne earliest opportunity. Greeks also expected support from other by his consider
countries being Christians and fighter for liberty. 1825 and was willof his own and did
not Alliance. Lord
Czar had a revolt and the Holy British foreign
The War of Greek new not supporting Castlereagh to the to support
Independence the policy ofhad succeeded Lord abroad. His policy wasindependent
The Greeks began their war of i 1820. The much- Canning who friend of liberty To prevent
looked for independence in Pasha, the Turkish office, wvas afirmwithout alienating Turkey.
opportunity came in 1821
Governor of Janina, quarrelled with thewhen Ali
Sultan
war with
and went tosignal for the Creek cause
him. This was a chance to fish in the troubled water and
 298
HISTORY OF EUROPE EASTERN QUESTION 299
action on the part of Russia, he induced France
to combine with England in forcing an armistice and Czar the practical possibility of aresuscitation
SulNitcaholn, aands
powersin the Near East,
and
on I
compelling him to accept the joint mediation of the the Christian states. The help which Turkey had to seek from
Conference was held in London in July 1827 the allied powers. Mehemet Ali, as well as her defeat at the hands of Russia, exposed her
accordingly despatched to Turkey to grant and joint
a
weakness to the world and Turkey began to be called sick man of
refused to accede to the proposals of armisticeautonomy but thenote was
to Greece. There upon the allied fleets and granting Sultan Europe. Policy of Russia to annex Balkan states by dismembering
completely destroyed the of
France and autEngland
onomy Turkey and British policy to preserve it, gave rise to complex Eastern
encounter on 20th October Turkish fleet at Navarino
after chance
a Question.
and encouraged them to 1827. This Victory encouraged the Greeks SUMMARY ty
secure their
all the advantages of
Lord Canning joint interventionliberation. But apart from this
were reaped by Russia along. 1. Turkish Empire became weak, so revolts began in Balkan
was dead and his policy was states.
Wellington who now became British reversed by Duke of
Prime Minister. 2. First revolt began in Serbia and it got some success.
still officially at peace with As
apologise to the Sultan, declaring Turkey, Duke of WellingtonEngland wasto 3. Greeks revolted against Turks to achieve their independence
He withdrew England Navarino as an "untoward hastened in 1820-21.
from any event", 4. Turks tried to crush revolt with the help of Mehemet Ali.
war on Greek question and further support or
was that the situation
which
thus allowed Russia a free hand.
Lord
participation
The result
in 5. On this England, France and Russia intervened but England
y
hi
come to pass and the Canning had striven to withdrew herself so Russia gained advantages.
Russia. On her own Greek question virtually lay in the avert hands
did 6. With Russian help Greece became free.
in 1828 and forced responsibility Russia declared war of en
7. Independence of Greece struck a blowto reactionary policy
on 14th Septemberher to come to terms. By the Treaty against Turkey of Vienna Congress.
00
1829, Turkey recognised the of Adrianople
Greece and granted practical Car

and Moldavia. To
Russia sheautonomy
to the independence
principalities ofWallachia
of Causes, course and consequences of the Crimean War and its
as well as granted an expansion consequences
of Londonincreased
of
and political rights. Byterritory in Asia,
commercial
in 1832 the Crimean War 1854-56. The outbreak of the Crimean War was
tes

JOint guarantee of the new kingdom of Greece was the Convention an important event in the European history of the nineteenth century.
of
as its King. powers and Prince Otto of placed under the It reopened the Eastern Question, and it profoundly disturbed the
2S
Bayaria was selected of Vienna. of
The Treaty of Status quo and the system established by the Congress War
policy. It gave RussiaAdrianople
increased
was thus a signal
victory for Russian Hence, it has been properly remarked that the "Crimean was in
a great
of
process of rights and privileges, a general sense the watershed of European History." Like War ia;
to the dismembering Turkey
power and prestige of Russia, which Russia desired, and initiated the
It largely river overflowing its banks and fertilising them, the Crimean let
nationalism
the world an for it was she who added loose forces which secured the triumph of liberalism and
England, on theindependent Greece under her ushered into in Europe. It swept aside Metternich's policy of status first quo, and
Her action in other hand, was wavering, patronage. The policy ol inaugurated a new era of achievement and construction. Its truit
maintaining supporting
Turkey. Greece was contrary hesitating and
to her general inconsistent. was the union of Italy. In Russia it led to far-reaching reforms which
Russia, whose After Nayarino she let policy T lifted her out of her medieval stagnation, and set on foot a movement
of Greek War ofadvance she dreaded, to carry matters to drift and
off the laurels. allowea towards reforms and liberty of serts. Lastly, it led to an important
The Greek Iother
encouragement to ndependence exposed Turkish Success regrouping of powers, which probably made the unification of Gernany
Balkan states to throw weakness and gave possible. The causes of the Crimean War might appear trivial. Historians
questionof i.is highly
example of the victory away the Turkish yoke. may differ as to its immediate results and outcome. It has been88888 00
the Congress of
Vienna, tionalismsignificant.
against the
It afforded the first
reactionary
branded as the "Only perfectly useless modern war that has been
waged" by Sir Robert Morier as quoted by historian J.A.R. Mariot.
00
system. and as such it struck a
Secondly, demonstrated the common blow ofto Metternich's
it policy of
Again it has been remarked that but for this war and the policy
00
00
interest the European subsequently adopted by Prime Minister (Disraeli), the Balkan states
300 301
EASTERNQUESTION
would never have achieved their
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
Lastly, he had a personal grudge against Czar
have occupied. Constantinople would have independence and unsteady throne. the
slighted him by refusing to address him inand
mentioned above the importance of the Crimean
not by its immediate
dominated Russia
War is to East.
be
would
But as Nicholas I, who had
cOurteous form usual among monarchs. Thus
personal ambition
tangible results, but by the feud was one of the reasons that
led to war.

iunimmeasured vanity and old

political developments to which it was a most
of Italy and Germany and independence ofprelude such as
Romania etc.
port
ficatiaontn British and Russian attitude. The controversy with France
over
stimulated the ambitions of Czar
THE CRIMEAN WAR he Holy Places of Christians had man of Europe and
"sick
Nicholas IL. He believed Turkey to be the dissolution of the Turkish
Personal hostility of Napoleon III and (1854-56) was firmly persuaded of the impending
Czar Nicholas I was friendly to Russia
For ten years Empire. In 1853, when Lord Aberdeenofwho
was repose in theafter the Convention of London after Greek war there became Prime Minister in the course his conversation with the
the outbreak of quarrel Turkish Empire. But this peace was British ambassador at St. Petersburg he declared his
intention to come
monks over the custody lbetween the Latin monks anddisturbed by virtually amounted to a partition
of the Holy places in the Greek toan arrangement with England which "sick man" before his
place of Christ which was Jerusalem the birth of the dominions of Turkey who was called as
apparently under
it led to Turkish rule. Though the quarrel was death. He suggested that England might have Egypt and Crete, and that
trivial,
new chapter in the history ofstartling Constantinople and the Dardanelles
developments
monks were supported by the Easterm Question because which opened a Russia might be allowed to control
rights. England refused to admit that
etc. although not in proprietaryEmpire
France and Greek monks by Catholic the dissolution of the Ottoman was imminent or to be a party
Dispute of had, by an old treaty, Russia.
France the right tomonks. protect
Turkey
the Latin monks in her conceded to maintain the integrity
regeneration of
to any scheme of Turkish partition. She believed in the of the Ottoman
monks were Turkey, and her policy was to
also given special dominions, and these
the Christian Holy
the time of the Places, Butprivileges
during theincluding the guardianship of
Empire as a check upon Russian power and aggression.
Czar Nicholas I, however, was bent upon an aggressive
and
Revolution, the preoccupation
upon the rights of their Latin Greek monks had graduallyof France at ambassador
expansionist policy. He despatched Prince Menschikoff, an
Napoleon Ill revived the rivals. But in the dispute thatencroached Constantinople, charging him not only to obtain satisfaction about
a full followed,
to
the Latin claim
of the rights of of France and of Russia as the
monks. Czar Nicholas demanded the Holy Places, but also to demand the recognition
the cause of the I of Russia restoration Sole protector of all the Christians of the Greek Church in the Sultan's of
the demands of Greck monks. The Sultan of
of the Napoleon III but the Turkey at firstchampioned
conceded dominions. This claim was made on the strength of the Treary of
would have
SÉ,

to Latin Czar insisted upon the withdrawal

conceded, of
powers conccssion
the Sultan of
given monks. Being torn between the
Katchuk-Kainardji. This additional demand, if
interfere in the intemal affairs of of
given Russia, a perpetual right to transfer of allegiance of a large
which
wantedhowever failed. Turkey
As a matterattempted a formula of two
Turkey. It would thus amount to the ia;
to
compromise.
ulterior objects
of fact neither
in vicw, Both Napoleon III and Czar
compromise
France nor Russia portion of Turkish subjects from the Sultan
British
to the Russian Czar. The
ambassador, Lord Startford de
which Sultan, at the advice of the
the strugglc over the Holy they wanted to attain Nicholas I had Redcliffe, kept the two questions apart. He agreed to accept the
wcakness of his usurpcd position, Places. Napolcon III, under the cover of Russian demands concerning the Holy Places, but refused to recognise
the French throne by adaring andwanted to stabiliseconscious of
his accessionthe Christian subjects of Turkey on
Russian protectorate over the Orthodox Stratford who according to
rcconcilc the bold
of the Latin French people to his rule. Aforeign policy which would
to
the advice of British Ambassador Lord
fornmidable enemy" took a
It would monks would suit his war with Russia in Fisher considered Russia "England's most crossed river Pruth and occupied
please the clerical party in purpose and may make
cSsential to strengthen his France, whose support hehim popular. support stiff attitude. Thereupon Russian forces pressure upon Turkey to
Moldavia and Wallachia by way of putting
humiliation
and by
of Moscow
which position.
would
It would be
by considered accept her demands. The attitudewhen of Russia is signiticant. She first88888 00
defcating
uncle Napoleon Russia, he would also be able gratify the French avenging the sought to dismember Turkey, but
that was found not feasible, she
to take national pride in the internal afairs of the
gesturc which would Boanparte' s defeat. sought to control her by interfering
go a great way
It would be an oldrevenge of his Ottoman Empire under the pretext of protecting the Orthodox Christians.
aggrandisement under religious
towards stabilising hisNapoleonic Thus Russia followed the policy of
somewnat COver.
 302 303
EASTERN QUESTION
The conduct of HISTORY OF EUROPE sh,
and the whole Russia caused a sensation in the courts of decided to capture Sebastopol, the "very heart of
England, France,question assumed a general European Eurone Hence, it was
Russian power in the
East". The Allies after landing in the Crimea
He
what was called theAustria and Prussia put forward importance.in defeating the Russian forces
marched towards Sebastopol, river Alma in 1854. The allies then
who tried
and Russia. The Note Vienna Note which was presentedtheir
the
proposal
and asserted the needconfirmed the of Kainardji both to Turkev to stop them in abattle on the centered in this siege and
cal
of protectingTreaties and besieged Sebastopol and the rest of the war
Russia accepted the Note as she the Christian subjects ofAdrianople in the Russian efforts to raise it. The
Russians attacked the British of
Czar," while Turkey at the interpreted it as Turkey, were repulsed. The battle of
Stratford de Redcliffe, instigation of the British "protection by the base of supplies at Balaclava but
magnificent but useless charge of the
The ambiguity might haveinterpreted as "protectionambassador,
it Lord Balaclava is memorable for the famous poet Lord OKty
Lord Stratford the been overcome but for the by the Sultan". famous Light Brigade which has been praised by to the battle of tical
led
Russia a specific British Ambassador who wanted stiff attitude of Tennyson. Another attempt to raise the siege attempt ity
renunciation of four powers
to force from Inkermann in which also the Russian were defeated. The last
Government and caused
after it had been the rejection of the including his own of the Russians to break through the besieging forces was
frustrated
to the charge of accepted by Russia. His conduct Vienna Note by Turkey on the river Techernaya chiefly by the gallantry of the Sardinian nals
laid England open the Czar Nicholas I,
took stiffpreventing
ooks
a army. Thus Russians got set back. The death of
England
III of France. posture due topeaceful settlement
being sure of support of the
question. the prime author of the war, led to negotiations for peace by his
resistance
ught
of
Napoleon Successor Czar Alexander II, Sebastopol felt after a year's dary
Outbreak of the War and this practically brought the war to a close (in l855). Delhi
Thus diplomacy having ibout
by the force failed, the The Treaty of Paris
upon Russia, to arms. After rejecting thequestion
of could be settled only Presidentship of Napoleon been
evacuate Vienna By the Peace of Paris (of 1856) under lost her protectorate over
and occupied. Principalities, which Note,
the 2000
conquered Turkey called l which closed the Crimean War, Russia
declared war upon Russia,Russians Russia
to do and has Moldavia and Wallachia which were made self-governing
states Uttar
Danube. and refused
took the so. recently
Turkey collective guarantee of the European
destroying Thereupon Russian Black Sea fleetoffensive on the river
the under Turkish suzerainty and the the protectorate over the
this evcnt thewasTurkish fleet at Sinope. The retaliated Powers. Russia also renounced her claim to Black Sea was declared Times
France. According called,
to inflamed popular massacre of Sinope, as
completely Turkey. The
Orthodox Christian subjects of other power was to have warships
neutral and neither Russian nor any shores. The river Danube was
ry of
be regarded as the historian Mariot, "The opinion in England and its East
nere or to maintain arsenals on was thrown open to all countries.
sent a joint prelude to the massacre
the two
powers immediate of Sinope
must Internationalised and its navigation y of
evacuation of the ultimatum European
to Russia war." Hence, withdrawn from the river Danube by
the ry of
demand, France andPrinEngland
and declared cipalities.signedRussia
As
refused
a treaty
demanding
to comply the Ihe Russian frontier was adnmitted to the Concert
Cession of Bessarabia. Turkey wasguaranteed by the major European
of Europe India;
war upon of with the integrity was
by troops fromRussia in 1854. Next alliance with Turkey
rcinforccdjoincd and her territorial
promised reforms for her
Christian subjects.
Cavour year the powers, She in her turn autonomous state under Turkish suzerainty.
Sardinia-Piedmont
great power, the war ofin the hope of
Events of Warspecially France for Italian securingwhose
allies were
the Prime Minister
Derbia was recognised as

The original
unity. friendship of a Results of the Crimean War
which ended the Crimnean
War was able
The Peace of Paris 1856 upon Turkey for about two decades.
from the object of the war, viz. the to check Russian
aggression protectorate over the
were heldPriupncibypalthe
ities,gallant
was quickly cxpulsion of the all claims of a
Russia had to abandon her Turkey. She was kept back from the
menaced by the secured. Czar
defenceof Silistria Nicholas Russians Orthodox Christian subjects of
Bessarabia to Moldavia, and from the
Black
the war-like attitude
of by the I's forces Danube by the cession of Moreover, the creation of two autonomous
powerPrinofciRussia
palities.so thatthesheallies thoughtAustria,it Russia withdrew
But Turks, and Sea which was neutralised. placed a barrier between Russia
and
95.00
to cripplefrom
50.00
might not again necessary states (Wallachiaand Moldavia) the former from pursuing a
dare to threaten the Turkey and thus for a time prevented 95.00
Turkey. policy of aggrandisement. 50.00
90.00
 304
305
Turkish HISTORY OF EUROPE EASTERNQUESTION

Crimean War.Gains. Probably Turkey

She obtained a new was the greatest Empire from dissolution during the revolt of
1848-
protection of the major lease of life under gainer by the savedthe
Austrian
that the old alliance of
the three despotic powers
guaranteed
from which and she was European powers, her the iint result was
49,The Austria and Prussia), which was the cornerstone of Mettemich's
she had been
chance to set her house in previously
admitted a
member to territorial
the Concert integrity wo (Russia,
now had saved the Austrian Empire from
disintegration,
of policy wihich tÉll Furious at Austrian ingratitude Russia turned to
power. Looked at from order and excluded. to She thus got Europe a fair now broken.
be
regarded as these points of develop into a Prussia whose friendly neutrality she
appreciated. This state of
of thePeace ofrespectable
Russia was offering a
satisfactory view the
affairs led to a new regrouping of powers
which gave rise to
short Paris checked and the "sick solution
man" Eastern Paris may
conference tried
tolerant. But after the war there make Turkey
to was set on his legs Question.
again. In
important developments afterwards.
obtained were not was an
uneasy united, independent and
Policy of Germany
and
whatever little commensurat
was e with wasthe heavy feeling that the results Bismarck took advantage of Russia's estrangement from Austria,
Criticism.
the view that theFuture eventsaccompl ished this not likelysacrifices
justified to involved,
endure long.
and began to court the friendship of the Russia in order to further his
project of ousting Austria from Germany. The result was that Austria
Crimean
nineteenth century. Just fourteenwas the premonition
War and completely isolated during the Austro-Prussian War that followed
provision most confirmed
senseless war of the
was

The etely concerning

complhopes wiped away the the
neutrality years later, Russia
Crimean humiliation by Sea discarded
of the
Black the
in 1866, Russia remained neutral as Austria had done. Austria was
defeated, and the German Empire that Prussia subsequently built up,
and integrityentofertained of Turkey and in 1878 was largely based upon Russian neutrality. Austrian ingratitude was
a
diplomatic Turkey which wasreforming
fiction. sought herself recovering
proved upBassarabia. more than avenged. According to historian Seaman, "Bismarck and
according historian
But
according
to Thus "as a
solution
to Lord Hazen, "the Treaty of the Eastern
to
of
be
bolstered deceptive,
became
Cavour were the chief beneficiaries of the Crimean War and without
it there might have been neither a kingdom of Italy nor a German
Balkans,
been in would have Gommer,
it
never beenhad it not been thewas flatQuestion"
Paris a empire. This war also affected Russia deeply. At home it led to a
failure."of series of reforms carried out byCzar Alexander IIthe most important
to nurse sick antinCross
gave birthConst ople. movement
to Red achievedOnand Russians
Indirect results.
whose aim humani
i n dependence
would have
of which was the emancipation of the serfs. Abroad, it gave a new
turn to Russian expansion to east. Theexpansion, checked in Europe,
became a persons. Led by
On therespectable professioFlorence
is to cure ta ri a n
wounded groundandit Was transferred to Central Asia and China where she began to push

opinionsan are Political n Nightingale nursing profession

held by value of the ladies.
for forward with giant strides, The British statesman realised that the
Russian danger was only transferred from Europe to Asia, threatening
"was
the most important chapter historians, Crimean War British position in India. But to quote Seaman again, *Thesitwarstill,
raised
in the But there is no widely different Napoleon III to a height from which since he could not he
In other importathent political Eastern Question
words, doubt that his war could only henceforth decline.
far-reachi
and, less ng. "Out ofindirect devel o
the mudconsequencespment of
of
the and the prelude to
the nineteenth century." Motives of the Different Powers
obviousljoined
PiThereedmonstCavour,having y, a thenew Germany.
of the
Crimea
" The
a new Crimean
Italy was War were England took part in Crimean War because, she feared
dggressive Russia expanding into regions too nearinterests
that an
to the route leading
the
Italian question Prime Minister of the allies, was tokingdom made in the East.
before
sympatofhy of the major the assembled Sardinian King, admi t e d the peace
of
Sardinia lO India would be a serious menace to British the Danube, we shall
not stop Russia on
cause
the Italian powers, and wondipover lo mat s and openedconference.the Lord Russcl stated, if you do
have to stop her on Indus. It was a cardinal principle of British policy
upset.arrangement
Secondl independence. Consequently
y,
Austria. Her attitude of had
which the
the war Congress of ItalyNapolwas e on enlisted
IlI to the the to maintain the
As stated before,
integrity
the
of
French
the Turkish
Emperor,
Empire
Napoleon
motives to
as a barrier to Russia.
Ill, was influenced by
turn his arnms against
hostilefar-reachi ng Vienna
effects had made
upon
liberated
there was and personal grudge as well as variety of
the Latin monks would please
Russia, A war with Russia in support of considered valuable to gain
neutrality the
iritated Russiafortunes
who had
of the French clericals whose support he
It would by avenging the
popularity and for security of his throne. national pride, and win for
humiliation of Moscow, gratify the French
306
HISTORY OF EUROPE EASTERN QUESTION 307
France glory and for himself popularity. This Would
somewhat shaky throne.
Motives of Cavour. Sardinia-Piedmonst
stabilise his Latin monks. Czar Nicholas I took up the cause of the Greek monks
and also demanded a protectorate over the Christian subjects of
joined
hope of securing the goodwill and active support the
of anallies in the
Turkey. When the Sultan rejected his latter proposal Czar Nicholas I
replied by occupying the Principalities. Thus arose a crisis which the
power for realising the nationalistic ambitions
of
Austrian attitude. Lastly, although Aurstia did Cavour. influential nowers sought to avert by clever diplomacy. They presented jointly
war her attitude was one of hostile not take part in he Vienna Note both to Russia and Turkey. But difficulties arose as
neutrality
and France. She was alarmed at the Russian leaning towards the to its interpretation, Russia and Turkey interpreting it in different
and Moldavia as it interfered with the freedom
of
England
occupation Wallachia of ways. Turkey, at the instigation of England, refused to accept the
river Danube, upon which depended the bulk the navigation of the Russian interpretation and declared war upon Russia. Thus as regards
of her
traffic. Hence, she joined the allies and the responsibility for the outbreak of the war, it may be said that
diplomatic pressure upon Russila, demanding sided in putting commercial
all France started the conflict, Russia sought to take advantage of it to
Conguered Principalities. When Russia the evacuation sorts of
of the strengthen her hold upon Turkey, while Britain out of fear for
Austria herself occupied the complied with the demand. Russian aggrandisement, prevented a peaceful settlement of the dispute.
Russian armies from advancing Principalities
on
and thereby prevented The war was fought between England, France and Tureky supported
ultimatum which forced the Russians,Constantinople.
after the fall of
It was Austrian bySardinia-Piedmont and on the other side Russia was alone. In this
sue for peace. Thus Sebestopol, to war Russia was defeated and had to accept a humiliating treaty of
factor which contributed Austria's hostile
to Russians toneutrality was an important Paris.
noted that Czar Nicholas I had sue for peace. It
counted should be Direct and indirect results of war
return for the services he had rendered to upon Austrian support in
Hungarian revolt in 1849 and help at otherAustria in suppressing the 1. Russia was temporarily checked in Europe but expanded in
Asia.
diAustria'
sappoinstrgratitude.
ment he found that
In futurepolitical
places. But to his great
considerations greatly outweighed 2. Turkey got a farther lease of life.
conduct. By giving death blowAustria to the
had to pay dear for her selfish 3. Prestige of Napoleon III reached to its zenith.
preserving peace by cooperation of policy of Vienna Congress of 4. It gave a death blow to Vienna Congress idea of preserving
initiated the era of major
war of 1866, wars such as Danish war ofpowers,
peace and initiated an era of European wars.
1864. Crimean War 5. It paved the way for the unification of ltaly and Germany.
1877, Franco-Prussian war of
war of 1905 etc. 1870,
Prusso-Austrian
Russo-Japanese
1914 and Second
World War of and Russo-Turkish war 01
later on World War I of
6. On humanitarian ground it gave birth to Red Cross and
opened an era of nursing profession for wonmen.
1939-45. Historians differ about its justification and outcome but it can be
The SUMMARY said that war originated due to petty dispute among monks but indirectly
dispute CrimcantheWarLatinhad its origin in an apparently very insignificant
the Chribetween
paved the way for Italian unity and German empire and independence
of Balkan states, Russian and Austrian friendship came to an end,
monks andstian holy Places monks in
and Greek
monks over the custody of breach was complete among the powers of Vienna Congress and
Russia the Palestine. France
settle the dispute Greek monks. An attempt supported the Latin Turkey began to feel uneasy with British attitude and later on leaned
claims and also amicablythe failed. Thereupon made by Turkey to towards Germany. Lastly Balkan states gained independence.
Turkey on demanded
was the the strength
Russia enlarged her
of the oldright to protect the Christian subjects of
man" andCzar I had Treaty of
Nicholas already Katchuk-Kainardji. Thefact

about
proposed
Ottomanfor Empire. England
As
to declaredfor Turkey
a scheme
to be a "sick
the partition of the
came whenpretexts England
to
secure his rejected this plan, Czar Nicholas I cast
hold upon Turkey.
Napoleon raised the by
Ill Russian opportunity
storm cause
taking up the of
 163
(1871-1914)
NEAR EASTERN QUESTION
to take her
it was to be wiped out, what was
if
of Europe or not and and
place." gave chance to Greeks
gradual decline of Turkish power
The themselves free.
Romanians etc. to make turs at different times.
problem like Jenus took different foreign policies of the
This deeply influenced the
9 of 1914 as
The vexed question also resulted in the great World War Great War
European nations. It Balkan and after the
event taking place in and it became a small country
Near Eastern Question asequel to an
of 1914. Turkish
empire disappeared
of Europe. Questions
Phases of the Eastern
(1871-1914) Main Features and
from 1871.to 1914.
Different

was no
vacuum created by
Introduction.
viewed by different
The problem of the
Eastern question has been Special feature of the Eastern
question
Empire who was caliph
of Mosem empires.A.D.
historians in different
Englishman analysed it in the followingmanner. Miller,
has a famouS downfall of Tarkish
Its Rise
In 1453
and Decline. Constantinpole.
1. Turkish Empire conquered
"The Eastern Question may be manner : of Turkey had
MOhammad Pasha, the Sultan large that its boundaries
were verging
up the vacuum created by the defined as the problem of filling was so and Persia. The duchies ot
Empire from Europe". gradual disappearance of the Turkish The Turkish Empire
boundaries of Germany to China Danube river were
of the its Zenith
pon the situated to the north height of
"Near Eastern Question is a shifting, Moldevia and Wallatia Turkey was at its Arabia, Egypt
tangle of conflicting interests of rival intractable and interwove!
peoples and antagonistic included in it.. At that time
Minor, Syria, Mesopotamia, 18th century the
says Lord Morley. faitns Asia ofthe
Containing Balkan, Africa but at the beginning Hungary, Transylvania.
north down. separated
"Bismarck remarked it, The whole Eastern
the bones
Palestine and Empire started crumblingthe Black Sea were and
of a single Question is not wortn vast Turkish places near the Crimea
The politicians of Pomeranian Russia won Azab,
grenadier." imea, Bessarabia and of
Russia observed about it as given Catherina the Great were
This damned Eastern Question below : Om it. Sultansof Turkey
is like the Ukraine etc. from Turkey. Turkey. The later corrupt. There was
sometimes takes you in the leg and dangerous gout whicn Z,Weak
Kingdom of inefticient and spirit due to
administration was kingdom. The national
Turks in 18th century ruled over sometimes
whole of
nips your hands.
Weak and chaos in the Turkish weakness of Turkish empire
living
Russia on the countries such as Greek, Eastern Europe account of non-Muslims
Albania etc. but later on its power Rumania, Bulgaria, SerbiaexXCepland
disorder and
new
democratic ideals and on hearts of the
surging in the regime of the Turkish
Sultan, and

Ketelby has analysed it in the declined. Selt-pride started the

chafed in from his autocratic
they themselves
clutches.
Self-rule. The
non
A mere comparison of the following manner : there. Hence,
liberate towards being inspired
reveal the multiplication and themap of Europe in 1870 and 1914 will longed to Tendency of the People self-rule. Theywere
establish their own
in European affairs." prominence of the Eastern Question 3, The Turkish en1pire desired
independenceandto tionn theclutches
Muslims in getting themselvestrec idca of foreien
According to Lipson, "The Eastern Ouestion has always Europeans fordesiredto make the
by the also loathed affairs.
international question
12 centuries." ..the been an
background of Europcan Politics for rule. They not
of
only
Turkish Sultan, but
powerS olen intertered in their
self-aggrandisenent.
of the rule The European its own
An historian Hazen states about it domination. them lor
in the following words : helping
Russia was
"The basic importance of the Eastern
Ouestion
statesmen in this period has been whether Turkeybefore the continental
was to be wipcd out
 164
165
HISTORY OF EUROPE QUESTION (1871-1914)
4. The Efforts of NEAR EASTERN
other European Powers for therefore Berlin
Turkish Empire. Observing by Austria and England
This treaty was objected1878
the Turkish the greedy eyes of the Safety of the but the Revolt of Bulgaria (1879)
it, because all empire, the other powers
of them had
Russia turned upon
of Europe started Conference took place in
the Armenians (1879)
occurred and the
occurred and the Revolt of due to high
bringing the
got an upper downfall
their
of Turkey. own
England self-interest in apprehending
safety or in (1879) also took place. Later on
Revolt of the Armenians between Turkey and Greece (1897) took
waters.
hand in Turkey her
Similarly other kingdoms colonies apprehended
in that if Russia
India would be in hot
ambitions of Greece, War the enhancement
leaned towards Turkey soRevolt
their individual place. Now Sultan of Turkey the of Turkish
motives in it. Austria particularly
and Austria were having of German influence in
Turkey took place but
checked. The War of Tripoli
enhancement
to
of Russian
curb the Russian influence in Turkey.Britain did not desire the be
Youths (1908-1909) could notplace (1911-1912) and Turkey had to
menace in Balkan for the They made big efforts between Turkey and Italy took Balkan War (1912-1913)
occurred but
5. The Policy of safety of Turkey. add territory to Italy. First second Balkan War took
were interested Expansion of Balkan. All
in expanding the Balkan states of spoils the
again due to conflict in divison Serajevo, the prince of Austria was
only be fulfilled by their boundaries. Their place in (June to August 1913). 1914 as
caused the First World War of
territories so became cockpit of Turkey or devouring objects
damaging could
each other S murdered in Serajevo which
Russian support to Serbia in the First
6. The Europe. Austria attacked Serbia and European powers in
century GermanyInfluence of Germany in Turkey. At the end of of interest of
World War of 1914. Thus clash proved one of the main reasons of
made friendly ties with the
launching Berlin -Baghdad Turkey, and succeeded1yn grabbing the territories of Turkey
above description gives us an idea
lst Great War of 1914. The the Easten countries. The vast medieval
of the
influence Railway project. In order to enhance her
pattern to Germany
the Turkishstarted imparting
cadets. military training on the Europe complexity of the problem of
last. After First World War of
1914,
increase her power by makingIn this way Germany also wante0 0 1urkish Empire was breathing itsbecame a small Westermized Muslim
Turkey and establish her commercial and military Turkey lost all her empire andleadership of Kamal Pasha Turk.
wanted to capture the influence over Turkish empire. ties WiL!
Engia
COuntry of Europe under the
Asia. Thus the provinces of the
Turkish empire in Africa and SUMMARY
made by the Turkish Empire got highly embroiled in the mess have described the problem
of the Eastem
European
ends. In seeing the powers who were serving their OWn selfish
1. Different historians ways.
Europe in different
Nicholas I, called deteriorating
it a Sick condition of Turkey, Czar of eastern Problem.
rise and decline created man of Europe
became man of RUSsla, 2. Turkish Empire's sick
Sultan ofinterested
be a
on
Turkey as north African Muslim
Europe'. Later on France
which regarded
also
3. The Sultan of
Turkey was taken to
powers Caliph
wanted exploit the of Islam, It is states by Czar of Russia. grew and the non
to obvious that all people to have self-rule
England,
Turkey withGermany, Russia and deteriorating condition of Europeal
Turkey. 4. Tendency of thedesirous of having their own-rule.
Muslims were safety of
At
their lusty eyes.
first Grecce and Austria-Hungary were looking The efforts of the
Turkey continued.
European countries for the
Kingdoms
Romania came Serbia became free and teritorics of Balkun
empire continued.into existencc but revolts and decline after Crimean War
of Turkish 6. The policy of expansion of the
The revolt of resulted in wars. established betore
influence in Turkey was wih the
therefore Bosnia and 7. The German of Turkey tricd to save his empire
1876. This Austrian Minister
on the Berlinnote was sent to theAndrassi
Herzegovina occurred in 1874-1875
sent a Note of 31st January,
1914 as Sultan
help of Germany. deteated.
Sultan for supported Giermany und was
that horrible Memorandum of 23rd May. pacifying the revolts. Later 8. In 914, Turkey disappeared.
followed London Protocol of place in 1876
by occurrences took was sent and during
Bulgaria in 1876. It was 9. Afier defeat Turkish
cmpire
aud its Consequences
War took place (1877). Congress of Berlin 1878 said that
Treaty of between honour but lord Salisbury failed to
Sanstephano Turkey and Russia which resulted in
(3rd March Disracli called it peace with
wrong horse. Congress of Berlin
1878). the England has baited on
J66 167
HISTORY OF EUROPE QUESTION (1871-1914)
NEAR EASTERN
check Balkan disputcs which Jcad to took interest in
First World War. Balkan wars and ultimately to present in Berlin Conferencethe document on
the delegates who were and all of them signed
Background of Berlin preparing the Berlin Treaty, terms were agreed :
to totter Great Bitan started Congress. As the Turkish Empire bcgan 13th July, 1878. The following administrative rights over Bosnia and
went on increasing in the suspecting that if Russian influcncc the
1. Austria was awarded possessions of Sanjak and Nobbizar were
Constantinople s0on. In
peninsula
the Trcaty of
of Balkan, shc was bound to take Harzegovina. The military
Austria were clearly violatcd, because it Sanstephano
did
the interests o! also given to Austria. and the boun
on Bosnia and
became sympathetic Harzegovina. Theefore, BritainnotPrime gct the complete hold
Minister Disraeli 2. Serbia, Montenegro
and Rumania got freedom
in the Treaty of Sanstephano were
of the terms of the towards Austria. England demandcd the revision daries of Montenegro fixed was given autonomy and two-third part
Treaty of
Sanstephano reduced in dimensions. Serbia
pOwers. Austria was lso insistine unon the in a Congress of Furopcan Rumania in place of Bessarabia.
Of Dobrudja was given to expanded to
of the Treaty.
Iuropean Germany also favoured therevision idea of
of the conditions
3. Russia was given
Bessarabia, and its boundaries Amenia etc.
powers conference parts of Batum, Kars and
o1 he nations of therefore it became prudent 10 convene
o Danube. It also got some
a congress Luc Island to
that
Europe. There was a promise on the part of Kussid The Sultan of Turkey gave
that Car would not capture 4. England got Cyprus.she might station her armies there to safe
would respect the British
interestsConstantinople
in
and
Egvpt and the Adrianople ano ngland with a view that
Canal. Now Russia was guard the regions of Turkey in Asia.
Minister of England. England reminded of the promise regions by the
o1 Su
of Sanstephano had
established Greater Bulgaria but the
treaty with the Sultan of also inforned Russia that if it rob 3. Ihe treaty Berlin divided it into three parts. In that division
Turkey that mao he Congress of the Danube river and the central
understandings made in 1856 and 1871, might
recognised till the nations concerned wih treaty would nO that
influence mutual
was
was round
nain parts of Bulgaria inhabited by a population of twenty lakh.
Portions of Bulgaria was made an independent
document. This was against Russian the Treaty signed
nus Bulgars were
separated from Bulgaria. ItTurkey.
suzerainty of Another part was
As such Russia
opposed the interesSt. State but was nominally
under
of the Balkan mountain range.
on this issue that the move, but Disraeli remained the south
that of Rumania situated to charge of a Christian Governor. The third
placed before conditions
a congress of the
of the Treaty of
Sanstephano
adama
muSt
under the
1t was also placed of Macedonia situated in Vardur Valley,
it was
a half
months the European
to send an army discussion went on. but nations. For about one part of it was that By that it could easily and very accessibly
Thessaly which
Island of Malta. England consisting of seventeen Russia was now
thousand soldiersplannins
again given to Turkey. Balkan, Greece was given
keep its influence on prestige.
also favoured started
the Austrian claim onpreparations of a war, but to he increased its power and Congress dispersed after
Russia was compelled in the end Bosnia and Bisma Criticism of the Treaty of Berlin. The signed. It had satisfied
European
the Treaty ofnations the to place before Harzegovina.
resolution to amend and revise the Congress o the Thererol the documents of and the Eropean powers
were
Queen Victoria
decorated
some Balkan states. because the former had
Sanstephano imposed by Russia on Turkey. provisiOns all except Russia
with rare honours, "peace
and Bismarck
declared insisted upon making Betlin the
Disraeli and Salisbury had returned honourably by making
he
proudly declared that demonstrated matchless tactfulness in
conducting
becoming himself to be the honest venue of the Congress
its president. with honour". Disraeli
somehow he
diplomat, butcommonsense
should take place in
It was
decided thatbroker. He succeeded
the Congress British foreign affairs. He was shrewd
endowed with the
The Congress ofJuly 1878 under the Chairmanship of Berlin the farsightedness. Had he been sowed seeds of
of Bismarck. lacked would not have
from England, Austria Berlin and the Treaty of 1878. the Berlin Treaty of 1912-13.
andGermany took part in The of Lord SalisburyBalkan would not have faced the crisis of Disraeli
That tract of the Berlin delegates future wars, and averted the First World War. The claim
soldiers and bylandspendingwhich Russia CongresS. It would have also peace with honour probably proved
unfounded, He
hands of the Russians, a lot ofcould wealthearnonlv asacrificing
by
little was
numberless that he maintained temporary peace. It appeared that he did to
not
much for his Austrian left
Mr. Andresi, in the had created only a born nationalism of the Balkans. According
was the inuit ofcountry by scribblingChancellor things in black and received believe in the new baited on a wrong horse."
diplomacy only petty expense he hadwhite,
and and that
to incur. Al Lord Salisbury "England
 168 169
HISTORY OF EUROPE (1871-1914)
NEAR EASTERN QUESTION
Disraeli erred in thinking that Turkey claimed to be the saviours proved
her
of the Christians. would reform the conditions In this manner those who
and coerce it to Disraeli was able to impose restrictions upon Russia
probably never be called honourable.
destroyers. Hence, the Treaty could
Austria etc. He could acknowledge
restore
the collective power of
the part of territory England and As such Lord ^alisbury remarked we have
b¡ited on a wrong horse.
Hamid which slipped off his hands in the to Sultan Abdul the Treaty of Berlin did not have
It shows that the chief makers of national sentiments
But his efforts proved
abortive previous humiliating treaty. any foresight, and they did not hesitate to crush the
the strength previously lost in thebecause Russia had again recouped of the Balkan races. It perhaps also led to the conception of the
Bessarabia, and there was nothing Crimean to
War. It had already taken Balkan wars and the First World War of 1914 in
the womb of Berlin
the waters of the Black Sea. It prevent it
succeed in his efforts by executing makes it clear thatfom plying ships 1in
Disraeli could not Treaty.
of time, it came to be the treaty of Berlin. The Balkan War (1912-13) created the problem of Macedonia.
futile. The sending of known that the Asiatic policy of After the gap Bismarck who claimed himself to be honest broker behaved against
military Disraeli proved blood between the
Kussia only to favour Austria, It led to the bad
entirely useless. In 1880 in place
as the Prime
counsellors to
of Disraeli,helpless Armenia proved Czar of Russia and Bismarck. Russia incited the Slav
races to check
Minister of England, and in place ofGladstone was elected uie progress of Austria towards north.
Consequently a Servian Anarchist
political
they also counsellors But like the military
military counselloS,
were on 29th
Slew Prince Franz Ferdinand of Austria and his royal consort the First
could
by Turks. Soon not succeedappointed.
in counsellors became a spark to ignite
the conditions preventing the massacre June, 1914. This accident at once
of Armenais in the following
1886 AD. Russia of the Berlin World War of 1914 Dr, Seton Watson says about it
built a military port violated the 69th clause ofTreaty were Violated
the Berlin Treaty Words:
at Batum. Though a fact that Bismarck made
from Turkey yet he could not Disraeli had taken Cyprus The true significance of 1878 lies in the and that he finally won
Though he had succeed in making it another Gibraltar. Abdrassy his colleague and Disraeli his tool
Russia in Balkan
Asia, Consequently the
succeeded
yet he temporarily
could not succeed in impeding the progress of and dominated Austria-Hungary without at the
same time offend1ng
in curbing its Russia,"
situated on the north-west boundaries of Russia almost progresS Austria-Hungary is true. But it
Dr, Seton Watson's saying about Temperley state about it in the
Disraeli could weaken boundaries of India, touched the m
On the other hand Russia nor could save Neither the policy
Turkey from extinction.
does not apply to Russia. Grant and
Indian empire and expansion of Russia in Asia created danger
following words:
the estrangement betwveen
The Afghanistan. "In 1870 we have to remote origin of into two camps - the
war took policy
place in
of
Disraeli could not succeed Russia and Germany which divided Europe
Alliances.'" According
France-Russian and the Austro-Italo-German
The efforts ofeven
in Europe. Afierce
living barrier
hand and betweenMacedonia. Bulgaria Ketelbey, "Although the policy of
Disraeli at Berlin was tbold
1885 A.D. Turkish Russia
Empire on theandother the Eastern Rumeliain oncreating the one
a to
yet.,....out ofit arose most of the causes
und
of Balkan wars of 1912
the Eastern
the famous Rumelia decllaredproved entirely useless as in 1913 and the World War 1".
connection
"And the historians, Grant
truce with Bulgaria. In this The saying sounds the hollowness
of the Treaty that neither it
maintenance of peace. The
thus drawn living barrier and Temperley remark: remained honourable nor it could keep
across Russia's formed by the breasts for cxploding the Balkan wars and
Treaty is responsible probablyalso,
David path to of free men was
Berlin Thompsons,
had the "The
settlements Constantinople."
reached at the According to perhaps the First World War
and more
In thisanxiousremarkable outcome
than before." that it left Congress
each power dissatisfied
of Turner says about tho peace nove of
Distueli:
honour, tor
"Disraeli boasted of having secured u peace with the Easterm
startedmariner in Europe and
Treaty within ten years the there was again the Otoman Empire
fact, all that he
peace with
who had honourcrumbling.
proved And the claim ofconditions of the Berlin
Disraeli that it was a
interests of England were not liuly preserved; but i
had done for Porte, was to prolong the process und the pains of her
guaranteedfromthetheprobably unfounded
Empire, snatched maintenanceBosnia, because those kingdoms extinction.'
Sultan of the purity of the Turkish In short the Berlin Treaty paved a background lor many Europcan
Herzegovina and Cypru
170 HISTORY OF EUROPE (1871-1914)
NEAR EASTERN QUESTION 171
wars due to which the whole world had to suffer. The treaty made Criticism of the Treaty of Berlin
tremendous impact on the politics of Europe. It changed the political 1. It is responsible for future Balkan wars and led to Frt
climate of Europe. The Treaty probably ignited the First World War
of 1914.
World War.
2, Its conditions were violated.
The diplomats of Europe became apprehensive of the future
events at the time when the conditions of the treaty were envisaged. 3. It proved only to be a kind of temporary truce.
The Berlin Treaty could not curb the tendency of the political 4. The Congress of Berlin paved the way for new states of
conflicts. All the nations had their own axe to grind in this Treaty, but Romania, Serbia, Bulgaria etc.
they could not succeed in their respective aims and objects, and the The Rise of Young Turks in Turkey and its Impact
bad blood among them continued to grow unabated. According to
David Thompson, Frustrated Balkan nationalism embroil (ed.) all Turkey in the 18th-19th Century. In 18th and 19th century the
the powers in further crises and wars. International tension was condition of Turkey was-not-sound: The Sultan of Turkey was nick
increased not eased." named as a sick man or a patient of Europe Many kinds of races
lived in it which were quite different from the Turks in their religion,
The treaty was nothing short of a compromise and it concealed languages andcultures etc. The administration of Turkey teemed with
within its womb the seeds of future catastrophes. By generating the many defects, and for this reason the Turks were not satisfied with the
idea of Berlin Treaty the diplomats only betrayed their shallow Sultan. Consequently the party of Young Turks was formed, and they
understanding. At the time of the execution of the treaty every nation launched aggressive movement. The causes of this movement are as
was after serving its own selfish end. They did not take any stock of follows :
the future consequences.
I. Abdul Hamid II continued to be the Sultan of Turkey frem
Significance of treaty lies in emergency of new nations such as 876 to 1909 A.D. He established liberalconstitution in Turkey but
Romania 1881, Serbia 1882, Bulgaria 1908 and Montenegro 1910 etc. M he had to face opposition. At last the Sultan resorted to violence.
as independent states. chewing the liberal policy. It created a general discontent among
SUMMARY ue TurkS as progressive Turks desired more power.
2. Many big powers had made their groups against the Turkish
1. The England and Austria desired to revise the Treaty ol
Sanstefano of Turkey and Russia. Empirc. Therefore Sultan got apprehensive of them.
3. The cconomic condition of Turkey was in a mess. Sultan had
2. England and Austria insisted upon its summoning congres to depend
3. Russia opposed the move of Congress of Berlin, but England
4. The upon
the foreigners for sentiments
help.
and Austria coerced it to accept the move. national and democratic had already been borm,
be Berlin the Balkan kingdoms, Rumania, Bulgaria, Serbia and Montenegro had
4. Bismarck insisted upon the venue that it should deal,. He
bybecome
and declared himself to be anhonest broker in this
free, beingattained the lational
inspiredby bythese sentiments. Being inspired
was made the president of the Congress of Berlin. the freedom countries, the other kingdoms of
2. Congress of Berlin and the Treaty
Balkan also started freedom.
envying them. Now they aspired tor Armenia,
S. The swept Over
1. All the delegates signed the document of the Treaty on tide of nationalism had already
July, 1878. Bosnia and
Albani6. a and in other kingdoms also. admuistration
2. Austria got the administrative powers Over
was fullTheof Sultan of Turkey was an autocrat, and his
3.
Herzegovina.
Freedom was given to Montenegro, Serbia and
Romania etc.
1. The corruption. by Westen ideas
progressive Turks were influenceddespotie
of
4. Russia got Bessarabia and England got Cypruszones
5. The greater Bulgaria was divided into three
later on united themselves and formed Bulgaria.
ele which
demoTurks
und cracy
were
and were not Prepared totolerate
wNere opposing the Sultan due to spread
rule of Sutan.
of Westem
ideas

Clhcouraged due to his weak poweI.

172 HISTORY OF EUROPE
The Organisation of the Movement by the Young Turks.
Being harassed by the autocratic attitude of the Sultan, and the
weaknesses of his power and corrupt administration the people started
hatching conspiracies in secret manner. They were being inspired
by the democratic sentiments of the Western countries. Europe had
already awakened the new ideals of liberty, equality and fraternity. In
1908 Turkey also fully girdled its loins for launching a revolutionary
movement. Under the leadership of Kaimail Pasha who became grand
Vizir the youths of Turkey decided to get the rid of the autocracy of
Sultan. Their leaders had remained a Vizir of Turkey from 1881-83
and 1896. He was in favour of a constitutional monarchy like
England. He propagated the liberal ideas, and through it he could get
the favour of the people, Majority of persons had become his followers.
The young Turks under the leadership of Kaimail Pasha started
demanding a Republican rule and clamoured for liberal reforms. This
movement of the progressive Turks is known as the movement of
Young Turks. Their secret societies carried out propaganda secretly.
They did everything secretly because of the fear of Sultan Abdul
Hamid who would never hesitate in employing the engines of terror
agair.st them. Therefore they formed the secret organisation and
started hatching conspiracies against the Sultan. The aim of the re
volutionaries was to establish liberal rule. For the fulfilment of that
aim they formed a party of union and progress. It was a secret
organisation, which worked stealthily. They started having their
organisations even abroad in Macedonia and Salonika for the fear of
the Sulan. By propagating the liberal ideals, they were able to get the
sympathics of the people and the army. With the advent of the 20th
century, the movement assumed formidable dimensions and in 1905,
a network of committees was formed with headquarters at Salonika.
The leaders of the movement were Niazi Bey and Anwer Bey. On 3ra
July, 1908, the revolutionaries had declared the validity of the liberal
constitution of 1876 which was annulled by Abdul Hamid. At firsl
Niazi Bcy launched the revolutionary movement. At last otno
revolutionaries too joined him among whom Anwar Bey was famous
In July 1908 it was declared that the liberal Constitution of 1870
was valid and ultimately the Sultan warned that if he was not golng
to accept the subordination to the revolutionaries, they would be
compelled to attack Istambul. The Sultan of Turkey became so mue
frigbtened at the threat held out to him that he surrendered before tne
revolutionaries and endorsed the restoration of the constitution.
Sultan made Kaimail Pasha his grand Vizir
ministers on the advice of Young TurkS. Thereand appointed new
fore in 1903,
revolutionaries were successful in their
endeavour.
NEAR EASTERN QUESTION (1871-1914)
173
Downfall of Abdul Hamid. Though Abdul Hamid had surrendered
to the dominant will of the revolutionaries in 1908 yet at any rate he
did not relish the revival of the liberal Constitution of 1876. It led to
the differences between Kaimail Pasha and Anwar Bey. The Sultan
leaned to take advantage of the bickerings between the two, but
Sultan did not succeed in hisattempts. Because on learning about the
latent feelings of the Sultan, the party of Young Turks attacked
Constantinople, and after capturing it with the aid of the arny got a
resolution passed in the Parliament for dethroning Abdul Hamid s
the Sultan of Turkey. After dethroning him they crowned his brother
Mohammad V, who reigned from 1908 to 1918. Turkey was dominated
by the dictatorship of the Young Turk Party. They followed policy of
aggressive nationalism and tried to impose Turkish language which
annoyed Christians and Arabs.
Influence of the Movement of the Young Turks
1. The most significant feature of the movement was that the
Balkan states of Turkey under the Empire launched movements fer
getting independence. Consequently Bulgaria became free, and Austria
Hungary annexed Bosnia and Herzegovina to her empire.
2. Italy captured Tripoli situated in Africa under the Turkish
domination, and Turkey being engrossed by the movement was
unable to save it.
3. The Young Turk party wanted to impose Turkish culture on the
races living there, through the mediunm of Turkish language civilisation.
4. The radical views of the young Turkish blood instilled fear in
ne hearts of the Arabs and the people living in Balkan Peainsula.
Thus the outbreak of the Young Turk Revolution in Turkey set all the
Cxtinguished problems ablaze once again in the Balkans Peninsula.
impose
Work done by the Young Turks Party. It wanted to dld
TKish culture over all the races living in Turkish empire. They
lhe following acts to achieve their aim : lunguage of
1. The Turkish language was declared as the state
the entire Turkish empire. education was
2. The uniformity of the method of imparting
Turks.
adopted by the party of Young education Chrislians and
of
3. No attention was paid to the
Arabs and Jews living in the empire.
to strengthen the
4. The plans were nade all over. Turkey issued tor the
administration und orders were the
positiou of the
of the taxes regularly. Consequcntly
realisation
administration of Abdul Hamid bccame tugh.
 NEAR EASTERN QUESTION (1871-1914) 175
174 HISTORY OF EUROPE
crushed the rebels cruelly which increased dissatisfaction,
Izluence of the Young Turks Party. People became jubilant consequently Bulgaria became independent. Bosni,
t over the abolition of the rule of Abdul Hamid. They started hoping Herzegovina were captured by Austria. Thus rule of Young
for the safeguarding of their interest, but they became highly disappointed Turks did not prove a blessing to Turkish empired but led to
on finding its replacement by dictatorial regime. When they were Catastophe.
1: convinced that even the new government was not going to look after
their welfare, they started revolting. There was a perfect chaos in The History of the First and Second Balkan Wars and the Results
of these Wars
Macedonia. The conflagrations of revolt littered in Albania in 1910.
Amenia and Kurdistan became the main centres of revolt. The young Federation of Balkan States. According to Agatha Ramm, "No
Turks adopted the same repressive measures which were used against single event influenced the outbreak of war in 1914 than the Balkan
them by Sultan Abdul Hamid for suppressing them. Some of their wars of 1912,"
measures were as follows : Difficulties in the way of Establishing the Federation of Balkan
1. For crushing the rebels, many atrOcities were perpetrated. States. In 1878 A.D. The different Christian races were compelled to
2. Restrictions were imposed on the public meetings and free live in different kingdoms under the conditions laid down in the
press etc. Berlin Treaty of 1878. Gradually the different races living in Balkan
3. The Christian races living in Turkey were kept under rigid peninsula thought of making their own federation. They were iospired
control, and the Turks were scattered among them so that by the European ideologies. But for the reasons as given below they
they may not raise their head against Turkish rule. could not succeed in their attempts:
1. In 1885 the problem of Bulgaria arose. It had captured the
p In this manner the Young Turks who ended the autocracy of Serbia angry. It led to the war
Sultan Abdul Hamid and tarnished the entire empire with their own eastern Rumelia which made
the raccs of
autocracy which annoyed Arabs and Christians and other minorities between Bulgaria and Serbia which prevented
Balkan to form their own federation.
and they rose against the repressive rule of Young Turkish and paved tried for rapproachment
the way for downfall of Turkish empire. Z. In 1891 the Prime Minister of Greecedid not succeed in his
but he
Tor bringing them closer,
SUMMARY
efforts as Bulgaria opposed it fiercely. were looking wth
1. The Turkish Revolution by the Young Turks was an act of of the Balkan peninsula
J. All the kingdomsMacedonia. wanted to annex it to
reaction against the autocracy of the Sultan and the medley Bulgaria
greedy eyes at In the same way
of cultural strains of the races living in the empire. ner own kingdom by establishing his rule.
Mucedonta to tocr
wanted to annex
2. They organised themselves under the leadership of Kaimail Serbia and Greece
Pasha. Niazi Bey and Anwar Bey were their leaders. kingdoms. kingdoms were tightng
3. The city of Solenika in Macedonia was the Headquarter ol ditterent
It waas for these reasons that the formation of a federation tor 4
their revolution. against one another, It self-aggrandizementatthe cost of other power,
hampered the
4. The revolt succeeded in 1908 and it compelled the Sultan to long time. The lust for quarrel and war.
accept the liberal Constitution of 1876. lead Balkan states to mutual jealousy, Kingdoms. It was the sprit
5. The Sultan Abdul Hamid was dethroned because of his Bulgaria itself had
autocracy and hey established elected Parliament and among Balkan
Co-operationfacilitated of fedeation.
of Montencgro
operation which the task
birthday of the ruleractive part. The
introduced nationalist constitution. created this sppiirit. In 1910 the Bulgaria took unSome students of
6. They wanted to impose on all the christian people living In was celebrated. In it the ruler of participatedinit. co-operationamong
the empire through the medium of Turkish culture and princes of Greece and Serbia also mannerthe
language. Bulgaria were Sent to Greece. In this
7. They tried to impose on the people of the different races Balkan states Were generated.
Turkish civilization and way of life.
8. The races living in Turkey revolted but the Turkish army
 (1871-1914)
176 HISTORY OF EUROPE NEAR EASTERN QUESTION 177

Establishment of the Balkan Federation 1 All the places under the Turkish Empire slipped of its bold.
except Constantinople_and the places near it that could still
1. There were cordial relations between Bulgaria. and Serbia.
remain in its grip.
They were the first to take up the Work_of federation or
Balkan peninsula. Both of them tried to solve the problems 2 Crete was taken among trom Turkey and it was annexed to
of Macedonia. Greece. werg
2. Greece made a pact on the question of Crete with Bulgaria. 3. Territories of Macedonia and the Island of Aegian let in
taken away from Turkey and their administration was
3. When these pacts were being made, Venizelos, the Prime
Minister of Greece made a federation consisting of Greece, the control of different Christian kingdoms of Balkan peninsula.
4. A separate independent kingdom of Albania
was also created.
Serbia and Bulgaria. After some time Montenegro also shores of Black Sea and a port
joined it. In thisway the Federation of Balkan States was 5. A demarcation was and the
of Aegian Island, fixed the boundary line of Turkey. Th:s
established. League.
4. Main cause of formation of Balkan league_was policy of treaty was beneficial to Balkan
Turkification and wholesale massacre of Christians which SECOND BALKAN WAR OF 1913 A.D.
forced Balkan states to_unite. peninsula succeeded
Causes of War. Though the states of Balkan defeating the adversary
Turkish territories
FIRST BALKAN WAR in taking possession of the task to distribute the cot
Causes of War of 1912-13 in the First Balkan War, yet it was uphill Differences came up
among themselves.
quered Macedonia regions between Bulgaria and Serbia. Therefore,
1. On observing the weakness of Turkey in 1912 and its
on the issue of distribution
internal troubles, the kingdoms of Balkan peninsula they decided to fight with one another.
they declared war. In this waySecond
Bulgaria, Greece, Serbia and Montenegro decided to Balkan War of 1913. In this war
wage a war against it, by forming a federation. In this way It is knoWn in history as the and Rumania took up arms against
the bad blood and enmity was created between Turkey and erbla, Montenegro, Greece
the Balkan states. Bulgaria. Bulgan3
month. It was not possible torTheretere,
2. The aim of the Balkan Federation was to Ihe war continued for a kingdoms put together.
amputate Turkey to fac thee joint strength of so many
from the European moorings and then to distribute its terri it made peace with kingdoms of Balkan.
tories among themselves. For this purpose it was essential to O perceIVing its defeat, delegates of both the sides
assemblad
fight Turkey. reaty of Bucharest. The main objet of
Rumania. The
3. The Balkan states had made pacts among in Bucharest which was the capital of Macedonia. The following
themselves ror of
distributing the booty accruing out of the spoils of Macedonia. the treaty was the proper division
decisions were taken : territories that grew
Therefore agreeing unanimously on the issue, they decided so much
to wage awar against Turkey, 1, Serbia and Montenegro gotthey were betorr. Macedoia.
4. Balkan states Turkification and repressive policy of double in size than what
Turks. Salonika situated in
First Balkan War. Balkan state declared war against Turkey. Thë 2. Greece got the state of to Macedonia.
Turks were defeated in the battle of Serbia and Montenegro caplureo 3. Bulgaria got the remaining parrt
Albania, and the army of Bulgaria reached the vicinity of Constantinople. loss
Impact of the Balkan Wars sufter a serivus its
The Europcan powers favoured peace, but the unjust demands olne Turkey had to and
Victors led Turkey to renew war against them. The Due to the Balkan view of the size of empirs
Wars
Started on 3rd February 1913. Turkey again lost the Balkan
battle,
war again
and 1ounu
from the point of of population
itself compelled to accept the terms of the Treaty of Pepulation and prestige. fromthe point oe vicw
London. 2. Greece profited the most ef
Treaty of London. The Treaty was signed in London on 300 of its teritoriçs. fromthepoint
May, 1913 by the delegates of Turkey and the delegates of Balkan aDd the extension size
double ofilsits rule.
3. Serbia could Cxpandthe
federation. The following conditions were laid : extension of
view of population and
 178
EASTERN OQUESTION(1871-1914) 179
HISTORY OF EUROPE NEAR
4. Rumania also succeed in
and population at the costincreasing
War of 1914 was probably outcome of the
its territorial Influence. The Great
5. Bulgariawas
humiliated
of Bulgaria.
in this war.
possession Balkan Wars.
In these wars Germany exercised restraint over Austria
Russia. War came as SOon as restraints were not
its population. Bulgaria was Montenegro alsoin increased
the worst and France
exercised
over
in 1914.
6. Peace was restored due to the sufferer the war
not end their mutual Treaty of Bucharest, but it did
revenge. She bickerings.(Bulgaria wanted to take
at the first wanted subdue Rumania, Serbia and Greece
to
7. In the second opportunity.
Balkan War, Turkey had helped
Serbia and Greece against Bulgaria. It enhancedthe Rumania,.
lities between the two, but
by executing the (treaty of they made peace with each hosti
other
terms of the treaty, Bulgaria
of Thessaly to
8. Balkan Turkey.
Constantinople,)Accordingto
agreed to give the eastern zonethe
peninsula is said to be the cockpit of
constantly endangered by the Europe. Europe
The ambitions and interests of mutual conflicts of
the European rulersits states.
with one another with
War of 1914 probably was regard to this peninsula. Theclashed
Great
9. In these wars outcome of the Balkan Wars.
Germany
Britain, and France overrestrained over
restraint was not
Austria-Hungary
Russia but in 1914 and
war came when
exercised.
1. SUMMARY
Difficulties were due to the different
2.
of mutual
jealousies of the kingdoms.races, and the problems
All the kingdoms were tempted for the
Macedonia. possession o1
Establishment ofBalkan
making the Balkan
Federation.Federation,
Bulgaria included in this Venizelos succeeded
Greece, Serbia,
1
First Balkan War offederation. Montenegro 1d
and Montenegro 1912. In 1912,
the Treaty of fought against Turkey. It had Bulgaria, Greece, Ser
hold. London. Lot of territories of Turkeyto accept the
slipped offterms0
from its
S. Second Balkan War of 1913
1. Kingdoms of
question of thepeninsula quarrelled
e
among themselves on t
2. Bulgaria waged adistribution or
war against allMacedonia.
discomfitted at other
made which the end. At last the Treatykingdoms,
of
but wa
affronted Bulgaria. Bucharest wa

INTER