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8.1 INTRODUCTION
8.7 APPENDICES
8.7.1 Appendix I: Design Calculation Methods
8.7.2 Appendix 2 :
8.7.3 Appendix 3: Fluor Daniel Shortcut Calculation Method
8.7.4 Appendix 4: Fluor Daniel Modified Allied Flotronics Method
8.7.5 Appendix 5: Fischer-Gerchow Method
8.7.6 Appendix 6: Fan Engineering Method
8.7.7 Appendix 7A: Konno and Saito Correlation (FPS Units)
8.7.8 Appendix 8
8.7.9 Appendix 9: Bulk Solid Material Characteristics
8.7.10 Appendix 10: Not Used.
8.7.11 Appendix 11
8.7.12 Appendix 12
8.7.13 Appendix 13: Sieves
8.7.14 Appendix 14: Not used
8.7.15 Appendix 15: Not used
8.7.16 Appendix 16: Not used
8.7.17 Appendix 17A: Airlock Size and RPM Calculation
8.7.18 Appendix 18A: Diverter Valve Application Chart(a)
8.7.19 Appendix 19A: Filter Air-to-Cloth Ratio Selection A:C = (AxBxCxDxE):1
8.7.20 Appendix 20: Properties of Common Vapors and Gases
8.7.21 Appendix 21: Altitude - Pressure - Temperature - Density Table of air
8.7.22 Appendix 22: Economics
8.7.23 Appendix 23: Fundamental Burning Velocities of Selected Gases and Dusts
8.7.24 Appendix 24: Fire Hazard Properties of Selected Liquids, Gases and Volatile Solids
8.7.25 Appendix 25: Defining the Limits of Hazardous (Classified) Locations For Compliance with
National Electrical Code
8.7.26 Appendix 26: Explosion Properties of Dusts
8.7.27 Appendix 27: Equipment Data Sheets - Process Input
8.7.28 Appendix 28: Sample Specification
8.1 INTRODUCTION
Pneumatic conveying is widely used in the process industries for the handling of dry bulk
solid materials, in powdered, granular or pelletized form.
Multiple pickups/discharges
Completely enclosed
Heat/cool/dry/blend
Disadvantages
Low efficiency
There are two broad types of systems, dilute phase and dense phase.
Disadvantages
This manual is intended to provide a guide towards establishing a logical basis for the
preliminary selection and specification of a conveying system, and to enable informed
evaluation of alternative tenders by conveying system vendors.
A valuable published work on the subject is the "Pneumatic Conveying Design Guide" by
David Mills. It contains an exhaustive treatment of conveyer design and a wealth of
experimental data. This document has drawn upon Mills' work and other published and
unpublished data. A few selected articles are listed at the end of this manual and provide
additional insight into the design and operation of pneumatic conveying systems.
Stokes' Law states that the terminal velocity of a particle falling through a fluid is
determined by the particle density, diameter, shape, and fluid properties such as density
and viscosity. Translated into pneumatic conveying terms, a flowing gas will drag
particles with it above a gas velocity which is characteristic of the solid particle and gas
physical properties, and particle shape. This characteristic gas velocity is known as the
saltation velocity. Particles traveling above the saltation velocity are suspended in stream
flow with the gas, or are entrained in the gas stream. System pressure drop is the sum of
the energy losses in the system. These losses are described by an energy balance, and
include terms for gas acceleration, solids acceleration, gas friction loss, solids friction
loss, and static losses in vertical flow. In pneumatic conveying systems, this energy
balance describes a two-phase compressible flow system, and is therefore usually a trial-
and-error calculation procedure. All available procedures are approximations, have
dependence upon average solids material characteristics, which can vary widely, making
design calculations difficult to make with certainty. Inexperienced engineers should
apply these methods with caution. The approaches presented in this manual will yield
suitably conservative estimates, but must be verified by either direct experience with the
material in question, or laboratory tests.
8.2.1 General
Figure 8-1
Dense Phase Flow - Occurs at higher solid-gas ratios and may be either
slugging or non-slugging. Heavy/coarse particles tend to be carried upward
as a series of slugs. Small/light particles may be transported upward without
slugging but with a large amount of internal recirculation occurring.
The transition from dilute phase to dense phase conveying is not always clear,
particularly when dealing with materials of wide particle size distribution in
which the largest particles might slowly accumulate at a bend near the bottom of
a vertical line (if the velocity is only sufficient to carry up the fines in dilute
phase flow) until they form a slug, bridging the pipe, and are then blown up
momentarily as another slug begins to accumulate at the bottom. Such operation
might go undetected if the slugs form rapidly enough or if the total line pressure
drop is large enough to overshadow the fluctuation it would cause in the
discharge pressure of the air mover.
Ideally the transition from dilute to slugging dense phase vertical flow for a
uniform particle size material would appear as illustrated in Figure 8-1 where W1,
W2 etc., represent increasing specific solid flux rates in units of mass flowrate
times the total pipe cross sectional area. At some high gas velocity represented
by Point A, the introduction of solids at a rate W2 results in a pressure drop
greater than that necessary to push the gas alone through the pipe. As the gas
velocity is lowered, the pressure drop decreases, following a path nearly parallel
to that of the curve for the empty pipe. When the velocity has decreased to
around Point B there is a slower decline in pressure drop with further reductions
in gas velocity. This is a consequence of the slowing down of the particles and
of the resulting increase in the density of the suspension in the pipe. The
particles travel up the pipe at a lower velocity than the gas. This velocity
difference, or "slip", is related to their free fall or terminal velocity in the gas
medium. If gas were passing up the pipe at a superficial velocity equal to the
particle's free fall or terminal velocity then the particle could (theoretically) be
held in suspension, moving neither upward nor downward. Thus, as the
superficial velocity is reduced from Point A to Point B, the particles slow down
significantly. Since the net mass flowrate W, remains constant, the flowing
density or holdup must increase. This increased particle holdup, or inventory, or
suspension density, is reflected in the pressure drop; the frictional pressure drop
becomes negligible at low velocity, but the holdup or inventory pressure drop
increases, and predominates as the superficial velocity decreases from Point B to
Point C.
No good correlations for dense phase flow in vertical pipes exist (especially for
"dune" type flow), although the Particulate Solids Research Institute (PSRI) is
investigating this area.
The phase diagram for horizontal conveying is more complex than that described
for vertical conveying, because it is dependent on the deaeration characteristics
of the solids being conveyed. In a vertical pipe when the solids slow down or
approach choking, they cannot fall to rest; they can only fall head-on into the
oncoming gas stream. In a horizontal pipe when the solids slow down, they can
sink to the bottom of the conveying line and either remain there as stationary
solids, still pushed along by the conveying gas as an aerated mass, or be pushed
through the pipe as deaerated slugs. As particles drop out, a layer of material
builds up, which moves in wave or "dune" flow along the bottom of the
conveying pipe, with particles in stream flow in the gas stream above the salted
layer. As velocities drop lower, the dunes fill the pipe forming pistons. Since
gas density decreases and therefore velocity increases as the gas flows through
the conveying system, it is possible to transition from dense to dilute phase flow
in the system. The flow regime is dependent upon the solids flowrate, the gas
velocity and the solids' deaeration characteristic. The pressure drop per unit
length of pipe length differs depending upon the mode of the conveying, whether
as a dilute suspension, a dense aerated mass, or slug flow.
The various types of flow regimes as well as pipeline pressure drop versus air
velocity for horizontal and vertical pipe are shown in Figure 8-4A. Additionally,
Figure 8-4B presents five modes of gas-solids flow in horizontal pipes.
When dealing with relatively coarse and uniform particle sizes, saltation is
generally accompanied by a rapid filling up of the pipe to nearly half its cross
section. Thereafter, steady state conveying proceeds in the open space above the
salted layer. As gas velocity is further reduced, the salted layer becomes deeper,
thereby further restricting the pipe area and resulting in a rising pressure drop as
along Curve EF.
Comparing Figure 8-4 for horizontal flow, with Figure 8-1 for vertical flow, it
becomes evident that in the case of vertical flow the particle free fall or terminal
velocity represents an ultimate lower velocity limit below which essentially no
dilute phase vertical conveying can occur; in the case of horizontal flow there
must also exist some similar lower limit. The lower limit in horizontal conveying
must be the minimum velocity necessary to convey a single particle through the
pipe without having it salt out; i.e., the single-particle saltation velocity or the
saltation velocity at zero loading.
Figure 8-2
Figure 8-3
Figure 8-4A
FLOW REGIMES & PRESSURE DROP FOR HORIZONTAL AND VERTICAL PIPELINES
Figure 8-4B
Figure 8-4
There are two primary considerations in determining the practicability of and the
design of pneumatic conveying system; first is the material's characteristics, and
second is the system's design parameters.
Material characteristics can vary widely in the same material in ways which can
significantly impact pneumatic conveying systems. Bulk or apparent density is
the uncompressed apparent density of the solids. True density is the actual
density of the material without void space in between the particles. Bulk density
includes the void space, which lowers the density of the powder when compared
to the solid itself. If the bulk density is variable (aeration is greater or lesser), the
feed rate into a pneumatic conveying system can vary greatly, particularly in
systems which are fed volumetrically. Feed rate variation can cause surging,
Particle size and distribution can also cause the bulk density to vary since fine
materials become aerated more readily, lowering the bulk density. Fine materials
may work in one conveying system, but not in another. For example, fine
materials may not perform well in piston type dense phase systems over long
distances. Some materials readily break into smaller particles (i.e., are friable).
This tendency may reduce the value of the material or cause excessive losses.
Low velocity dense phase systems can be used to reduce this type of degradation.
Particle shape will affect system selection as well. Efficiency of conveying and
separation equipment is affected by particle shape. Long, thin particles such as
fibers cannot be separated efficiently using a cyclone. They are carried through
with the gas. These particles must be filtered.
Materials with a high moisture content can stick inside piping causing plugs, clog
rotary valves and blind filters such as dust collectors. Cohesive powders can act
like moist powders since the particles may form large agglomerates with
pressure.
This table is taken from the lecture notes by Hendrik Colijn, Consulting
Engineer, Transportation & Material Handling Services, for a "Pneumatic
Conveying Systems" course.
Dilute phase design calculation methods include the Zenz-Othmer method, the
Fischer-Gerchow method, the Fan Engineering method, the short-cut method
used at Fluor Daniel, the Modified Allied Flotronics method and the Konno-Saito
correlation recommended by PSRI. All of these methods involve some form of
energy balance equation analogous to the Bernoulli equation in fluid hydraulics.
The Fischer-Gerchow and Fan Engineering methods focus on a momentum
equation which use empirical material friction factors. These material factors are
usually proportional to the tangent of the angle of repose. The Kenz-Othmer and
Konno-Saito methods use the gas frictional loss and a material to gas loading
ratio, avoiding the empirical factors, but producing conservative solutions:
Dense phase design calculation methods include various graphical phase diagram
methods, the Zenz-Other method (for two-phase "dune" or "wave" flow), and the
PSRI method (for "slug" or "piston" flow).
The three basic parameters calculated for pneumatic conveying systems are
conveying line size, system pressure drop, and gas mover horsepower. The
various calculation methods as well as example problems are included in
Appendix 8.7.
In pressure systems a source of pressurized gas is positioned at the supply end of the
system. Pressure is used to push gas through the conveying system through the pick-up
point, and a cyclone or dust collector which disengages the solids from the flowing gas at
the solids destination. The gas is discharged directly to the atmosphere. Pressure
systems may operate in dilute, dense, or some combination flow regime. Pressure
sources include fans, rotary lobe blowers, centrifugal blowers and various types of
compressors The solids flow capacity and ultimate conveying distance will be limited by
the pressure the source is able to supply. The conveying gas may be air or some inert gas
such as nitrogen, carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, or argon.
In vacuum systems a fan or blower is positioned on the discharge end of the system. A
vacuum is pulled on the conveying system through the pick-up (material feed) point, and
a cyclone or dust collector which disengages the solids from the flowing gas at the solids
destination. The gas is exhausted from the flowing gas at the solids destination. The gas
is exhausted from the fan or blower to atmosphere. Vacuum systems are typically dilute
phase systems using fans or rotary lobe blowers to provide the vacuum. Small systems
may use regenerative blowers as well. Dense phase vacuum conveying may be used over
short distances.
Closed systems are used to limit the make-up of inert gas or conditioned air required for
some systems. These systems can be operated in pressure or vacuum, but are typically
operated with a minimum system pressure just over ambient atmospheric pressure with
inert atmospheres. Setting a slightly positive minimum system pressure ensures that the
system will leak out, keeping air (oxygen) from entering the system. These systems can
be treated the same as the pressure system, except that the fan, blower, or compressor
discharges through the system, ending at the suction, instead of exhausting to
atmosphere. System pressure is controlled by bleeding excess gas and adding make-up at
the system minimum pressure point, typically at the fan, blower, or compressor suction.
Temperature is controlled by an aftercooler at the discharge of the fan, blower or
compressor. It is important in designing closed loop systems that the design pressures of
bins, hoppers, silos, and solids disengagement equipment such as cyclones and dust
collectors be considered carefully. Typically such equipment is a very low design
pressure (-4" W.C. to +12" W.C.). Locate bins, hoppers, and silos at or near the system
low pressure point in order to minimize the required design pressure. Dust collectors and
cyclones are readily available with design pressures up to +100" W.C., but typically are
limited to 30" W.C. All these vessels and equipment may be designed for much higher
pressures at much greater expense.
Combination (vacuum/pressure) systems use vacuum on the feed end of the system, and
pressure on the discharge end. Low pressure systems using fans may at times pass solids
along with the gas through the fan. Material handling fans are prone to high maintenance
due to wear. Most combined systems require a rotary lobe blower, which cannot tolerate
particulates. The material is filtered through a dust collector, and then re-fed to the
pressure side of the system.
Pneumatic conveying systems are broadly divided into dilute and dense phase systems.
In dilute phase systems a material feeder introduces solid particles into a gas
stream, which is either created by a source of positive air pressure, or induced by
a source of vacuum. The kinetic energy of the airstream is converted into
dynamic pressure and aerodynamic lift, and the particles are fluidized and
accelerated to form a suspension. The mass ratio of solid-gas in the suspension
defined as the phase density, is less than 10:1. At the destination the particles
must be separated from the gas stream.
A variety of mechanisms may be used for feeding the material into the gas
stream. Rotary valves are the most common, although blowing seals, venturi
feeders and screw feeders have also been used. Material feeders are potential
sources of gas leakage from the system and their influence upon system selection
and design is discussed in Section 8.4.4.
The gas-solid separation devices used include cyclones, fabric filters and, in
some applications, elutriators. The selection of separation devices is primarily
dependent upon the product characteristics, as discussed in Section 8.4.6.
The minimum conveying velocities required to achieve dilute phase flow are
typically in the range 13-15 m/sec. Volumetric expansion with declining
pressure along the pipe may therefore yield conveying velocities of the order of
40 m/sec at the outlet. Most bulk solids can be conveyed in the dilute phase
mode; the effect of particle characteristics and size distribution upon the
suitability for dilute and dense phase conveyance is critical.
Figure 8-5a shows dilute phase flow at velocities slightly above the minimum
conveying velocity; a strand of particles skips along the bottom of the pipe,
whilst the particles above this region are in fully suspended flow. Figure 8-5b
illustrates flow at higher velocities where the particles have formed a completely
uniform suspension.
Dilute phase systems may be broken down into the following categories:
Vacuum systems
Positive pressure systems involve a gas mover forcing gas through a pipe
into which the product is introduced, fluidized and accelerated. At the
destination a gas-solid separator removes the bulk solid from the gas.
Positive pressure systems usually have a pressure not exceeding
14.5 psig/1 barg and utilize either:
Figure 8-5
b) Vacuum Systems
Despite such disadvantages vacuum systems are ideally suited for a variety
of uses, such as vacuuming up material from stockpiles, ship unloading, and
cleaning up product spills. Vacuum systems have been successfully used in
multipoint discharge systems in batching applications such as with dry
ingredients or micro-ingredient blending. Each receiver is manifolded to a
common vacuum source and has its own vacuum valve. The number of
receivers that can be on-line simultaneously is limited only by the
vacuum source size. They are superior to positive pressure systems for
transferring product from several sources to a single destination. Leakage
across rotary valves is relatively insubstantial when compared with positive
pressure systems because of the small pressure differential across the valves
when in vacuum service. The fact that leakage is inward is also
advantageous, enabling the handling of toxic, odorous or radioactive
materials.
Dual combined systems separate the positive and negative pressure system
by means of an intermediate vessel and enable the optimum equipment item
for each service to be specified. Selection of a liquid ring vacuum pump and
a screw or reciprocating compressor, instead of the single twin-lobe rotary
blower usually used in single systems, would enable transport over a greater
distance. A schematic of a dual combined system appears in Figure 8-9 and
Figure 8-9A.
The different pressures in the two parts of the system influence the air
volume and therefore velocity; the different air densities influence the
minimum conveying air velocities. Therefore, for an equivalent solids
flowrate, different pipeline diameters may be required in the two different
parts of the system.
Most pneumatic conveying systems draw air from the atmosphere and
discharge it to the atmosphere (via appropriate filtration equipment to protect
the air mover from damage, the product from contamination and the
environment from pollution). This arrangement is adequate for most
transport duties because the product itself is enclosed, and pollution may be
eliminated by correct design of gas-solid separators and vents.
In a closed system the discharge gas is recycled from the vent back to the air
mover suction. This recirculation of the conveying medium to (generally air
or nitrogen) reduces the demand to a small makeup supply compensate for
leakage.
Figure 8-8
Figures 8-8A
Figure 8-9
In most dense phase systems solids are fed to the conveying pipe using a vessel
called a "blow tank" or transporter. Blow tanks/transporters usually operate at
pressures above 1 barg; in such cases they must be designed according to the
ASME code for Pressure Vessels, Section VIII, Division 1. They, together with
the required instrumentation and control, are therefore a relatively expensive
component. Similarly, the higher pressure means that the Roots type blowers
common in dilute phase applications are usually inadequate for dense phase
systems. Instead more expensive compressors must be used, unless the gas
consumption is low enough to be accommodated by the plant air system. The
transport mechanism at such low velocities is shown in Figure 8-10. In
horizontal flow (a) Particles are metered into the pipe and remain on the bottom
because the air velocity is too low to overcome the frictional resistance, R. (b) the
particle dune increases in cross section as more particles are fed into the pipe. As
the height of the dune increases so does the air resistance force, W. (c) the dune
moves in the direction of air flow and spreads out and other dunes collide with it
forming a larger dune. The pipe cross section is reduced, the velocity increases
and the dune moves along the pipe.
In vertical flow (a) an individual particle settles when the air velocity v falls
below the terminal velocity WS of the particle. (b) the pressure of more particles
in the same cross section of pipe reduces the gas flow area and therefore
increases the velocity. (c) when a sufficient number of particles are present the
effective air velocity between the particles exceeds the terminal velocity, WS, and
the group of particles is lifted. (d) in effect, when conveying bulk granular
1) General Principles
The most common type of dense phase system is based on the blow tank
or transporter. Essentially a blow tank/transporter is a pressure vessel
which is charged with material, pressurized and discharged batchwise
into a pipeline. The filling and discharging cycle must then be repeated.
While it is inherently a batch process it may be adapted for continuous
operation by using twin pressure vessels either in series or parallel, as
discussed below. When specifying batch systems, however, state the
average pseudo-continuous rate required as such to the vendor who will
recommend the approximate blow tank system size and cycle time.
3) The simplest form of blow tank, Figure 8-11 only has valves to isolate
the tank from the supply hopper and the vent line. The blow tank starts
to pressurize as soon as the vent line is closed, and both the tank and line
must be pressurized before any material is delivered. The material is
pushed into the line as a single plug, usually via a bottom discharge. No
separate conveying air is used and fluidizing air is not usually supplied to
the vessel. Towards the end of the cycle the tank and line must be
depressured to enable charging of the tanks for the next cycle. The time
spent pressurizing and depressurizing the system reduces the proportion
of the cycle that is spent actually conveying product. Therefore, to
achieve a given time-averaged transfer rate the actual transfer rate must
be higher (Figure 8-12). The ratio of the mean to peak transfer rates may
be increased (thereby reducing the peak transfer rate required to achieve
a given mean transfer rate) by:
Fitting valves to the discharge line and (if fitted) supplementary air
line
By increasing the vessel size and hence the amount of product conveyed
per cycle also increases the proportion of the cycle spent conveying. A
balance must be met between the rate cycling and the blow
tank/transporter size.
The fitting of valves to the discharge line and supplementary air supply
line (if fitted) enables rapid pressurization and depressurization. The
tank may be rapidly pressurized if all the air available is used and
discharge is prevented until the required steady state pressure is reached.
Depressurization time is reduced by isolating the tank from the
conveying line, closing the discharge line valve and opening the vent line
valve immediately upon its emptying. This is also advantageous because
it prevents the large volume of air in the blow tank from rapidly
expanding through the conveying line once the plug has been discharged
from the pipeline. The very high air velocities that otherwise result
could cause severe erosion problems during this pipework venting
process and subject bends (especially blank tee-pieces) to very high
forces; pipework must be well supported in such circumstances.The
"rapid expansion" problem does not exist in systems that have been
designed to maintain product in the line between blow tank/transporter
fillings.
The air supply used to pressurize the blow tank is usually also used to
fluidize the tank contents and thereby facilitate discharge. The fluidizing
membrane is usually porous plastic, porous ceramic or filter cloth
sandwiched between two perforated metal plates or rubber "pulsers." A
secondary air supply is frequently fed into the conveying line just
downstream of the tank. More recently, however, 80-90 % of the air is
fed along the total length of the line. This supplementary air is useful if
the material has poor air retention properties, and is essential for good
control. Where the secondary air supply is fed into the conveying line
just downstream of the tank, the discharge rate may be controlled by
proportioning the air supply between the fluidizing and supplementary
air lines (Figure 8-13).
The pressure drops across the discharge section of blow tanks must be
accounted for in specification of the air mover. In general,
Large top discharge tanks may have the pressure drop reduced by
removing the mixture from the side.
Figure 8-10
Figure 8-11
Figure 8-12
MATERIAL FLOWRATE AGAINST TIME FOR A SINGLE PLUG BLOW TANK SYSTEM
Figure 8-13
Figure 8-14
This use of timed pulse air injection has been recommended for products
with the following characteristics:
Granular/plastic pellets
It should be noted that fine materials with very low air retention
characteristics may be unsuitable for dense phase flow altogether.
Three approaches have been used in the design of plug control systems:
Secondary air may be supplied along the length of the conveying line
either via a perforated tube or via a bypass (Figure 8-16). This may
fluidize the product and help prevent plugging. If however a plug does
manage to form, the air will follow the path of least resistance into the
line, entering downstream of the plug without affecting it. Over longer
conveying distances the air velocity increases excessively due to
expansion of the gases resulting in a higher pressure drop and air
consumption unless the pipeline size is stepped up appropriately.
This system enables very low velocities to be used for the transport of
free flowing bulk materials. It is especially useful for powdery and
pulverized materials with low air permeability and high air retention. An
external bypass may be used if the material is damaged by an internal
bypass. It cannot be used for fine cohesive product because the bypass
would become plugged. Abrasive solids also create problems by
severely eroding the bypass, in which air velocities are relatively high.
Figure 8-15
Dual blow tank systems may be configured with the pressure vessels
either in parallel or in series.
Figure 8-16
Figure 8-17
Figure 8-18
The plot plan may influence the choice between parallel and series
blow tanks, with parallel systems occupying the most floor space but
series systems requiring substantial headroom.
Figure 8-19
Figure 8-20
Figure 8-21A
At least one vendor offers a dense phase pneumatic transport system based
upon high pressure rotary valves instead of the usual blow tank-type feeders.
Rotary valves are available rated for differential pressures of up to 50 psi/3.5
bar, with special attention given to minimizing the air leakage that usually
precludes the use of high pressure systems.
Air leakage occurs from rotary valves but not from blow tanks. This air
leakage must be compensated for to ensure that the average velocity at
the end of conveying line remains constant, even as the leakage rate
changes with changing differential pressure across the valve.
The objective in undertaking the selection and design of a pneumatic conveying system is
to provide the means for the reliable and economical transfer of a given bulk material at a
specified rate over a given distance.
In selecting the most suitable system for a given service numerous interrelated issues
must be resolved - the system type (open or closed), system pressure (positive or
negative), mode of flow (dilute or dense phase), type of operation (batch or continuous),
and the types of feed and gas-solid separation systems. The key parameters influencing
those issues are the properties and conveying characteristics of the product to be
transferred and the conveying distance and layout involved.
The order of the decision stages will change as external constraints dictate that a
particular type of equipment must be included in or excluded from the selection. The
decision stages are discussed below in the preferred order (i.e., assuming there are no
constraints), although in all cases they involve a degree of iteration.
A summary of the advantages and disadvantages as well as process conditions for the
various types of systems is shown in Figures 8-22A through F.
Pneumatic Conveying Systems are being used today for products which a few years ago
would have been handled exclusively by mechanical means.
In spite of this, however, it is still the "conventional" products which make up the bulk of
the systems installed and consequently provide the most extensive design information.
We try to be impartial in our selections, but we do have a tendency to stay away from
rotary air locks unless they are definitely indicated. The following comments shown in
Figure 8-22F must, therefore, reflect our preferences and prejudices and should be used
as a guide rather than an indictment!
If the product you are interested in is not listed, ask the mechanical department for
assistance.
The first choices are concerned with whether an open or closed system is
required, and whether a positive or negative pressure system should be used.
The material properties usually decide whether the system should be open or
closed. Open systems are preferred because of their lower capital cost and
minimal complexity. In many cases the proper design of gas-solid separators
and vents is sufficient to prevent pollution. Open systems should therefore
be used except where a closed system is necessary for economic,
environmental or safety reasons.
Closed systems usually involve recirculation of the discharge gas back to the
air mover suction. This recirculation of the conveying medium reduces the
demand to a small makeup supply to compensate for leakage. The volume of
exhaust requiring filtration is substantially reduced, with only a small bleed
stream required. Closed systems are best suited to continuous operation.
In other cases the material may react (sometimes explosively) with air,
necessitating the use of an alternative, inert conveying medium. Nitrogen is
the most common gas for this purpose. Economics usually dictate that
conveying media other than air are conserved in a closed system. Materials
with an excessive dust content may be transported in a closed system to
minimize the size and cost of the exhaust filtration system. Toxic or
radioactive materials must be transported in closed systems and
comprehensive measures taken to ensure that leakage to the environment
does not occur.
b) System Pressure
Ideal for feeding multiple destinations from a single source via diverter
valves.
Figure 8-22A
Figure 8-22B
Figure 8-22C
Figure 8-22D
Figure 8-22E
Figure 8-22F
Figure 8-22F
Figure 8-22F
REMARKS
High density (.2 to .4 S.C.F.M. 1b. of material) pressure systems usual. Pumps like viscous fluid when
aerated. Systems in use operating at 100 P.S.I. Look out if line plugs - usually must be disassembled.
Use of Rotary air locks precludes high pressure systems. If R.A.L.'s used, should be blow thru, type for
satisfactory clean out. Pressure pod systems for flour operate similar to cement systems but less air req'd.
Free flowing product. Feeds & conveys well. Does not fluidize - must be blown thru line (1 to 2
S.C.F.M./lb. of material common). Handles equally well in pressure or vacuum system. R.A.L. systems
most common. Maximum pressure usually 8-10 P.S.I.
Abrasion biggest problem. Heavy wall pipe should be used for straight runs. High air velocities (6000
ft./min.) req'd. for sharp sands. Hose or wear pocket elbows will combat abrasion.
Air locks should have controlled feed inlet. Pressures should be kept low to minimize velocity and temp.
gradients. Special conveying lines often used to eliminate streamer formation. Conveys well. Usually
can be stopped in line and re-started.
Alum. hardens and glazes on rubbing surfaces. Air locks, if used, need large clearances. Often coats
inside of pipelines.
Usually handled in pellet (prill) form. Must be kept from contact with oil (explosion hazard). Air locks
should, therefore, have outboard bearings.
Handles well, but air flows usually kept low to minimize breakage. Otherwise, conveys similar to wheat.
Corrosion main problem. Air locks, if used, should be stainless steel. Conveying lines usually
aluminum. Requires min. 5000 ft./min. air velocity for steady flow. Fine salt harder to convey than
coarse grades.
Figure 8-22F
Figure 8-22F
Figure 8-22F
Advanced dense phase systems (e.g., pulse phase and plug control
systems) are capable of transferring many products that are unsuited to
conventional dense phase transport. They are especially suited to low
velocity transport of friable/abrasive products, offering lower operating
costs but at a higher initial capital cost.
More efficient than combined systems because the duty is split into a
positive and negative half, enabling the optimum blower and exhaust
types to be specified for each half.
While maximum vertical runs are limited by the available pressure drop,
typical limits are about 100 ft total vertical distance for medium pressure
(<7.0 psig) systems.
Wear the conveying system and attrition of the material can be reduced by
keeping line velocities low, especially at the terminal end of the system. Size
the dilute phase system conveying lines such that the velocity is relatively
constant. Line velocities in dilute phase systems should be maintained above
saltation, but below 6,000 ft/min (9,500 ft/min is maximum).
7) Dust collector undersized for peak gas flow rate, especially for the tank
and line clearing step of a blow tank dense phase system cycle.
8) Failure to provide control interlocks to ensure that the blower is
operating when the solids feed is begun, and remains operating for a
period after the solids feed has ended.
9) Installation of upward inclined sections of pipe resulting in saltation,
high pressure drop, and plugging.
10) Taps not provided to permit checking of conveying gas line pressure or
velocity during system troubleshooting.
11) The system has too many diverter valves, feed points, or discharge points
making the system difficult to troubleshoot due to complexity.
12) Centrifugal blower has a head vs. capacity characteristic that overloads
the motor when no solids are flowing, pressure drop is small, and gas
flow is large.
13) Poorly sealed diverter valves leak gas into or out of the in-service
branch, or leak solids into the out-of-service branch.
14) Shutoff valves used in place of diverter valves and improperly arranged
so that a pocket of solids accumulates against the closed valve.
15) Sight glasses omitted, hindering inspection, operation, and
troubleshooting.
16) Conductive jumpers not provided for non-conductors such as sight
glasses or pipe connectors, resulting in an explosion hazard due to
accumulation of static electricity.
17) Grounding not provided for all equipment and pipe, resulting in an
explosion hazard.
18) Tramp metal not removed from the solids feed, resulting in an explosion
hazard.
19) Vacuum and pressure relief not provided for system using rotary lobe
blowers.
20) A filter is not provided on the suctions of rotary lobe blowers or on
compressors.
21) A means for pressure drop measurement across the dust collector is not
provided.
22) The level sensor is placed too high in the receiving vessel, by ignoring
the material pipeline effect (material characteristic angle of repose). This
error leads to overfilling and possible overpressuring of the vessel or to
plugging of the conveying line.
23) The placement of the receiving vessel vent too near the inlet permits
sealing off of the vent and results in overpressuring of the vessel.
The specification of the pipeline diameter sets the line pressure drop, and in
conjunction with the feeder and separator pressure drops, determines the air
mover rating.
In general high pressure dense phase systems will involve relatively small bore
piping (< 3 in/80 mm) whereas low pressure dilute phase systems utilize larger
diameter piping (> 8 in/200 mm). Dense phase system pipe diameters similar to
those generally thought of as more suitable for dilute phase systems do exist.
There are two main approaches towards establishing the pipe diameter and
system pressure drop (and therefore the air supply pressure):
Mathematical models
Acceptable velocities
Stall pressure
Particle breakup
Air consumption.
The vendor will optimize the system against any criteria the client wishes, such
as line size, air consumption, capital cost, material breakup, etc.
It is also useful to plot the conveying line inlet air velocity against the phase
density to enable determination of the minimum conveying conditions,
Figure 8-24. The conveying line inlet air velocity specified for design should
incorporate a design margin of 20 % over the minimum conveying
Figure 8-23
Figure 8-24
Horizontal distance
Vertically downward distance
Vertically upward distance
Number and type of bends
Figure 8-25
Calculate the power required using the air mass flowrate obtained
from the conveying characteristic. A value corresponding to 20 %
above the minimum conveying velocity should be used.
The minimum air mass flowrate may be determined from the scaled
conveying characteristics, based upon the system pressure drop. The
actual air mass flowrate specified for the air mover should
incorporate a design margin of 20 % above the minimum air mass
flowrate required for conveying.
Figure 8-26
The delivery pressure and air flowrate of the air mover are known, so
the achievable material mass flowrate may be read from the
conveying characteristic.
Conveying characteristics derived from test data are widely used in system
design. If the conveying characteristics are established for the material being
conveyed in a given pipeline (i.e., the test rig), it is possible to scale them up
to a pipeline of different geometry (i.e., the desired system layout).
In scaling from the test rig to the design case the following approach is
followed:
Diameter is scaled.
The equivalent lengths are correlated in terms of the conveying line inlet
air velocity, Figure 8-27.
Figure 8-27
2) Pipeline Length
Mp1Le1 = Mp2Le2
where:
and:
While the above equation may be used to scale data to either longer or
shorter pipelines, care must be taken in both cases:
When scaling to shorter lengths for a specified air mass flowrate and a
given pipeline P, the phase density of the material increases as does the
overall material flowrate. However, the phase density may increase to
the point where the material cannot be successfully conveyed. This is
especially likely if the material is one of the many unsuited to
conventional dense phase conveying.
When scaling to longer distances, for a specified air mass flowrate and a
given pipeline P, the phase density of the material decreases, as does the
overall minimum flowrate. However, the decrease in phase density may
in turn cause the minimum conveying air velocity to increase to the point
where the material cannot be conveyed successfully.
3) Pipeline Diameter
Pipeline diameter is scaled on the basis that the material mass flowrate is
proportional to the pipe cross sectional area.
2
Mp2 = Mp1 (d2/d1)
where:
and:
o
It is recommended that an enlargement section with a 6 included
angle be located at the point at which the pipeline is stepped.
4) Pipeline Orientation
Table 8
Notes:
(a) It may be assumed in this region that the increase or decrease
in equivalent horizontal length is linearly proportional to phase
density.
Diverter Valves
drum is rotated to line up one path or another with the line(s). Double
valve arrangements close a valve in the closed path, opening a new path.
Flap valves are more suited to low and medium pressure systems.
Tunnel diverters are more suitable for medium and high pressure
systems, especially where dense phase, or combined dilute and dense
phase systems may be operated. Double valve systems are used more for
high and very high pressure systems. A leakage table for flap and tunnel
diverter valves is included in the course material. This leakage, like that
for rotary valves should be included in the system gas requirements for
gas mover sizing.
Feeder selection is itself dependent upon the material properties and pressure
requirements (a function of material properties and conveying distance).
Blow tanks, for example, are usually selected either for high pressure (long
distance) duties, or where material characteristics dictate low speed transport.
Blow tanks are batch mode feeders, although the use of dual pressure vessels
may enable continuous operation, as discussed in Section 8.3.2.
Batch mode operation involves transfer at rates above the time averaged mean.
This maximum conveying rate must be estimated and used for design of the
pipeline and specification of the product feeder and air mover.
Material line feeders serve to meter solids into the conveying system. These can
be either rotary valves, or some other type of feeder used in conjunction with a
rotary valve, double flap valve or a venturi eductor. Volumetric feeders meter
constant volumes of material per unit time. Bulk density must be constant in
order to maintain feedrate accuracy. Finer and more cohesive materials will vary
in bulk density more than will coarser materials. Material flow rate variances can
cause surges in the conveying systems, which can cause plugging. Fan systems
are especially prone to this kind of plugging. Volumetric feeders may be screws,
belts, vibratory pan or tube conveyors, rotary valves, or double-flap valves.
Gravimetric feeders meter constant weights of material per unit time. Bulk
density variances are still important, but less so. Gravimetric feeders tend to be
either screw or belt feeders.
Where the solids feeder to be selected is more than a railcar (for which the
engineer has no design input), the following issues must be considered in
selecting a solids feeder:
Pressure Rating
Air Leakage
Pressure Drop
Flow Control
Product Suitability
a) Pressure Rating
If the pipeline diameter, pressure drop and conveying mode have already
been determined, a feeder must be selected with a pressure rating adequate
for the resulting system pressure drop.
The pressure rating ranges of the major types of solids feeders are shown in
Figure 8-28. Note that some European manufacturers now offer rotary
valves rated to differential pressures of up to 50 psia/3.5 bara.
Selecting the feeder with the greatest working pressure allows use of a
smaller diameter line, only if it is matched with a higher pressure motive.
For a given diameter the feeder with the highest pressure rating yields the
maximum conveyor duty.
b) Air Leakage
Air leakage across the product feeder must be accounted for in the
specification of the volumetric rate for the air mover. Inadequate account for
air leakage may result in pipeline blockage.
In positive pressure systems air leakage across the valves (rotary or other)
may disrupt the feeding of product. In vacuum systems leakages are usually
negligible because of the relatively low pressure differential. Regular
maintenance is essential to prevent excessive leakage.
Figure 8-28
c) Pressure Drop
The pressure drop across the feeder must be accounted for in the
specification of the air mover. It is desirable to minimize the pressure drop
across the feeder - any avoidable pressure drop is a waste of energy.
d) Flow Control
e) Product Suitability
Feeder selection must account for the nature of the product being handled.
The suitability of given feeders for various products is discussed below.
f) Feeder Types
The most commonly used types of material feeders are discussed below:
Rotary Valves
Screw Feeders
Venturi Feeders
Blow Tanks
Gate-Lock Valves
Rotary Valves
Rotary valves are used to isolate the conveying system from either the
atmosphere, or from feeders and bins at the feed point. Rotary valves
may also function as feeders, but chiefly isolate areas of differing
pressure. Rotary valve sizing depends on many considerations such as
particle size, bulk density, moisture content, and cohesiveness. Rotary
valves must move slowly enough to allow the pockets to completely fill,
but quickly enough to provide a continuous stream without surging.
Rotary valve pockets do not fill 100 % with material, but have a fill
efficiency depending on the material characteristics such as bulk density,
particles size, moisture and cohesiveness. Typically, coarse materials
such as plastic pellets will have high (95 %) fill efficiencies, with
maximum rotor speeds up to 30 rpm. Fine powders (average particle
size less than 200 mesh) can have low fill efficiencies (50 % to 80 %)
with rotor speeds limited to about 15 rpm. Fill efficiencies and
maximum rotor speeds vary between manufacturers and materials.
Rotary valves usually are vented to allow displaced gas to escape so that
the solids may quickly fill the pockets. Rotary valves usually are vented
back to the top of the feed bin to which they are attached. Most rotary
valves are straight drop-through design, but rotary valves in plastic pellet
service are typically side-entry to prevent jamming or shearing the pellets
in the rotor. In closed loop systems, it is recommended to include slide
gate valves below the rotary valve to isolate the valve from the
conveying line to avoid allowing air to enter the system during rotary
valve maintenance. The rotary valve is one area where reliability and
performance matter more than mere price. Use of a high quality rotary
valve is essential to good operation.
Rotary valves are the most commonly used material feeders for dilute
phase systems. A few vendors also offer dense phase systems utilizing
high specification rotary valves. They serve as airlocks, to prevent the
passage of air either from pressure sys-tems or into vacuum systems,
while regulating the solids flow to provide a uniform feedrate. They are
also necessary on the solids outlet beneath the cyclone at the discharge of
vacuum systems.
Figure 8-29
Table 8-1
GUIDELINES FOR THE SELECTION OF MATERIAL FEEDERS
Offset Pellets
The suitability of a rotary valve for a given service depends not only
upon the pressure rating required but also upon the particle
characteristics. They are not recommended for handling abrasive
particles because wear of the rotor tips will result in increased air
leakage. Soft materials (Mohs hardness < 3) may suffer unacceptable
levels of degradation in rotary valves. If used at all in such service the
valves should be conservatively sized and operated at very low speeds.
When feeding granules or pellets, shear may cause particle degradation
and valve vibration; in such cases a valve with an offset inlet should be
used (Figure 8-31a). For cohesive solids a "blow through" type valve is
necessary (Figure 8-31b) where conveying air is used to purge the valve
pockets and material entrainment takes place in the valve. The feeding
Table 8-2
Screw Feeder
Figure 8-30
Figure 8-31
Venturi Feeder
A venturi feeder consists of a reduced pipeline cross section near the feed
point. This increases the velocity of the entraining air and reduces the
pressure in the throat. Ideally, a venturi design would result in this
pressure being reduced to the pressure at the supply source (e.g., supply
hopper), which is usually atmospheric. This ensures there is no air
leakage opposing the flow of material.
Venturi feeders are useful for cases where rotary valves may be
damaging to, or damaged by, the product (e.g., abrasive or friable
materials). The maximum conveying line pressure drop is 4.4 psi/0.3
bar, limiting their application. They are best suited to free flowing
materials (e.g., sand, coal, alumina). Separate provision must be made
for control of the feedrate.
Belt
Gate-Lock Valves
Gate-lock valves comprise two gates in series which alternately open and
close, enabling material to pass from the supply hopper into the
conveying line where it is entrained in air (Figure 8-32). Operation of
the gates is intermittent (5-10 times/min) and the resulting flow unsteady.
As a result, relatively high gas velocities are needed to ensure that a
transient high solid flowrate does not block the line, they should only be
used in dilute phase systems.
Suction Nozzles
Suction nozzles are used in negative pressure systems when only the top
surface of the material is accessible, for instance when off-loading ships.
The nozzle design must ensure that the inlet will not become plugged
with material even when the nozzle is totally immersed in it, and that
enough air is available to convey the material once it is entrained in the
line. Two air inlets are required, one for primary air at the material
pickup point, and one (or several) downstream for secondary air as
shown in Figure 8-33.
The flow of primary and secondary air must be regulated and the ratios
must be controlled.
8.4.5 Air Mover
Conveying gas an be supplied by fans, rotary lobe blowers, centrifugal blowers,
and compressors. Fans are used for low pressure differential systems
(+/- 20" W.C.) with low solids to gas loadings (0.45 to 1.3 vacuum; 1 to 3
pressure). Conveying distances are limited (100 ft vacuum, 200 ft pressure), and
the maximum throughput is 50 tons/hr. Care must be taken in fan selection; flat
fan curves will result in an unstable system prone to surging or plugging. Fans
usually meant for air handling (no solids) will have fan curves too flat for use in
conveying systems. Rotary lobe blowers are positive displacement devices used
in medium pressure differential systems (+/- 7.0 psi) with medium solids to gas
loadings (2.5 to 4.5 vacuum; 3 to 13 pressure). Conveying distances are better
than for fan systems (300 ft vacuum, 1000 ft pressure), and the maximum
throughput is 100 tons/hr. Compressors are used for high pressure differential.
systems (up to 40 psig for continuous dense phase systems, up to 150 psig for
blow pots) with high solids to gas ratios (13 to 45 for continuous) to very high
solids to gas ratios (45 to 135 for blow pots) loadings. Conveying distances for
continuous systems are up to 3000 ft, up to 8000 ft for blow pots, with maximum
throughputs of 200 tons/hr. Some small systems can be supplied with
compressed air or other (inert) gas directly from plant systems instead of a
dedicated compressor. These are typically low rate vacuum or pressure loading
systems. Most gas movers are sources of noise; many are housed in sound
enclosures. Rotary lobe blowers usually are furnished with inlet and outlet
mufflers.
Figure 8-32
Figure 8-33
The specification of the air requirements and selection of the air mover type is
discussed in the following sections:
a) Air Requirements
Pipeline diameter
The delivery pressure and volumetric flowrate of the air mover must be
specified.
The delivery pressure required is the sum of the following pressure drops:
Transmission line
Feeder
Conveying line
Air filter
Safety margin
where:
o o 5 o
T2 = discharge temperature ( K), K = ( F + 460)
9
o o o
T1 = suction temperature ( K), K = C + 273
P2 = discharge pressure (psia or bara)
P1 = suction pressure (psia or bara)
and:
Ni = isentropic efficiency,
o
T2 * = actual air outlet temperature ( K),
and:
T1, T2 as defined above.
P1V1
Vo = 2.695
T1
where:
The volumetric flowrate required for conveying is determined from the air
mass flowrate established in Section 8.4.2, Pipeline Design. Care must be
taken to allow for the compression effects on temperature, if necessary.
In the USA, inlet or free air conditions for fans are 1 ATM (14.7 PSIA) and
o o o
70oF (21.1 C), not 1 ATM (1.01 bar) and 59 F (15 C).
Once the duty for the air mover has been established, in terms of delivery
pressure and volumetric flowrate, the most suitable type may be selected.
As shown in Figure 8-35 the operating characteristic for fans is not ideal for
pneumatic conveying. The air rate is very dependent upon the line pressure
drop. If the solids feedrate increases, the pressure drop increases and the air
rate drops. Beware of flat fan curves for centrifugal fans in conveying
service. A small variation in solids loading will cause the fan to go to static
"no delivery" or become unstable. As a result fans are only used for short
distance dilute phase conveying. The operating characteristics for positive
displacement machines are much steeper, making them much more suitable
for pneumatic conveying. Where fans are to be used, the fan curves should
be steeper than those used in typical exhaust or air handling service.
Table 8-3
Figure 8-34
Figure 8-35
Table 8-4
1) Filters should be provided on the air mover inlet. They should be sized
to handle 150 % of the design flow.
2) Inlet and outlet silencers should be provided. They should be located a
minimum distance from the air mover.
3) Air movers that service pressure systems shall be oil free.
4) Air movers for blow tanks must bypass the tanks or be shutdown during
the filling cycle. Short cycles favor the use of a bypass to avoid possible
overheating from frequent starting.
In general, the finer the particles to be separated, the greater the cost of the gas-
solid separation equipment. The effect of particle degradation must be
considered in specifying the separation equipment. Particle degradation may
significantly alter the particle size distribution of the material being conveyed,
increasing the fines content as shown in Figure 8-36. In some cases minimizing
the particle degradation (e.g., by minimizing particle velocity, using long radius
bends etc.,) may enable the specification and cost of the separation equipment to
be reduced.
Figure 8-36
Care must be taken to specify the filter for the maximum loadings (dust, air
flowrate) anticipated, especially with some dense phase systems, where a surge
may occur as the solid plug leaves the conveying line.
Suitable when the bulk material is relatively large (> 0.1 in/3 mm dia.,
3 3
density > 62 lb/ft //1,000 kg/m ) and does not contain fine dust. In relatively
low velocity dense phase systems the product bin itself may act as the fall-
out vessel. If excessive re-entrainment of the collected particles is to be
avoided the gas velocity should decrease to 9.8 ft/sec/3 m/sec or less. If low
density or fibrous materials are present a mesh separating screen may be
fitted at an angle across the direction of gas flow.
b) Cyclones
High throughput cyclones collect particles down to 0.003 in/80 mm; high
efficiency cyclones remove particles down to 0.001 in/30 mm.
c) Fabric Filters
Fabric filters are used to remove fine particles (< 0.004 in/100 mm dia.),
especially those of low density. They are frequently used to supplement
gravity settling chambers and cyclones, by removing any remaining fines
before the exhaust is vented to atmosphere. In negative pressure systems
they must be used - usually downstream of a cyclone - to protect the
exhauster from the ingress of dust, especially if it is a Roots-type rotary
blower. Compressors and rotary lob blowers require inlet cartridge filters to
ensure no particles or dust enters the blower or compressor, which may
damage them.
The first two methods are batch processes, requiring isolation of the filter
during cleaning. Reverse Pulse Jet Cleaning occurs continuously, without
interruption of the separation process. It involves regular short (0.1 sec)
pulses of high pressure air (87-109 psig/6-75 barg) directed down the inside
of the filter tube, momentarily reversing the direction of air flow and flexing
the fabric. It is superior to the other techniques because it results in the
smallest filter size - there is no need to allocate additional filter area to allow
for downtime during cleaning. Typically air to cloth ratios depend on the
particle size, the finer the material the less air used. For a granular material
3 2
such as sugar 8 ft /min of air is required per ft of cloth; for a finer material
3 2
such as talc, 2 ft /min of air is required per ft of cloth.
d) HEPA Filtration
In cases where the particles may pose a toxic or other health hazard, HEPA
(high efficiency particulate air filters) may be required as the final step. By
definition, HEPA filters give a particle removal efficiency of at least 99.97 %
-5
for 1x10 in/0.3 mm particles. Pre-filtration should ensure that the HEPA
-5 -5
filters are protected from lint particles ≥ 4x10 - 8x10 in/1-2 m dia., and
-6 3 3
dust concentrations > 1.4x10 lb/ft /23 mg/m .
A proper storage silo, bin or hopper must be designed to allow for free discharge,
considering the material characteristics of the particular solid. The most
important characteristics include particle size, bulk density, moisture content,
angle of repose, and cohesiveness. Inlets should in the center of the roof to allow
o
for even weight distribution. Steep (60 angle or better) bottom cones are usually
required to ensure discharge even with relatively free-flowing powders.
Mechanical bin dischargers, aeration devices, or specialized mass flow bottom
designs are used to prevent rat-holing and bridging from occurring in the silo and
ensure discharge. Sufficient freeboard (usually about 2 ft. over the top of the
pile) must be allowed when at the maximum fill level to account for the angle of
repose of the material. The characteristic angle of repose of the material should
be considered when choosing the location of the bin high level switch. Load
o
cells are also widely used to sense level in silos. Silos usually have shallow (15
angle) cone roofs. These roofs are required only to prevent water from entering
the silo and to support the silo vent filter. Some silo roofs double as the relief
panel, or are lift-off to allow for relief in the event of dust explosions. Blending
silos are specialized silos designed to blend different grades of plastic pellets to
produce a uniform specification material. This method is used to work-off off-
grade material by blending it with good material such that the entire blend is
within specification. Blending is accomplished by gravity flow in the silo,
sometimes in combination with pneumatic recirculation loops.
The first step toward designing a pneumatic conveying system to perform a given
function is to collect all the data necessary to define the system. One equipment
manufacturer requests the following list of information as a minimum before
starting his own analysis. The list is in some ways incomplete but suggests the
overall complexity of the problem.
Plant Location
Attitude
Ambient Temperature Range
Material to be Conveyed
Type/Name of Material
Bulk Density
Particle Specific Gravity
Particle Size Distribution (Sieve Analysis)
Angle of Repose
Properties - Hygroscopic, Friable, Abrasive, Toxic, Explosive in air, etc.
Maximum Allowable Temperature
Allowable Contamination
Conveying Data
Conveying Rate and Time
Number of Feed Points
Number of Delivery Points
Conveying Fluid
Type of Metal in Contact
Type of System
a) Product Characteristics
These properties, together with particle size, are used to determine the
minimum velocity needed to prevent plugging in the transfer lines. They
are also used to size rotary valves and other volumetric feeding devices.
The bulk density should be determined in a loose state. Some products
will settle and compact in storage. If the product tends to aerate, and
exhibits a lowered bulk density, then the aerated bulk density should also
be known.
Three size characteristics of the product are important, i.e., the minimum,
mean, and maximum size particles. A product with uniform size
particles will tend to be easy to fluidize and can be expected to lend itself
to dense phase as well as to dilute phase conveying. If large size
particles are to be handled in dilute phase transport, the minimum
3) Sliding Friction
With dilute phase conveying of soft materials the use of extremely long
radius elbows is suggested to reduce centrifugal forces along the pipe
wall. Special receivers or oversized cyclone collectors may also be
required to reduce such forces. Finally, deceleration chambers are
needed to allow the product to slow down before entering the terminal
receiver, all the while holding velocities to an absolute minimum.
5) Explosion Hazards
6) Static Electricity
(a)
Coal dust is an explosion hazard if the conveying gas contains more than 15 % volume oxygen
7) Hygroscopic Products
8) Oily Products
Trace amounts of oil can be picked up from the conveying air stream if
an oil-lubricated air blower is used. The importance of this should be
assessed prior to finalizing the conveying system design.
Filtration of the motive air or gas entering the system is necessary where
air laden dust may unduly contaminate a product such as foodstuff,
polymer, etc., or damage the air blower. Typically these filters require a
pressure drop of about 0.1-0.15 psi/7-10 mbar, which is not a large drop
when a positive displacement blower is to be used. However, filters
must be sized for the particular service to prevent excessive maintenance
and to retain the system's conveying capacity for a long operating period.
Slow the product down. Increase the line size before reaching the
bend(c). A 10 pipe diameters length run should be sufficient for the
enlarged portion oftheline.
(b)
On a large system (8-10 in / 200-250 mm diameter pipe) a single bend can add as much as 25 BHP / 18.6 kw to the blower
driver operating requirements.
(c)
This is said to be more popular in Europe where the metric lines are made in smaller size increments than the ASA sizes used
as U.S. standards.
Make a transition to a harder material for the bend than for the
straight pipe.
6) Certain published literature shows the use of sloped lines (45-60° from
the horizontal) to convey solids to a higher elevation. This is a
dangerous practice and should be avoided. With this configuration the
solids will be thrown along the bottom portion of the pipe, collect, and
create a slugging condition accompanied by a lot of line vibration.
7) With materials that are not too easily fluidizable and which tend to settle
out in the transfer line, consider using a reverse bend of about 5o
following the normal horizontal bend (a modified "S" curve) to reentrain
the solids into the conveying gas.
8) The ducting for pneumatic conveying systems is normally designed for
ease of replacement. Lightweight, thin wall construction is commonly
used for the straight sections of the system. Schedule 10 steel pipe may
be used with the more abrasive materials, but aluminum is far easier to
fabricate and so is used where compatible with the product. Elbows, etc.,
are usually of stainless steel even when aluminum straight sections are
used.
9) Attempt to standardize on the size and shape of elbows and other critical
parts subject to excessive wear from erosion so that they can be used
interchangeably and the spare parts inventory can be kept to a minimum.
10) Most transfer systems do not need much structural support because they
are relatively light in weight. Couplings are used to make up sections of
the transfer line so that it can be dismantled easily for inspection and
cleaning. These connectors allow some flexibility for line expansion;
but, because they are compression-type fittings, it is especially important
to anchor the elbows at strategic locations to prevent joint separation.
Use flanged spools in 20-30 ft runs on rack and outdoor installations and
12-16 ft. spools indoors. This will allow better operability and
maintainability.
all such parts. Typically flange spools are used; 20-30 ft/6-9 m runs on
rack and outdoor installations; 12-16 ft/4-5 m runs for indoor
installations.
12) Several line sizes which are considered to be nonstandard for the
petroleum industry are commonly used with pneumatic conveying
systems.
A five inch line size is used quite often in bulk handling systems. For
example, bulk trucks which handle cement use 127 mm/5-inch
conveying systems to be able to unload rapidly (within a half hour).
32 mm/1¼ in and 64 mm/2½ in line sizes have also been used. These
sizes are not difficult to obtain, but their use is not necessarily
recommended.
c) Control Schemes
Control schemes for most pneumatic conveying systems are very simple
ones. Position switches are usually provided on diverter valves. Most gas
suppliers have temperature limits on both suction and discharge. High
temperature shutdowns or alarms are not typically required for suppliers
unless the system is a closed loop. Some materials are heat sensitive at
normal supplier discharge temperatures. Some blowers and compressors
have very high exhaust temperatures due to heat of compression (approx.
o
13 F per psi of compression). Aftercoolers are typically required on rotary
lobe blowers in plastic pellet conveying applications. The discharge
temperature would then be controlled to remove this compression heat. High
pressure (or high vacuum) can be used to signal a line pluggage. Closed loop
systems control the minimum pressure in the loop to minimize gas make-up
rates. Pressure relief is required to protect silos, bins and hoppers, which are
designed for very low pressures (12" W.C. or lower). Explosion panels are
usually included on cyclones and dust collectors. Another consideration is
for controlled start-ups especially for closed-loop systems. It is important
that rotary lobe blowers not experience large pressure differentials at start-
up; pulling a vacuum on the suction of a rotary lobe blower at start-up could
cause the rotor lobes to touch, destroying the blower. Typically a bypass is
provided for start-up in constant speed blowers, or variable speed drives may
be employed.
8.5.1 Introduction
Where the conveying pipe is not strong enough to withstand an explosion, the
conveying would have to be carried out using an inert conveying medium
because venting would be impracticable.
Pneumatic conveying systems generally offer greater safety to operators than any
other type of bulk handling system. They are cleaner, offering less exposure to
operators. Typically dust explosions do not occur in operating pneumatic
conveying lines. The reason for this observation is two-fold; first, the material
loading is usually higher than the upper explosion limit, and second the velocity
is usually too high for flame propagation (i.e., it blows itself out). The four
requirements for a dust explosion include: 1) dust must collect in the facility,
2) dust must be suspended in air at a concentration above the lower explosion
limit, 3) the dust suspension must be ignited, and 4) sufficient dust to sustain
combustion must be in close proximity to the ignited dust. Static electricity and
motors or switch gear not designed for dusty environments are prime ignition
sources. Explosion vents are typically used to protect equipment, but must be
vented outside buildings or other enclosures to prevent secondary explosions
from ordinary nuisance dusts which may accumulate due to poor housekeeping.
Explosion suppression systems have also been used, but care must be taken to
ensure that the devices do not discharge undetected. If this happens, the next
explosion may not be suppressed since the device will already have discharged.
Closed loop systems have even lower explosion risk when an inert atmosphere is
used. In destination silos, bins, hoppers, and dust collectors it is another story,
especially when the system is not operating. During times when the system is
not operating, conditions could occur to cause a dust explosion. Equipment and
piping must be thoroughly grounded even at sight glasses and hose connections,
and explosion relief panels must be furnished. Atmospheric inerting may be
insufficient as the system could be exposed to air during maintenance. One must
then remove the fuel, or provide a fire control system (sprinklers) to satisfy the
NFPA code. Information from a number of sources on the relative explosiveness
of some materials is included in 8.7.26 - Appendix 26. Additionally, a list of
materials and their relative explosiveness is included in the reading file from the
U.S. Bureau of Mines (1961). This manual gives a detailed method for the sizing
of explosion vent areas.
In enclosed vessels the pressures generated by these explosions can reach 10 barg
for organic dusts and higher still for metal dusts such as aluminum. These high
pressures cannot be tolerated by most dust handling equipment and therefore
protection methods must be considered.
Using nitrogen, carbon dioxide or other suitable gases the oxygen content is
reduced to below the minimum required to support combustion (typically
< 6 - 15 %). This method is expensive, it requires a closed system to
conserve the inert gas and continuous monitoring of the oxygen content.
c) Containment
The vessels and associated pipework are built to withstand the maximum
pressure. This is expensive, except in very small systems.
This method is widely used, it is relatively simple and cheap to install. Vents
provided in the walls of the vessel allow dust and combustion products to
escape, limiting the pressure rise to an acceptable level.
e) Suppression
In some cases venting is unacceptable (If the dust is toxic or corrosive for
example). The start of the explosion is detected by instruments which trigger
the release of fire suppressants.
There are a number of conditions that must be satisfied simultaneously for a dust
explosion to occur.
When all of the these conditions are satisfied the hazard from a dust
explosion is dependent upon the explosibility of the dust, the volume and
characteristics of the vessel and the degree of turbulence in the vessel.
The explosibility of the dust can be measured in the laboratory using the
standard 201 sphere. The maximum rate of pressure rise (dP/dt) max bar/s and
the maximum explosion pressure in an enclosed explosion, Pmax are measured
dP 1/ 3
KST = V
dt
max
where:
3
V = the vessel volume in m
This equation is referred to as the cube root law. The KST value is defined as
the maximum rate of pressure rise measured under standard conditions in
3
1 m vessel, and is used to characterize the explosibility of the dust by
reference to four groups. See Table 8-5.
Table 8-5
The Chilworth Laboratory at Southampton University, UK, carries out this type
of work. Other laboratories in the UK can be found in the IChemE Guide to Dust
Explosion, Prevention and Protection Part 1 by Dr C. Schofield.
Alternatively the Health and Safety Executive (HSE) can be consulted or their
equivalent in Europe. In the USA the Environmental Protection Agency can be
consulted.
The basic principle of venting is that if a dust explosion occurs in a vessel a vent
of sufficient area should open rapidly allowing unburnt dust and explosion
products to escape, thus limiting the pressure rise to an acceptable level. The
acceptable pressure rise is determined by the requirement that the vessel does not
rupture and in some cases does not deform.
There is no single method for sizing vents to cover all eventualities. The most
widely used methods are considered below:
AREA OF VENT, m 2
VENT RATIO =
VOLUME OF VESSEL, m 3
3
For vessels up to 30 m recommended vent ratios are given below in
Table 8-6.
Table 8-6
It will be appreciated that for larger vessels the vent areas can be large and
difficult to accommodate. The large areas arise because the vent ratio
method is based on rapid flame propagation throughout the whole vessel
volume rather than a spherical flame front from a single ignition source. In
reality such a high degree of turbulence and fragmentation of the flame front
is unlikely to occur throughout the whole vessel volume, resulting in
overgenerous vent sizing. For larger vessels the vent ratio is modified as
shown in Table 8-7.
Table 8-7
VENT RATIO DATA - LARGE VESSELS
3
VOLUME RANGE, m MODIFICATION
30 - 300 Vent Ratio reduced Linearly from 1/6 to 1/25
300 - 600 Half Area of Top
(silos) (Full Area for More Explosive Dusts)
> 700 Full Area of Top
The following list is of specific applications of the vent ratio method and the
necessary conditions.
The maximum reduced explosion pressure will not exceed 0.03 barg and
2
the vent cover will not weigh more than 25 kg/m .
Discharge ducts, if incorporated, are less than 3 m long, (vent ducts are
not recommended for very weak vessels).
The vent ratio method was used for many years in the UK and USA to
determine vent areas.
From this equation the relationship between vent area (F) and vessel volume
(V) was deduced.
F1 V22 / 3
F2 =
V12 / 3
where:
F1 = vent area on the test vessel necessary to limit the pressure rise to
the prescribed value
The scale up of test data for different conditions and for the different St
classes of dust has been simplified by the provision of a series of
nomographs in Figures 8-37A thru 8-37C. A similar series of nomographics
is shown in Figures 8-38A thru 8-38C based on the KST values.
2 3
To determine the vent area F, m for a vessel of volume V, m the following
information is required:
It is assumed the vent cover has low inertia with an area density less than
2
10 kg/m . The use of the nomograph is illustrated in Figure 8-39.
Figure 8-37A
Figure 8-37B
Figure 8-37C
Figure 8-38A
Figure 8-38B
Figure 8-38C
Specific areas for the application of the nomograph method and necessary
conditions are summarized as:
c) K Factor Method
It has been shown for compact rectangular vessels the maximum explosion
pressure in a vented vessel was related to the vent area.
Av
Pmax K Note: K is not the same as Kst
F
where:
F = the vent area
Av = the cross sectional area of the vessel
The specific areas of application for the K factor method and the necessary
conditions are summarized below:
Figure 8-39
The vessel L/D ratio should be less than 5:1 (3:1 for weak vessels).
The method in the IChemE guide makes no allowance for vent ducts.
This is a fourth alternative for calculating vent areas. It is based on the flame
front being spherical initially and then determined by the vessel shape. It has
been used for plant handling soap and detergent powders. It is particularly
useful for weak explosions (St1).
a) Weak Vessels
b) Weak Explosions
KST < 50 bar/s (approx). The St Nomograph will overestimate the required
vent size, hence the KST Nomograph or the Rust method should be used.
c) Turbulence
d) Internal Obstructions
This has a similar effect to turbulence. Internal obstructions can impede the
passage of flame towards the vent. Tests may be required to find the
optimum location for the vent.
e) Vent Location
The vent should be located so that the flame front is unimpeded and the
flame front area must never be reduced so that it is less than the area of the
vent. The required vent area can be made up of smaller vents if required,
providing the total area and the opening pressure are adequate.
The vent location is influenced by requirement to vent the unburnt dust and
the combustion products to a safe place.
f) Vessel Shape
The nomograph method is most appropriate for conical vessels and the K
factor method for cylindrical vessels.
The activation pressure for the vent must be significantly different from the
normal operating pressure to avoid the vent opening during normal operation.
i) Interconnected Vessels
Where two vessels are connected by a pipe a dust explosion in one vessel
will be communicated to the second vessel, if it cannot be isolated. In the
second vessel, precompression and increased turbulence will enhance the rate
of pressure rise. The following procedure isrecommended by the IChemE
Guide to Dust Explosions, Prevention and Protection Part 1 Section 5.9:
j) Vent Ducts
2) The effect of the duct on the vessel pressure is illustrated in Figure 8-41.
The increase due to the vent duct is large and could cause the vessel to
rupture. The IChemE Guide makes the following recommendations:
Vent ducts should be as short as possible in length - ideally less than
3 m in length.
The pressure rise in the vessel should be estimated on the basis given
in Figure 8-41.
If the pressure rise due to the duct is unacceptable the size of the vent
should be increased accordingly.
The cross sectional area of the duct should be the same or up to 10 %
greater than the vent size. An increase in cross sectional area in the
direction of flow is beneficial.
Vent cross section can be any shape (for rectangular vents up to 5:1
aspect ratio is acceptable) - circular ducts are often preferred because
of the greater strength for the same gauge metal.
There should be no change in shape of the vent duct along its length
that could impede the flow of combustion products or the movement
of vent covers.
The vent duct should be straight because of the unpredictable effects
of bends. Short bends of long radius may be acceptable to divert the
discharge but expert guidance should be sought.
The vent duct should be constructed to have the same pressure-shock
resistance as the vessel being protected.
Figure 8-41
a) Silos
Silos may operate full or partially full. For the purpose of sizing vents the
total free volume should be used as more dust is likely to be generated under
empty conditions.
Vents in side walls are not recommended, the vent should be located in the top
cover. For the purpose of sizing the vents for cylindrical silos the vent activating
pressure should be 0.1 barg and a maximum reduced pressure of 0.2 barg could
be expected to be within the strength capabilities of typical silos.
The nomograph and K factor methods should be used to size the vent. Both
of these methods are limited to vessels with L/D < 5, which will limit the
height of the silo. If the L/D is very high, sufficient pressure may be
developed to damage the silo before the flame front reaches the vent. For
vessels with L/D ratio close to or just above 5, or where the dust cloud could
be turbulent, the whole cross sectional area should be used for venting.
b) Cyclones
The dust cloud in a cyclone is concentrated close to the outer wall. The
volume occupied by an explosible dust cloud will therefore be much smaller
than the volume of the cyclone, and the vent areas determined by the usual
methods will appear conservative. However, there are occasions where an
explosion downstream may course a "blow-back" which would disrupt the
normal air flow resulting in a uniform distribution of dust. Hence to
determine the vent area the whole cyclone volume should be used as this is
the worst case.
The K factor and nomograph methods are recommended for vent sizing, if
the cyclone can withstand a reduced pressure greater than 0.2 barg.
The position of the vent is important. The most favorable position for the
vents is around the top surface of the cyclone body (Figure 8-42). It is
essential the construction and installation of the vent covers does not cause
turbulence in the air flow, which could affect the cyclone performance. In a
typical high-throughput cyclone the area available for venting on the top
surface is about 50 % of the cross sectional area, therefore a K factor of 2 can
be readily accepted.
Vents are sometimes fitted on top of the vortex tube see (Figure 8-43). In
this position explosion pressures will be higher than in the alternative
position and the vortex tube needs to be strong enough to avoid being
damaged by an explosion in the body of the cyclone.
Under normal operating conditions the dust concentration entering the bag or
fabric filter will be well below the lower explosive limits. However, during
fabric cleaning high dust concentrations occur locally and any disturbance of
the system would cause dust to be re-entrained from the sides of the vessel
and from the material collected in the hopper. Ignition is commonly caused
by sparks or smoldering material conveyed from the upstream processes.
This may cause explosion directly, or burning may spread from smoldering
material under the influence of higher air velocities close to the fabric filter.
It is generally believed the ignition is most likely to occur in the hopper.
It is recommended that vents are located on the dirty side of the filter close to
the hopper. In general the vent sizing should be based on a reduced pressure
of 0.35 barg or less depending on the design in question. The clean side
should be provided with vents, especially if the clean side volume is greater
than about 50 % of the dirty side volume - this additional vent area should be
sized based on the clean side volume.
If the vent on a filter is activated it is important that the fan is switched off
automatically and stopped quickly to limit the spread of the combustion.
Additionally, fire extinguishing is recommended to stop the fabric bags
continuing to burn.
d) Conveying Pipeline
In the event of an explosion the conveyor and its feed should be shutdown.
Figure 8-42
The conveying air should be taken from a clean ignition free source. Blower,
fan, pump or compressor motors should be fitted with an overload trip.
Detectors which initiate shutdown if hot material or sparks are detected in the
feed, may be installed at the feed point.
At start-up the air supply should first be established and then powder fed in
at its optimum rate as quickly as possible.
At shutdown the powder supply should be stopped quickly and the air
continued until all the powder has been removed.
Pneumatic conveying lines should not contain any dead areas where dust can
accumulate.
b) Storage Bins
All metal storage bins are preferred if the material is sensitive to ignition by
static electricity. The resistance to earth should be less than 10 ohms and
should be checked regularly. Special precautions may be necessary for
plastic containers for high resistivity powders (see BS5958).
Metal items such as chain measures or metal tapes should not be lowered into the
bin. Level indicators of approved dust tight design should be used. They must
be adequately earthed and electricity supply cables should not run inside the bin.
Material feed to the bin should be shut off if it contains excessively hot
material. Infrared sensors may be used to detect hot material.
Cutting and welding preparations on the bin should only be carried out in
accordance with the Factories Act 1961 Subsection 31(4).
c) Dust Filters
All metal collecting bins are preferred. The resistance to earth should be less
than 10 ohms and should be regularly checked. Special precautions may be
necessary for high resistivity powders. BS5958 gives details.
Filter bags made from epitropic fibers, which conduct electricity can be used
to prevent the build up of static electricity on the bags, but steps must be
taken to ensure that the bags are earthed.
The use of filter bags which incorporate metal wires into the weave, requires
some caution, because if the connection between a metal wire and earth is
broken (by wear) the isolated wire will create an electrostatic hazard.
Material feed to the filter should be shut off if it contains excessively hot
material. Infrared sensors may be used to detect hot material. Filters
collecting materials liable to spontaneous heating should have provision for
being discharged in isolation for the rest of the plant.
Cutting and welding operations on the collecting bin should only be carried
out in accordance with the Factories Act 1961 Subsection 31(4).
8.5.7 Inerting
Inerting is of particular use for very strongly explosible dusts (KST > 600 bar
s-1). It is also used where flammable solvent vapors are present.
The design of inert gas systems requires estimates of leakage rates from plant
items and of the efficiency of gas mixing in the plant. It is recommended
that the advice of a specialist is sought.
The term "inerting" is also used in some instances to describe the technique
whereby combustible dusts are made noncombustible by diluting them with
an inert dust such as calcium sulphate, limestone, sodium bicarbonate,
common salt, various silicates or stonedust. Such materials may act as a heat
sink or otherwise interfere with the flame propagation. The technique is
readily applicable where unwanted by-product materials, or other materials
for which some contamination is acceptable, are involved. In most cases
more than 60 % diluent dust is required: in some cases considerably more is
required. Furthermore the diluent dust must be intimately mixed with the
explosible dust. Diluent dust inerting is not widely used except in coal
mines.
c) Inerting Gases
Typical inert gases used include nitrogen, carbon dioxide, argon, helium and
flue gases.
Cost
Availability of supply
Reliability of supply
Table 8-8
Carbon Dioxide Readily available in compressed form, Some metal dusts react violently with
from proprietary inert gas generators, Carbon Dioxide (e.g., aluminum).
and in some cases as a waste gas from
on-site processes. Flow of Carbon Dioxide can generate
considerable electrostatic charge.
Effective - higher oxygen levels (per
cent by volume) are permissible
compared with nitrogen
Moderate cost.
Flue gases Often readily available as a waste gas Requires additional equipment to:
from on-site generators.
Cool the gas
Often available at low cost. Remove contaminants
Monitor or remove combustible vapors
Remove incandescent material.
NFPA Code 91, Standard for the Installation of Blower and Exchange Systems for Dust,
Stock and Vapor Removals or Conveying
NFPA Code 650, Pneumatic Conveying Systems for Handling Combustible Materials
BRE Fire Research Station, Fire Research Notes 992, Dust Explosion Hazards in
Pneumatic Transport (K N Palmer)
Perry, R.H., Chemical Engineers' Handbook, pp. 7-17 to 7-25, 6th Edition, 1984
Mills, David; Pneumatic Conveying Design Guide, Butterworths, Sevenoaks, Kent, UK,
1990
Bohnet, M; Advances in the Design Pneumatic Conveyors, Int. Chem. Eng., July 1985,
25 (3), 387-405
Krambrock, W; Dense Phase Pneumatic Conveying, Ger. Chem. Eng., (Engl. Transl.),
July 1983, 6(4), 199-210
Kraus, M.N., Pneumatic Conveying Systems, Chem. Eng. (Int. Ed), 13 October 1986,
93(19), 50-61
Kraus, M.N., Pneumatic Conveying Systems for Bulk Materials, 3rd Edition
Mills, D., Troubleshooting Pneumatic Conveying (Part 1), Chem. Eng. (Int. Ed),
June 1990, 97 (6), 93-102, 105
Mills, D., Troubleshooting Pneumatic Conveying (Part 2), Chem. Eng. (Int. Ed), July
1991, 97(7), 101-107
Mills, D., Pneumatic Conveying: Cost Effective Design, Chem. Eng. (Int. Ed), February
1990, 97(2), 70-82
Thompson, F.M., Dense Phase Pneumatic Conveying, Chem. Process, (Chicago), May
1985, 51(6), 52-54, 57-59
Zenz, F.A., Othmer, D.F., Fluidized and Solid Particle Systems, Reinhold Pub. Co., New
York
8.7 APPENDICES
Dilute phase design calculation methods include the Zenz-Othmer method, the
Fischer-Gerchow method, the Fan Engineering method, the short-cut method
used at Fluor Daniel, the Modified Allied Flotronics method and the Konno-Saito
correlation recommended by PSRI. All of these methods involve some form of
energy balance equation analogous to the Bernoulli equation in fluid hydraulics.
The Fischer-Gerchow and Fan Engineering methods focus on a momentum
equation which use empirical material friction factors. These material factors are
usually proportional to the tangent of the angle of repose. The Zenz-Othmer and
Konno-Saito methods use the gas frictional loss and a material to gas loading
ratio, avoiding the empirical factors, but producing conservative solutions.
Dense phase design calculation methods include various graphical phase diagram
methods, the Zenz-Othmer method (for two-phase "dune" or "wave" flow), and
the PSRI method (for "slug" or "piston" flow).
The three basic parameters calculated for pneumatic conveying systems are
conveying line size, system pressure drop, and gas mover horsepower. Each
calculation method will be described, and some sample problems will be
performed.
8.7.2 Appendix 2 :
A dilute phase pressure system uses air to convey 50,000 lb/hr of a low density
3
(35 lb/ft ) polyethylene pellet. The pellet is a 1/8" diameter sphere. The air
o
supply pipe is 120 ft horizontal run, 20 ft vertical run, with (3) 90 mitered
o
elbows and (1) 45 mitered elbow. The material pipe is 150 ft horizontal, 75 ft
o o o o
vertical, with (4) 90 bends, (1) 45 bend, (1) 15 bend, and (1) 30 diverter
valve. Calculate the diameter of the pipe required.
Bear in mind that velocity increases with decreasing gas density as the gas flows
down the pipe. All calculations are based on the average system velocity.
Note: For this system a blower was purchased for 2,468 SCFM and a design P of 8 psi. The
design P included suction piping, inlet muffler, discharge muffler, cooler and filter pressure drops.
The blower was equipped with a 125 hp motor.
APPENDICES
This is a rapid method which is handy to use for a preliminary selection of a line
size and an estimate of the pressure drop for the system. The shortcut method is
limited only to conventional dilute phase pneumatic conveying systems.
Procedural steps in the calculation procedure are as follows:
Assumptions
Table 8-9A
0 to 250 ft. 45 to 60
250 to 500 30 to 40
Solids Loading Factor range is for systems operating at between 0 to 10 psig
3
For materials with bulk densities of 55 lb./ft. or less with maximum particle
sizes up to 1/8", the following average velocities may be used:
Table 8-9B
lb 144in 2 xW
W =
sec .ft 2 ft 2 x 60 xA
where:
where:
3
P(g) = gas density, lb./ft.
P = pressure drop, psi
Then Solids/Gas Ratio R = 60W/(p(g)V1)
where:
6) Calculate the Solids Pressure Drop for Average System Pressure and
Solids/Gas Ratio:
Pavg. = (P1 + P2)/2, (Psia)
Note: (1) For equivalent length of system, use total horizontal and
o
vertical length plus an allowance of 50 ft. for each 90 elbow.
o
For two 45° elbows use the equivalent of one 90 elbow.
Figure 8-44
Figure 8-45
Assumptions:
Calculations
2
From Table 8-9A, target solids loading is between 30 to 40 lb./sec./ft. .
144 x833.3 2
= A = 50.0 in. (Table 8-10, Appendix 8)
60 x50.0
2
= 39.9 lb./sec./ft.
P = 5.0 Psi
p(g) = 29(14.7+dP)/(10.73T(abs))
3
= 29(14.7 Psia+5 Psi)/(10.73(460+70oF))=0.10 lb./ft.
6) Solids Pressure Drop for Average System Pressure and Solids/Gas Ratio:
Note that an 8 inch Schedule 10 pipe would decrease the P from 5.5 psi to 5.0 psi. If
Schedule 10 pipe is cost effective and sufficient erosion protection is provided then use
an 8 inch Schedule 10 pipe.
This method was developed in the Houston Office of Fluor Daniel based on
stepwise method received unofficially from Allied Flotronics. Allied Flotronics
used this method in an unofficial, but widely distributed computer program using
a Lotus 1-2-3 spreadsheet template. There are at least two releases (one for
windows) of the Flotronics software circulating within Fluor Daniel. The fate of
this program is uncertain at best since it is unofficial, undocumented, and the
source company no longer exists having been recently absorbed by a competitor.
There are also known problems with the original Flotronics software as it
underestimates line sizes in vacuum systems. The Fluor Daniel Modified
Flotronics Method spreadsheet is attractive for preliminary estimates because it is
relatively user friendly, and is very fast. However, it has only been validated for
LDPE pressure systems.
Assumptions:
Pipe Size: 2" 3" 4" 5" 6" 8" 10" 12"
Le, Ft.: 6 10 11 14 17 22 27 34
P2 = 14.7 Psia
1/2 1/2
V1 = C800(p(b)) (14.7/P1) (1+(Le/10,000))
3 1/2 1/2
V1 = (1.1)800(35lb./ft. ) (14.7Psia/18.7Psia) (1+(335 ft./
10,000)) = 4,776 ft./min.
2
Q = V2(A) = 6,050 ft./min.(0378 ft. ) = 2,287 Scfm
3 3 3
p(g)a = (0.095 lb./ft. +0.075 lb./ft. )/2 = 0.085 lb./ft.
0.42 2
dP100 = [0.0035+(0.264/(114.8Dt(Va)(p(g)a ))]p(g)a(Va) /(6,955Dt)
R = Ws/(60Q0.075)
= 50,000 lb./hr./(60(2,287 Scfm)0.075)
= 4.86 lb. Solids/lb. Gas
2
dPa = 5e-10W(V2) /Q
2
= 5e-10(50,000 lb./hr.)(6,050 ft./min.) /2,287 Scfm
= 0.40 Psi
= 0.23 Psi
dP1 = 0.007((W/60)+Q(0.075))L/Q
= 0.007((50,000 lb./hr./60)+(2,287 Scfm)(0.075))(75 ft.)/
2,287 Scfm
= 0.23 Psi
The Fischer-Gerchow method calculates the gas friction loss and the solids
moving loss. The total system loss is the total of these two losses. Air friction
losses are normally read from tables or charts using the average gas velocity. A
pressure drop and gas density must be assumed at the beginning, and then
checked against the final total. The procedure is a trial and error procedure.
Solids losses include acceleration losses, elevation losses, horizontal losses, and
elbow (fitting) losses.
Assumptions
2
(4,000 ft./min.)(0.378 ft. ) = 1,512 Acfm at pickup point
2
(6,000 ft./min.)(0.378 ft. ) = 2,268 Scfm at the endpoint
where:
f(s) = solids friction factor = tangent of angel of repose;
The angle of repose for LDPE is 32o, so Tan 32o = 0.625
E4 = (Mv2/gR)(L)(f(s))n
= 50,000 lb./hr.(5,000 ft./min.2/((60 min./hr.)
(32.2 ft./sec.2(8 ft.)
x (2)PI(R/4)(0.625)5 = 882,100 ft.-lb./min.
where:
L = bend length = 2PI(R/4)
n = number of equivalent bends = 4+((30o+15o+45o)/90o) = 5
E5 = E1 + E2 + E3 + E4 = 1,112,494 ft.-lb./min.; Q
From the friction loss chart (Figure 28), at 1,512 Acfm (or 4,000 ft./min.)
and an 8.3 pipe I.D., loss = 3.1 In. W.C. per 100 ft.
Fitting loss, from Fluor Chart 101C-9 in Process Manual Vol. V, for 90o
miters in 45o increments. (See Section 5.0 of Hydraulics Book 2 for
currently used methodology).
Using 20 % Safety Factor, Loss = 1.2(0.57 Psi) = 0.06 Psi = 1.66 In.
W.C.
Total Air Friction Loss = (3.1 In. W.C./100 ft.)(140 ft.)+1.66 In.
W.C. = 6 In. W.C.
From the friction loss chart (Figure 28), at 2,268 Scfm (or 6,000 ft./min.)
and an 8.3 pipe I.D., loss = 6.45 In. W.C. per 100 ft.
Fitting loss, from Fluor Chart 101C-10 in Process Manual Vol. V, for an
8 ft. radius bend, at 8 ft. x 12/8 = 12, so Ks = 0.10 (extrapolated to R/D =
12), So the Loss =
Using 20 % Safety Factor, Loss = 1.2(0.047 Psi) = 0.06 Psi = 1.58 In.
W.C.
Total Air Friction Loss = (6.45 In. W.C./100 ft.)225 ft.+1.58 In W.C. =
16.1 In. W.C.
Allow 3 In. W.C. for each of (1) pickup tee, (1) receiver inlet and (1)
receiver exit So, Total = 9 In. W.C.
10) Summary:
For Size 18 Rotary Valve, Air Leakage is 120 Scfm at 5 Psi Pressure
Differential. The Total Air Flow is 2,268 Scfm+120 Scfm = 2,388 Scfm
The Fan Engineering method uses an assumed pickup velocity and pipe size to
calculate the solids to gas ratio, or loading and gas volume. Principles of
aerodynamics are used to calculate the particle floating velocity, and the particle
velocity relative to the gas. Energy equations are then used to determine the
solids and gas frictional losses. The total system loss is the total of these two
losses. Air friction losses are normally read from tables or charts using the
average gas velocity. A pressure drop and gas density must be assumed at the
beginning, and then checked against the final total. The procedure is a trial and
Assumptions
Vf = (4gp(b)D(p)/(3fdp(g)))1/2
= (4(32.174 ft./sec.2)(35 lb./ft.3)(0.01 ft.)/(3(0.5)(0.1 lb./ft.3)))1/2
= 17.3 ft./sec. = 1,040 ft./min.
2) Pickup Velocity:
From Figure 8-44, "Dilute Phase Conveying Velocities" chart, for 1/8"
3
diameter pellets and a bulk density of 35 lbs./ft. the pickup velocity is
4,800 ft./min.
TPA1 = RVm2/(2g69.4)
= 4.62 lb. Solids/lb. Gas (4,288 ft./min./
60 min./hr.)2/ (2(32.2 ft./sec.2)69.4)
= 5.28 In. W.C.
7) Horizontal Losses:
2
TP(90) = fR Vm PI/(2g69.4)
= (0.625)4.62 lb. Solids/lb. Gas (4,288ft./min./
2 2
60 ft./sec.) PI/(2(322 ft./sec. )69.4)
= 10.37 In. W.C./Bend
1 2 3 4 5 6
Ug2 g G S VS 2f gUg2L 0.057Ug g L G SL
P gL
2gc gc g CD gD0.5 VS
where:
GS
Ug g
and
1
This chart taken from Particulate Solids Research "Desktop Design Manual"
Note: If the solids and the gas are already accelerated, terms 1 and 2 should be
omitted from the calculation. Also, terms 5 and 6 should be omitted when
applying the correlation to horizontal flow.
where:
Parameter Ranges:
8 < dp 3400 m
0 < P 700 psig 0 < P < 48 bar
2 2
1 < Gs 250 lb./ft. -s 0 < Gs < 1220 kg/m -s
1.2 < D 12 in. 3.2 < D < 30.5 cm
3 3
55 < rp 490 lb./ft. 881 < rp < 7849 kg/m
Note:
1) 1. Predicts data for all Geldart Groups
2) For dp <44 mm, use 44 m (small dp's agglomerate)
3) Use D = 12 in. (30 cm) for D > 12 in. (30 cm)
Problem 7-1: Calculate the choking velocity for a vertical pneumatic conveying
system in which air is to be used to convey solids flowing at a mass flux of
60 lb./ft.2-s through a 4-in-diameter pipe. Use the following values and
conditions for the calculations:
Trial and error method: Assume values of Uch; Correct value is when the left-
hand side (LHS) equals the right-hand side (RHS) of the equation,
19.0 10.2
LHS = = 31
32.2 x 0.0025
Uch = 19 ft/s
0.3
U salt Gs
11.5
gD U salt f
where:
Usalt = Saltation Velocity, ft./s or m/s
g = gravitational constant, 32.2 ft./s2or 9.81 m/s2
D = Diameter of the Conveying Line, ft. or m
Gs = Solids Mass Flux, lb./ft.2-s or kg/m2-s
f = Gas Density, lb./ft.3 or kg/m3
dp = Particle Size, m
= Pipe inclination from the horizontal, degrees
= Function dependent on pipe inclination
= 1+0.006dp0.74 sin 2
Parameter Ranges:
Note:
1 Predicts data for all Geldart Groups
2 Use D = 17 in. (43 cm) for D > 17 in. (43 cm)
Figure 8-46
where:
Th = (W/(v(g)*p(g)))
This equation can be broken into separate terms, and can be manipulated into
more convenient terms. We will do so, taking each term separately. Also, we
will assume some values for each term in order to perform a sample calculation:
Units
dP = ((v(g)2*p(g))/(2*gc))
where:
This loss is only considered once per system, assuming no blinded tee elbows,
and one material pick-up point per system.
dP = (W*v(p)/gc)
C = 833.33 (lb./min.)
Q(g) = 2,301 (Scfm)
T = 70.0 (oF)
P1 = 4.6 (Psig)
P2 = 1.3 (Psig)
3
p(p) = 75 (lb./ft. )
3
p(g) = 0.0982 (lb./ft. )
2
A = 0.378 (ft. )
v(g) = 77.61 (ft./sec.)
v(p) = 69.85 (ft./sec.)
v(t) = 7.76 (ft./sec.)
Dpl = 0.0104 (ft.)
dt = 8.329 (inches)
dP = 0.61 (Psi)
This loss is only considered once per system, assuming no blinded tee elbows,
and one material pick-up point per system.
f(g) = 0.013961
2
dP/L = ((2f(g)*p(g)*v(g) /(gc*dt))
C= 833.33 (lb./min.)
Q(g) = 2,301 (Scfm)
o
T= 70.0 ( F)
P1 = 4.6 (Psig)
P2 = 1.3 (Psig)
3
p(g) = 0.0898 (lb./ft. )
v(g) = 77.61 (ft./sec.)
dt = 8.329 (inches)
e= 0.0018 (inches)
f(g) = 0.0140
dP/L(g) = 0.0047 (Psi/ft.)
This term is applied using the average pressure in the segment. Using inlet
pressure is an acceptable first guess. The average loss per foot is then multiplied
with the segment length to obtain the segment pressure drop. Trial and error
calculations are used to obtain the final pressure drop.
dP/L = ((0.057*v(g)*p(g)*(W/(v(g)*p(g))))/((g*dt)^0.5))
2
W = 36.71 (lb./sec.-ft. )
3
p(g) = 0.0898 (lb./ft. )
v(g) = 77.6080 (ft./sec.)
dt = 8.329 (inches)
2
gc = 32.174 (ft./sec. )
dP/L = 0.0031 (Psi/ft.)
L(horizontal) = 150 (ft.)
L (vertical) = 75 (ft.)
Number of Bends = 5
Le(bends) = 14 (ft.)/Bend
Total Le = 295 (ft.)
dP = 0.91 (Psi)
dP/L = (W/v(p))
2
W = 36.71 (lb./sec.-ft. )
v(p) = 69.8472 (ft./sec.)
dP/L = 0.0036 (Psi/ft.)
dP/L = p(g)
3
p(g) = 0.0898 (lb./ft. )
dP/L(static) = 0.0006 (Psi/ft.)
The free-fall terminal velocity is the minimum gas velocity required to suspend a
particle in a vertical pipe against gravity. If the gas velocity falls below the
choking velocity, a plug could form in the conveying line. This can happen if the
system is in between being stream and two-phase flow in some systems due to
the natural surging or slugging which happens in two phase flow. Other systems
may form weak pistons in two-phase or piston flow, and behave as fluidized beds
rather than forming pistons in vertical lines. These lines may plug under these
conditions. The pressure and vacuum spreadsheets use a test for choking
velocity to warn when the vertical lines may plug.
where:
vt = 27.61 (ft./sec.)
2
g= 32.174 (ft./sec. )
D(p)1 = 0.125 (Inches)
RHS = 19.92
Uc = 39.14 (ft./sec.)
Saltation Velocity:
Every material has a characteristic velocity at which any particle will become
entrained in the flowing gas stream, according to Stokes' Law. Restating Stokes'
Law, the particle will be suspended in the flowing gas stream depending on the
particle size, particle shape, particle density, gas density, and gas viscosity. The
particle will reach a terminal velocity with respect to the gas. This characteristic
velocity, when calculated for the largest particle, becomes known as the saltation
velocity. When the gas stream is moving at less than or equal to the saltation
velocity, the solid material will begin to disengage from the flowing gas. The
particles will fall to the pipe bottom. First, the particles will scrape along the
pipe bottom, then as the gas velocity is reduced, the particles will begin moving
in wave or dune flow. As the gas velocity is decreased more, the dunes may fill
the pipe from bottom to top, forming moving slugs or pistons. These pistons may
be either permeable or impermeable to gas. Plastic pellets or other coarse
powders with little or no fines form permeable pistons.
design of both dilute and two-phase dense phase flow systems. The second
section (Appendix 7D) is a design method developed at the Particulate Solids
Research Institute (PSRI) for piston flow dense phase systems. Both methods are
fairly analytical, require readily available information, and lend themselves to
computer type trial and error solutions.
The method of Zenz and Othmer is a versatile method which can handle vacuum
and pressure conveying systems in both dilute and two-phase (dume flow) dense
phase flow regimes. This method is somewhat conservative in two-phase flow
due to the assumption that the line pressure drop is the same for both vertical and
horizontal flow. The method below follows Solt in that the dilute phase vertical
pressure drop equation is used in an effort to account for the reduced wall friction
in vertical flow.
Dilute phase (or stream-flow) systems are those in which the gas velocity
exceeds the characteristic saltation velocity of the material being transported in
horizontal flow, and exceeds the characteristic choking velocity of the material
being transported in vertical flow. Pressure losses in dilute phase flow are the
sum of acceleration and frictional losses for both the material and gas. These
losses where calculated by Zenz and Othmer for horizontal flow (equation 11.1)
and for vertical flow (equation 11.2).
Horizontal pressure losses in dilute phase pneumatic conveying systems has been
calculated by Zenz & Othmer using equation 11.1. This equation is an energy
balance derived from the Bernoulli equation, and can be broken down into four
different terms: 1) air acceleration loss, 2) material acceleration loss, 3) air
friction loss, and 4) material friction loss. The material friction loss is calculated
based on the air loss and a material loading ratio.
2 2
dP = (vv(g) *p(g))/288*g)+(W*v(p)/g)+((f(g)+v(g) L)/6*g*dt))*(1+(f(p)*W)/
2
(f(g)*v(g) *p(g))
where:
Units
2
W = Material Flux (lb./sec.-ft. )
L = Line Length (ft.)
2
g = Gravitational Acceleration (ft./sec. )
dt = Line Diameter (Inches)
This equation can be broken into separate terms, and can be manipulated into
more convenient terms. We will do so, taking each term separately. Also, we
will assume some values for each term in order to perform a sample calculation:
Units
This loss is only considered once per system, assuming no blinded tee elbows,
and one material pick-up point per system.
Dp= (C/1517*(dt^2))*(((Q(g)*459.7+T))/(11.8*(dt^2)*(14.696+(P1+P2)/2))))
-(6.305((p(p)*Dp1*(459.7+T)/(14.696+((P1+P2)/2)))^0.5))))
C= 833.3333 (lb./min.)
Q(g) = 2,301 (Scfm)
T= 70.0 (o F)
P1 = 4.0 (Psig)
P2 = 1.3 (Psig)
3
p(p) = 75 (lb./ft. )
Dp1 = 0.0104 (ft.)
dt = 8.329 (Inches)
dP = 0.63 (Psi)
This loss is only considered once per system, assuming no blinded tee elbows,
and one material pick-up point per system.
dP/L = (((0.0245*((e/dt)^0.23))+((0.0009073*(dt^0.6)*((459.7+T)^0.75))/
((e^0.1)*((Q(g)*((0.555*(459.7+T))+120)))))) X (((Q(g)^2)*(459.7+T))/
(9961*(dt^5)*(14.696+(P1+P2)/2))))
C= 833.3333 (lb./min.)
Q(g) = 2,301 (Scfm)
T= 70.0 (° F)
P1 = 4.0 (Psig)
P2 = 1.3 (Psig)
dt = 8.329 (Inches)
e= 0.0018 (Inches)
dP/L(g) = 0.0017 (Psi/ft.)
This term is applied using the average pressure in the segment. Using inlet
pressure in an acceptable first guess. The average loss per foot is then multiplied
with the segment length to obtain the segment pressure drop. Trial and error
calculations are used to obtain the final pressure drop.
The particle friction loss is accounted for as a ratio of particle friction loss to gas
friction loss:
Ratio = ((f(p)*v(p))/f(g)*v(g)))*(W/(v(g)*p(g)))
The first part of this term cannot be greater than unity. However, the velocity of
the particle is very nearly that of the fluid, whereas the particle friction is many
times that of the gas. Therefore this term is assumed to be equal to 1.0. So:
Ratio =1.0*13.35*C/Q(g)
C= 833.3333 (lb./min.)
Q(g) = 2,301 (Scfm)
Ratio = 4.83
dP/L = dP/L(g)*(1+Ratio)
Vertical pressure losses in dilute phase pneumatic conveying system has been
calculated by Zenz & Othmer using equation 11.2. This equation accounts for
losses due to static head in vertical lines, and is added to equation 11.1 to obtain
the total pressure loss per foot for a vertical line. This loss is then multiplied
with the material ratio as for the horizontal line case. As for the horizontal line,
this equation is applied to the average pressure in a trial and error procedure.
dP/L = C/(47.12*(dt^2)**(((Q(g)*(459.7+T))/
((dt^2)*11.799*(14.696+((P1+P2))))-(6.305*(((p(p)*Dp1*(459.7+T))/
14.696+((P1+P2)/2)))^0.5))))
C = 833.3333 (lb./min.)
Q(g) = 2,301 (Scfm)
dt = 8.329 (Inches)
T = 70.0 (°F)
P1 = 4.0 (Psig)
P2 = 1.3 (Psig)
3
p(p) = 75 (lb./ft. )
Dp1 = 0.0104 (ft.)
dP/L(pipe) = 0.0099 (Psi/ft.) (Equation 11.1)
dP/L(static) = 0.0046 (Psi/ft.)
L(straight) = 75 (ft.)
Number of Bends = 0
Le(bends) = 14 (ft.)/Bend
Total Le = 75 (ft.)
dP = 1.09 (Psi) (Equation 11.2)
Two-phase dense phase systems are those in which the gas velocity is less than
the characteristic saltation velocity of the material being transported in horizontal
flow, and exceeds the characteristic choking velocity of the material being
transported in vertical flow. Pressure losses in two-phase flow are the sum of
acceleration and frictional losses for both the material and gas. These losses
were calculated by Zenz & Othmer for horizontal flow (equation 11.10a) and for
vertical flow (equation 11.2). Air and material acceleration losses in two-phase
dense phase systems are calculated in the same way as for the dilute phase
systems. Vertical losses due to static head is also calculated in the same way.
dP/L= C/(1.72*(dt^2)*(((Q(g)*(T+459.7))/((dt^2)*(14.696+P)))^0.55)))*((Dp1*12/
dt)^0.25)
C= 833.3333 (lb./min.)
Q(g) = 2,301 (Scfm)
dt = 8.329 (Inches)
T= 70.0 (o F)
P1 = 4.0 (Psig)
P2 = 1.3 (Psig)
3
p(p) = 75 (lb./ft. )
Dpm = 0.0104 (ft.)
Dp1 = 0.0104 (ft.)
dP/L(pipe) = 0.0543 (Psi/ft.) (Equation 11.10a)
Le = 219.76 (ft.)
dP = 11.94 (Psi)
Saltation Velocity:
Every material has a characteristic velocity at which any particle will become
entrained in the flowing gas stream, according to Stokes' Law. Restating Stokes'
Law, the particle will be suspended in the flowing gas stream depending on the
particle size, particle shape, particle density, gas density, and gas viscosity. The
particle will reach a terminal velocity with respect to the gas. This characteristic
velocity, when calculated for the largest particle, becomes known as the saltation
velocity. When the gas stream is moving at less than or equal to the saltation
velocity, the solid material will begin to disengage from the flowing gas. The
particles will fall to the pipe bottom. First, the particles will scrape along the
pipe bottom, then as the gas velocity is reduced, the particles will begin moving
in wave or dune flow. As the gas velocity is decreased more, the dunes may fill
the pipe from bottom to top, forming moving slugs or pistons. These pistons may
be either permeable or impermeable to gas. Plastic pellets or other coarse
powders with little or no form permeable pistons.
The following two methods are from three methods discussed by Paul E. Solt in
one of his articles in "Powder & Bulk Engineering" Magazine. The first is from
the B.F. Sturtevant Co., and is useful to conservatively estimate pickup velocities
in first approximations of required airflow. The second is more analytical, and is
from the work of Thomas & Matsumoto.
Saltation Velocity:
where:
dt = 8.329 Inches
D(p) = 0.1250 Inches
2
g= 32.17 ft./sec.
v(g) = 103.25 ft./sec.
ugs = 4.8160 lb.(s)/lb.(g)
vt = 102.72 ft./sec.
P1 4.0 Psig
T= 70.0 °F
3
p(g) = 0.07 lb./ft.
3
p(p) = 0.1250 lb./ft
Dpi = 0.1250 Inches
Ups = 0.53 ft./sec.
Frp = 2.51
Frs = 10*((ugs/(0.373*((p(p)/p(g))^1.06*((Frp/10)^-3.7)))^(1/3.61)) = 0.6450
Frs = (Ups/((g*dt)^0.5)), so UPs = 3.05ft./sec. =
182.89ft./min.
The free-fall terminal or choking velocity is the minimum gas velocity required
to suspend a particle in a vertical pipe against gravity. If the gas velocity falls
below the choking velocity, a plug could form in the conveying line. The can
happen if the system is in between being stream and two-phase flow in some
systems due to the natural surging or slugging which happens in two phase flow.
Other systems may form weak pistons in two-phase or piston flow, and behave as
fluidized beds rather than forming pistons in vertical lines. These lines may plug
under these conditions. The pressure and vacuum spreadsheets use a test for
choking velocity to warn when lines may plug.
This velocity was calculated above as part of the saltation velocity circulation:
Dense phase piston flow systems are those in which the gas velocity is
substantially below the specific saltation velocity of the material being
transported in horizontal flow, and exceeds the characteristic choking velocity of
the material being transported in vertical flow. These systems can be
characterized into four types: 1) Two phase flow (described above using the
Zenz-Othmer design procedure), 2) Extrusion flow in which materials with long
deaeration times are fluidized and pumped like a liquid, 3) Packed-Bed flow in
which relatively large particles are moved in a continuous packed stream, and
4) Piston or slug flow where the material moves in discrete pistons or slugs.
Extrusion flow and Packed-Bed flow regimes are not well understood, have high
pressure drops per unit length, and have no well defined design correlations.
Piston flow behavior can be predicted according to material characteristics. This
behavior can be described by the system type: 1) Pulsed systems use a secondary
gas stream at the blow-pot discharge ("air knife") to cut the pistons into
appropriate lengths, 2) Simple systems require no secondary gas ("air knife") as
the pistons form by themselves according to the material characteristics, and
3) Bypass systems which add secondary gas all along the material pipe as well as
the blow pot discharge through a small parallel gas pipe.
The design of these systems has four steps: 1) Determine the solids classification
and system type, 2) Determining the minimum required pipe diameter,
3) Calculating the system pressure drop, and 4) Determining the minimum gas
requirement.
Figure 8-47
Figure 8-48
Y Y calc
Re(p) = 1396.68 1439.86
Re(p)>1.0, Re(p) is in Newton's Law region.
Y Y calc
C= 0.24 0.24
For Re(p) in the Stoke's Law range (Re</=1.0), particle surface tension = s =
18*1000*Vt*mu(g)*0.3048*(3.6/(0.000672*3600))
Y Y calc
Vt = 11.89 (ft./sec.) 11.94 (ft./sec.)
mu(g) = 1.23E-05 (lb./ft.-sec.) (DIPPR REGRESSION)
s= 1.1924 (Dynes/cm) 1.20 (Dynes/cm)
For Re(p) in the Newton's Law range (Re> 1.0), particle surface tension = s =
0.3*1000*(Vt^2)*D(p)m*p(g)*0.3048*0.3048*0.3048*16.01846
Y Y calc
Vt = 11.89 (ft./sec.) 11.94 (ft./sec.)
3
p(g) = 0.58 (lb./ft. ) (IDEAL GAS LAW)
D(P)m = 0.0104 (Ft.)
s= 384.6762 (Dynes/cm) 387.5035 (Dynes/cm)
System Type:
Materials with surface tensions greater than 10 dynes/cm form strong, self-
sustaining slugs. Simple systems are recommended. Materials with surface
tensions between 10 and 0.2 dynes/cm form weak slugs. Bypass systems are
recommended. Materials with surface tensions below 0.2 do not readily form
slugs on their own. A pulsed system is recommended.
The example above exhibits surface tensions above 10.0 dynes/cm, suggesting a
simple system is recommended.
m= 13.89 (lb./sec.)
3
p(b) = 35 (lb./ft. )
Dt = 6.02 (Inches)
m= 13.89 (lb./sec.)
3
p(b) = 35 (lb./ft. )
Lb. = 2 (ft.)
Dt = 5.08 (Inches)
Since this powder has a surface tension greater than 0.2 dynes/cm, it is classified
as a coarse powder.
dP= P2*{Exp[(L/C)*((W/A)/(((W/A)*e*p(g)2/p(b))+(p(g)2*Vmf2))*(P2/(P2+dP)]-1}
where:
P2 = System Discharge Pressure = 14.696 (Psia)
L= Linear Length of Line = 225 (ft.)
C= System Constant = 15748.00 (ft.)
W= Conveying Rate = 13.89 (lb./sec.)
A= Minimum Conveying Pipe Area = 0.1975 (ft.2)
2
Gs = Mass Flux = 70.31 (lb./sec.-ft. )
e= Voids Friction = 0.53
p(g)2 = Discharge Gas Density = 0.0749 (lb./ft.3)
3
p(b) = Solids Bulk Density = 35 (lb./ft. )
Vmf = Discharge incipient Velocity = 2.82 (ft./sec.)
Guess dP = System Pressure Drop = 30.4950 (Psi)
Calculated DP = System Pressure Drop = 30.4945 (Psi)
Figure 8-49
The minimum gas velocity is assumed to be the gas flow at the minimum
fluidization velocity. Operating at this point gives the maximum solids to gas
ratio.
where:
2
Gs =Mass Flux = 70.31 (lb./sec.-ft. )
e =Voids Fraction = 0.53
3
p(g)1 =Inlet Gas Density = 0.2304 (lb./ft. ) (IDEALGAS LAW)
3
p(b) =Solids Bulk Density = 35 (lb./ft. )
Vmf =Discharge incipient Velocity = 2.82 (ft./sec.)
Rmax =Maximum Solids to Gas Ratio = 78.55 (lb. Solids/lb. Gas)
K = K Ratio = 0.40
Vsup = Superficial Velocity = 9.71 (ft./sec.)
Q = Gas Required at Feedpoint = 115.11 (Acfm)
Q = Gas Required at Feedpoint = 353.98 (Scfm)
Figure 8-50
8.7.8 Appendix 8
Table 8-10
WALL INTERNAL
NOMINAL THICKNESS DIAMETER FLOW AREA
5 2
SIZE, IN SCHEDULE IN IN IN IN
Table 8-11
Notes:
(a) Reference data from "Fan Engineering" published by Buffalo Forge Company.
Adapted from the data of Weights of Various Substances, Stephans-Adamson
Division of Borg-Warner Corporation, Aurora, Illinois.
(b) Coefficient of friction is computed as the tangent of the angle of slide (angle
of repose).
Table 8-12
(a)
ANGLE OF REPOSE FOR VARIOUS BULK MATERIALS
Note:
8.7.11 Appendix 11
Table 8-13
8.7.12 Appendix 12
Table 8-14
Caution: Do not use above data for Dilute Phase Calculation Methods.
Table 8-15
Table 8-16
Table 8-17
I.M.M SCREENS
Table 8-18
To determine the feed rate for a rotary airlock the following method should be used.
Airlock Displacement
All airlocks, rotary valves rotary feeders, etc., of the clearance type loose or
"leak" air in two ways: 1) Air at conveying line pressure is released through
empty pockets as the rotor turns, and 2) Leakage through the machined clearance
between the rotor tips and the housing bore. The equations given below are
based on an empty airlock, material flow in most cases would provide some
sealing effect reducing the air leakage. Unfortunately, there are so many
variables that it is extremely difficult to quantify the sealing effect. Corrections
for the sealing effect are therefore very subjective and should be applied with
caution.
Pocket Loss:
CFM =
14.7 P DN
14.7
where:
P = Pressure: PSIG + LO
Vacuum: PSIG + LI
D = Airlock Displacement in ft3/rev
N = RPM
Clearance Loss:
A
2454PX
CFM = 30 144
0.75
where:
2
A = Average Area (in ) of clearance
X = Factor based on pressure differential and specific heats of air (k
= 1.39 @ 100 oF +)
2
A (IN )
AIRLOCK CLI CLII CLIII
7x7 .163 .282 .446
9x9 .180 .342 .540
12x12 .278 .479 .757
15x15 .334 .577 .911
8x6 .169 .292 .461
10x8 .213 .368 .581
12x10 .257 .444 .701
16x12 .313 .541 .854
20x15 .390 .674 1.064
X
P X P X P X
.5 .0090 5.5 .0545 10.5 .0653
1.0 .0168 6.0 .0565 11.0 .0656
1.5 .0236 6.5 .0582 11.5 .0659
2.0 .0295 7.0 .0597 12.0 .0659
2.5 .0347 7.5 .0610 12.5 .0660
3.0 .0392 8.0 .0620 13.0 .0661
3.5 .0432 8.5 .0630 13.5 .0662
4.0 .0466 9.0 .0637 14.0 .0661
4.5 .0496 9.5 .0644
5.0 .0522 10.0 .0649
CFM =
14.7 P DN
14.7
where:
P = 7.3
D = .2
N = 22
CFM =
14.7 7.3 * .2 * 22 = 6.6 CFM or 7 CFM
14.7
where:
A = .342
P = 7.3
X = .061
.342
2454 * 7.3 * .061
144
CFM = 30 = 31.4 or 32 CFM
0.75
8.7.17C Appendix 17C: Rotary Valve Leakage Chart* (Flotronics) (Leakage in Scfm)
This chart was taken from "Pneumatic Conveying Design Manual," by Flotronics, Inc.
8.7.18B Appendix 18B: Line Diverter Valve Leakage Chart (Leakage in Scfm)(b)
Pressure Differential
Diverter Tunnel Blade Flapper
Size 2 5 10 2 5 10 2 5 10
2 2.2 3.5 - - - - - - -
3 3.4 5.3 7.5 3.1 5.0 7.0 1.8 2.8 4.0
4 4.5 7.2 10.1 4.0 6.5 9.0 2.2 3.5 5.0
5 5.8 9.3 13.2 5.0 7.8 11.0 2.8 4.5 6.3
6 7.2 11.3 16.0 5.5 8.5 12.0 3.4 5.3 7.5
8 9.0 14.1 20.0 6.5 10.0 14.0 - - -
10 11.6 18.5 26.2 8.3 13.0 18.5 - - -
1200 14.0 22.0 31.1 9.4 15.0 21.0 - - -
Notes:
(a) This chart was taken from "Pneumatic Conveying Design Manual," by Flotronics Inc.
FACTOR 15 12 10 9 6
This diagram taken from "Dust Collection Engineering Manual" by MAC Equipment Inc.
A.C.R. = Material
x Process
x Particle Size/Temperature
Step 1
To determine the Material Factor, find your material and select the appropriate
value from the Material Factor Table below:
MATERIAL 9 8 7 6 5
FACTOR
M GRAIN KAOLIN ALUMINA COKE ACTIVATED CARBON
A PAPER SAND METALLIC ORE PIGMENTS CALCIUM
T SAWDUST GYPSUM CEMENT FLYASH CARBON BLACK
E TOBACCO LIME COAL DETERGENTS GRAPHITE
R SALT FLOUR LEAD OXIDE CHARCOAL
I SODA ASH FERTILIZER SUGAR METALLURGICAL
A FUME
L TALC LIMESTONE ZINC OXIDE
ABRASIVES
Step 2
The Process Factor is a function of the inlet grain loading and type of process.
First determine the material loading which is expressed in grains per cubic foot
(gr/cf).
Next, establish the process curve which most closely defines your application.
The following applications are listed as guidelines:
On the graph, find your grain loading and move horizontally to the appropriate
application curve. Move vertically to the bottom of the graph to obtain Process
Factor.
Step 3
The air-to-cloth ratio is also affected by temperature and particle size. Graph C
is used to determine your Particle Size/Temperature Factor. Locate the
temperature of your application and move horizontally to the appropriate particle
size curve. Then move vertically to the bottom of the graph to obtain the Particle
Size/Temperature Factor.
Step 4
A.C.R. = A x B x C
Example
Ventilating a belt conveyor bucket elevator and screen handling, silica sand at
ambient temperature with an estimated inlet loading of 2 lb/min. Air volume is
5,000 CFM. Average particle size is greater than 10 microns.
A filter's design and cleaning mechanisms affect the final filter ratio. This
additional equipment factor must be considered and is noted on the specific
Technical Data Sheet of the dust collector being considered. Consult your Sly
representative or Sly at 1-800-334-2957.
Unit Filters
Viscous Type Dry Type Automatic Filters
Cleanable Throwaway Throwaway Cleanable
Dust capacity 1. Well adapted for heavy dust loads (up to 2 grams 1. Well adapted to light or moderate dust loads of 1. Well adapted for heavy dust
1000 cu. ft.) due to high dust capacity less than 1 grain/1000 cu. ft. loads up to 2 grains 1000 cu.
ft. since it is serviced
automatically
Filter size 1. Common size of unit filter is 20- x 20-in. face area handling 800 cu. ft/min at rated capacity. 1. Automatic viscous units
2. Face velocity is generally 300 - 400 ft/min for all types. supplied to handle 1000 cu.
ft/min and over
2. Face velocity is 350-
750 ft/min.
Air velocity 1. Rated velocity 1. Rated velocity is 10-50 ft/min through the 1. Rated velocity is 350-
2. Entrainment of oil may occur at very high medium. (Some dry glass types run as high as 750 ft/min through the filter
velocities 300 ft/min) medium for viscous types.
2. Higher velocities may result in rupture of filter For dry types, it is 10-
medium. 50 ft/min.
Resistance 1. Resistance ranges from 0.05-0.30 in when clean to 0.4-0.5 in when dirty. 1. Resistance runs about 0.3-
2. When the resistance exceeds a given value, the cells should be replaced or reconditioned. 0.4 in water.
3. Cycling cells in large installation will serve to maintain a nearly constant resistance.
4. High resistance due to excessive dust loading 4. Excessive pressure drops resulting from high
results in channeling and poor efficiency. dust loading may result in rupture of filter
medium.
Efficiency 1. Commercial makes are found in a variety of 1. In general, give higher efficiency than viscous
efficiencies, these depending roughly on filter type, particularly on fine particles.
resistance for similar types of medium. 2. Efficiency increases with increased dust load
2. Efficiency decreases with increased dust load and and decreases with increased velocity.
increases with increased velocity up to certain
limits.
Operating cycle 1. Well adapted for short-period operations (less 1. Well adapted for continuous
than 10 hr/day) due to relatively low investment operation
cost.
2. Operating cycle is 1-2 months for general 2. Operating cycle is 2-4 weeks for general
"average" industrial air conditioning "average" industrial air conditioning
Method of 1. Washed with steam, 1. Filter cell replaced. Life may in some cases be 1. Vacuum cleaned, 1. Automatic. Filter may clog
Cleaning hot water, or solvents lengthened by shaking or vacuum cleaning, but blown with com- in time and cleaning by
and given fresh oil this is not often successful. pressed air, or dry blowing with com-pressed
coating cleaned air may be necessary.
Space 1. Well adapted for low headroom requirements. 1. Have a high headroom
requirement 2. Form of banks can be chosen to fit any shaped space requirement
3. Space should be allowed for a man to remove filter cells for cleaning or replacement. 2. Take up less floor space than
other types
4. Requires space for 4. Requires space for
washing, reoiling, and mechanical loader in
draining tanks some cases
Type of filter 1. Crimped, split, or woven metal, glass fibers, wood 1. Cellulose pulp, felt, cotton gauze, spun glass 1. Metal screens, packing, or
medium shavings, hair-all oil coated 2. Dry medium cannot stand direct wetting. Oil- baffling. One type uses
impregnated medium are available to resist cellulose pulp
humidity and prevent fluff entrainment
Character of 1. Not well suited for linty materials 1. Not well suited for 1. Not suited for linty material
dust handling oily dusts if of viscous types
2. Well adapted for make-up air granular materials 2. Well adapted for linty material
3. Better adapted for fine dust than other types
Temperature 1. All metal types may be used up as high as 250 ° F 1. Limited to 180 °F except for glass types which 1. Viscous may be used up to
limitations if suitable oil or grease is used. Those utilizing may be used up to 700 °F, if suitable frames 250 ° F if suitable oil is used.
cellulosic materials are limited to 180 ° F. and gaskets are used. Dry type limited to 180 ° F.
Fabrics are generally selected based upon their temperature limits and their
chemical properties. Listed below are the more commonly used felted fabrics in
order of their temperature properties. A brief description of each fabric with its
chemical properties follows.
Chemical Properties:
Nylon. Nylon is the best of the fibers for its overall strength and resistance to
abrasion. It is excellent for use with alkaline dust, however, it is extremely
vulnerable to acid attack and will fail rapidly in the presence of any acid. Its low
temperature resistance of 225 degrees F, limits its use as an industrial filter
fabric.
Acrylics. Acrylics exhibits a good resistance to both acid and alkaline service.
In general acrylics are difficult to stabilize and since their temperature limits are
similar to the polyesters, polyester is normally the fabric of choice.
Polyester. Polyesters are currently the work horse of the filter fabrics. They
exhibit good acid and alkali resistance. The fabric is relatively stable and thus it
covers a broad range of applications. Polyesters do tend to hydrolyze in a hot
1
This chart taken from "Dust Collection Engineering Manual" by MAC Equipment Inc.
moist atmosphere and thus care should be taken where both high moisture and
heat are encountered.
Recommended Max.
Operating Temp.: Chemical
Tensile Abrasion Exposure Time Resistance Flammability: General
Fiber Manufacturer Strength: Resistance in Degrees F Will Support Special Chemical
Long Short Combustion? Properties Classification
(Months) (Hours) Acids Alkalies
Recommended Max.
Operating Temp.: Chemical
Tensile Abrasion Exposure Time Resistance Flammability: General
Fiber Manufacturer Strength: Resistance in Degrees F Will Support Special Chemical
Long Short Combustion? Properties Classification
(Months) (Hours) Acids Alkalies
Polypropylene Hercules, A B-C 190 190 A A Yes Strong, excellent Polyolefin
Alamo chemical resistance
Polymer,
National plastic
products
Nomex E.I. du Pont de A-B A-B 425 450 D A No Outstanding Nylon aromatic
Nemours temperature resistance polyamide
Verel Eastman C E 200 250 C D No Verel FR has better Modified acrylic
Chemical flame resistance than
Products, Inc. wool.
Wool Natural fiber Wet, E Wet, C 200 250 E E No When wet has Protein
Dry, D Dry, C excellent elastic
recovery. Can be
felted.
Zefran Dow Chemical C C 220 270 C D Yes Acrylic alloy
Courtesy of the Globe Albany Corp. This company offers information as best currently available: no obligation or liability whatsoever is
assumed in connection with its use. Data apply only to staple fibers, although continuous-filament yarns are also made. Teflon is excepted, as test
fabric was made from filament yarn.
8.7.19E Appendix 19E: Selection Criteria for Dry Filter and Wet Scrubber Selection
Appropriate for most applications ⊖ Appropriate for some applications ○ Generally not appropriate
Dry Filter Selection Wet Scrubber Selection
Cartridge Envelope Tube Impingement Packed Venturi
Filter Filter Filter Baffle Plate Tower
Particle Size: > 10
Inlet loading:
Light - <1 gr/cf ⊖
Medium - 1-4 gr/cf ○
Heavy - 5-10 gr/cf ○ ⊖ ○
Very Heavy - > 10 gr/cf ○ ○ ○
Particle Size: < -PM 10
Inlet loading:
Light - <1 gr/cf ⊖
Medium - 1-4 gr/cf ○
Heavy - 5-10 gr/cf ○ ⊖ ○
Very Heavy - >10 gr/cf ○ ○ ○
Particle Size: <1 -Sub Micron
Inlet loading:
Light - <1 gr/cf ⊖ ○ ○
Medium - 1-4 gr/cf ⊖ ⊖ ○ ○
Heavy - 5-10 gr/cf ○ ⊖ ○ ○
Very Heavy - >10 gr/cf ○ ○ ○ ○
Temperature: <275 oF
<375 oF ⊖
>375 oF
○ ⊖
Dewpoint: Ambient
Process Moisture Added ○ ⊖
Saturated ○ ○ ⊖
Appropriate for most applications ⊖ Appropriate for some applications ○ Generally not appropriate
Dry Filter Selection Wet Scrubber Selection
Cartridge Envelope Tube Impingement Packed Venturi
Filter Filter Filter Baffle Plate Tower
Hygroscopic
○ ⊖
Granular ⊖
Fluffy/Fibrous ○ ○ ○
Sticky ○ ⊖ ⊖ ○
Abrasive ⊖ ○
Corrosive ⊖
Vapor ○ ○ ⊖ ○
Mists ○ ○ ○
Condensing/Cooling ○ ○ ○ ⊖ ○
Odors ○ ○ ○ ○
Sly Inc. sells three basic Sly Inc. sells three basic styles of
styles of dry collectors: wet scrubbers; the Impinjet;
cartridge, envelope and Impingement baffle plate; Packed
tubular bag filters. Towers and Venturi
This diagram taken from Dust Collection Engineering Manual by MAC Equipment Inc.
This diagram taken from "Pneumatic Conveying Engineering Manual, Dilute Phase" by MAC
Equipment Inc.
It has become almost trite to detail the ways in which money can be saved by
replacing an individual package system with a bulk handling system.
To be trite:
Bags are a continuously recurring expense, adding nothing to the value of the
product (unless you happen to handle plastic beads in plastic bags and can
dump the bag and beads into the extruder hopper).
Bags often burst (or worse) causing product loss and high clean-up expense.
Bags take up more room than comparable bulk volume - usually must be
stored inside.
All this is covered in the available Pneumatic Conveying literature. It may not
make good reading but it does make good sense.
Most companies face the recurring problem of rising material and labor costs.
There is really very little that can be done about this except on a temporary basis,
which leaves only the expense items as a possible area for cost reduction to
minimize price increases.
How?
Specifically by:
All these things aid immeasurably in speeding up production, quite apart from
the direct savings which result.
To realize the benefits, however, certain conditions must be met. These include:
1) A raw material usage sufficient to offset the cost of bulk handling equipment.
If it takes 10 years to pay for the equipment from the savings of bulk over
bags it's obviously not worth the expense.
2) A soundly engineered system requiring minimum maintenance. Maintenance
people are higher priced than bag handlers and if labor is saved in handling,
it shouldn't have to be applied to maintenance.
It is difficult to give specific figures for minimum usage levels to approach the
break even point as this depends, among other things, upon the product and the
accepted amortization period.
The labor saved is, of course, not usually eliminated, merely transferred, but it is
usually transferred to productive work rather than expense work.
Usually because it is cleaner, neater, more flexible, lower in maintenance and for
distances above 50'0, less expensive.
Not always of course. You can't unload grain from a boat at anything
approaching the speed of a "grain leg" with a Pneumatic Conveyor. Nor can you
load coal into a boat at a comparable rate to a high speed belt conveyor.
But you can go around corners and round existing machinery with a Pneumatic
Conveying line. It takes very little to support it and very little to extend it. It is
completely dust tight and with most products self cleaning, so you can put all
kinds of products through one line without risking contamination.
And while you are at it you can do a little product cooling - if you are so inclined.
All these things make a Pneumatic Conveyor an attractive proposition for a great
many products and certainly worth careful investigation for any dry material.
As we said, you can't do everything with it - but you would be surprised at what
you can do.
Although many of the questions asked about Pneumatic Conveyors are naturally
related to a specific product, some are very sufficiently broad in scope to apply to
Pneumatic Conveying generally.
Some ½ mile system are in use, operating in high pressure (50 - 60 PSI) but as a
general rule the 15 PSI system has a possible limit of 1500 feet and a practical
limit of about 1000 feet.
Answer. Some products can - plastic pellets, for example, providing the
conveying distance is not excessive and the conveying rate not
too high.
Answer. Usually - although often with less than perfect results. Air flows
for optimum performance in a fixed size line will vary with
individual products. If two products with different
characteristics are to be conveyed with the same fixed speed
blower, a compromise air flow will be used, which is not ideal
for either.
Also because 15 PSI is the practical limit for most rotary positive
blowers and rotary air locks. High pressure systems up to
100 PSI are in operation for long distance conveying. These are
usually limited to products which fluidize easily - such as cement
- except where plug flow is used - and that's another story.
Answer. It depends on the product being conveyed. Sharp sand can wear
out horizontal runs of schedule 80 steel pipe in 6 months with a
usage of 40 tons per day. Brewers malt may take 8 years to wear
a horizontal run of schedule 40 steel pipe with a usage of
250 tons per week.
Answer. Normally no. It's better to blow air through the lines for a short
period of time before conveying begins, to dry up any
accumulated moisture, than to try to eliminate moisture with
insulation.
Answer. Exhausters are usually noisier than blowers, for the simple
reason that they often discharge the displaced air into the room
where they are located.
Answer. It can be - and often is, but is probably better to provide a dry air
purge of the material in bulk storage.
They usually sit around much longer than this in storage, both
before and after being conveyed.
Answer. It depends on the product, the turnover period, and the size of
lump which can be tolerated.
Most food products (sugar, salt, starches, flour for example) will
lump when exposed to varying ambient conditions. Many
industrial chemicals do the same. But grains, plastic pellets,
resins and many fertilizers are usually stored outside
successfully. One way or another outdoor bulk storage is
practical for most dry products.
8.7.23 Appendix 23: Fundamental Burning Velocities of Selected Gases and Dusts
Basic information along with Appendix 26 associated with narrative Section 8.5 -
Safety Considerations in Pneumatic Conveying.
8.7.24 Appendix 24: Fire Hazard Properties of Selected Liquids, Gases and Volatile
Solids
In the case of hydrocarbons - most of which are heavier than air - the problem is
not to establish the existence of a Class I location but to define the limits of the
Division 1 and Division 2 areas. Anywhere that hydrocarbons are handled, used,
or stored, there is a high degree of probability that flammable liquids, gases, and
vapors will be released in sufficient quantities to constitute a hazard. Vapor can
disperse in all directions as governed by the vapor density and air movement in
the area. A very mild breeze can extend the limits of the hazardous location quite
far in the direction of air movement, but the combustible mixture will not be
dispersed significantly.
Group A – acetylene
Group B - hydrogen or equivalent vapors and gases, such as manufactured gas.
Group C - ethyl-ether vapors, ethylene, cyclopropane, and similar substances.
Group D - gasoline, naphtha, benzene, hexane, butane, propane, alcohol, acetone,
lacquer-solvent vapors, natural gas, and similar substances.
f
See "Defining the Limits of Hazardous (Classified) Locations for Compliance with National Electrical Code - General
Considerations," PE 9/14/78, p 145, file #0501.
1
FIRE HAZARD PROPERTIES OF SELECTED LIQUIDS, GASES, AND VOLATILE SOLIDS
1
FIRE HAZARD PROPERTIES OF SELECTED LIQUIDS, GASES, AND VOLATILE SOLIDS
1
FIRE HAZARD PROPERTIES OF SELECTED LIQUIDS, GASES, AND VOLATILE SOLIDS
8.7.25 Appendix 25: Defining the Limits of Hazardous (Classified) Locations For
Compliance with National Electrical Code
Class II hazardous locations are those locations where combustible dusts are
present or likely to become present. A potential dust-explosion hazard exists
wherever combustible dusts accumulate, are handled, or are processed. Many
dusts fall into the "combustible" category; some of the most common are given in
Table I. The significance of the factors used as headings in Table I is:
Ignition temperature is the minimum temperature required for ignition. It
varies with oxygen concentration in the air, humidity, atmospheric pressure,
venting and external air flow, and size and shape of dust particles.
Minimum igniting energy defines the minimum electric spark required for
ignition.
Minimum explosive concentration is the least amount of dust that will ignite
with a continuous spark igniting source.
Like all classified locations, Class II locations have two divisions.g A Class II,
Division 1 location is one that meets one or more of these criteria:
Combustible dust is or may be present in suspension in air continuously or
intermittently in the course of normal operations in quantities sufficient to
produce explosive or ignitable mixtures.
3
See "Defining the Limits of Hazardous (Classified) Locations for Compliance with National Electrical Code - General
Considerations," PE 9/14/78. p 145, file #0501, and "Class I locations," PE 10/12/78, p. 191, file #0501.
Areas in which metal dusts and powders are produced, processed, handled,
packed, or stored.
Coal bunkers, coal-pulverizing plants, and areas in which coke, carbon black,
and charcoal are processed, handled, or used.
Areas containing only closed bins or hoppers, and enclosed spouts and
conveyors.
Class III locations are those in which easily ignitable fibers or flyings are present,
but are not likely to be in suspension in air in quantities sufficient to produce an
ignitable atmosphere. Single fibers of organic materials such as lint, cotton tufts,
and fluffy fabrics, however, are quite vulnerable to a localized heat source such
as an electric spark. In purge oxygen, single fibers of cotton can be ignited by a
0.02 joule spark.
Textiles such as those used in clothing can be ignited and burned with repetitive
or sustained high-energy electric sparks. Cotton and wool fabrics can be ignited
in pure oxygen with a spark of 2.3 joules; in normal air, a spark of 193 joules or
more is required for ignition. Silk and polyester fibers are more difficult to ignite
than cotton or wool.
Fibers contaminated with greasy substances can be ignited with much weaker
sparks than clean fibers. Typically, only one ten-thousandth of the energy
required to ignite a clean fabric is required for an oily sample of the same fabric.
In general, the burning characteristics of fibers will be affected by the specific
gravity of the substance, size and shape of the sample, air circulation in the area,
oxygen concentration, and relative humidity. The burning characteristics of
some common fibers whose presence can cause an area to be designated as
Class III are given in Table II.
Flax-processing plants
Woodworking plants
A Class III, Division 2 location is one in which easily ignitable fibers are stored
or handled, but are not manufactured or processed. An example is a textile
warehouse.
There are no group designations associated with Class III locations, and electrical
equipment installed in Class III locations need only be approved for the
applicable class and division. The maximum equipment surface temperature
under normal conditions shall not exceed 329 °F (165 °C) for equipment not
subject to overloading, and 248 °F (120 °C) for equipment such as transformers
and motors that are subject to
overloading.
Carbonaceous:
Coal, Ky., Breek, volatile content 40.6%: 610 0.030 0.050 Strong
Coal, Pa., Pittsburgh, volatile 610 0.060 0.055 Strong
content 37.0%
Coal, Pa., Thick Freeport, volatile Moderate
content 35.6% 595 0.060 0.060
Coal, Wyo., Laramie No. 3, volatile Strong
content 43.3% 575 0.050 0.050
The values presented in the following tables are intended as a general guide, and
are based on a selection of materials and available data on explosion and fire
properties. The variation inherent in many of the materials, and also resulting
from different test methods for measuring the same explosion property, mean that
the quoted values should strictly be applied only to the sample actually tested,
taking account of the method of test. In the tables references are given which
enable further details to be obtained but, for many practical purposes, guideline
are all that are required. If further information is required for a particular sample
of a material, direct testing of that material is usually necessary. Significant
variation in explosion properties with a material can arise from differences in
particle size, particle shape, moisture content, dispersability, and from variations
in composition inevitable with many materials of natural origin.
The tabulated values originated from publications in the United Kingdom, the
United States, and the Federal German Republic and the methods of test are those
in use in the country of origin of data. Further information can be obtained from
studying the references and Chapter 3.
Where more than one set of data has been published for a material, preference
has been given in the selection of data to that combining the most comprehensive
and the most hazardous values indicated. As many identifiable dusts as possible
have been included, but mixtures that are not generally reproducible, and many
co-polymers, have been excluded.
Because of the different methods of test in the three countries, the values for
minimum ignition temperature of dust clouds may differ somewhat. The
minimum ignition temperature of dust layers is measured in the United States
using a sample 1.3 cm deep and 2.5 cm diameter, in the Furnace Apparatus, but
in the Federal German Republic a 0.5 cm deep layer on a hotplate is used
(Chapter 3). The results from the two methods are not directly comparable
(Chapter 4). The values of maximum explosion pressure and maximum rate of
pressure rise are the highest quoted for a given material and are not necessarily
measured for the same dust concentration. In the test for the maximum oxygen
concentration to prevent ignition, the use of the Furnace Apparatus has been
taken throughout (Chapter 3), and the inert gas was carbon dioxide for data
originating from the United States and nitrogen for data originating from the
United Kingdom, unless stated otherwise. The relative effectiveness of the two
inert gases is discussed in Chapter 4.
(-) indicates that no value was available, but should not be taken to mean that the
property was not measurable
Maximum
oxygen
concen-
Minimum Minimum Maximum tration
Ignition Explosible Minimum Maximum rate of to prevent
temperature concen- Ignition Explosion pressure ignition
oC tration energy pressure rise % by
2 2
Dust Cloudlayer g/l mJ lb/in lb/in s volume References Notes
Benzoyl peroxide - - - 21 - - - 8
Maximum
oxygen
concen-
Minimum Minimum Maximum tration
Ignition Explosible Minimum Maximum rate of to prevent
temperature concen- ignition Explosion pressure ignition
oC tration energy pressure rise % by
2 2
Dust Cloudlayer g/l mJ lb/in lb/in s volume References Notes
Bone meal 490 230 - - 11 100 - 6 Guncotton
ignition source in
pressure test
Boron 730 390 Did not - 41 200 - 3 Guncotton
ignite ignition source in
pressure test.
Bread 450 - - - - - - 8
Maximum
oxygen
concen-
Minimum Minimum Maximum tration
ignition explosible Minimum Maximum rate of to prevent
temperature concen- ignition explosion pressure ignition
oC tration energy pressure rise % by
2 2
Dust Cloudlayer g/l mJ lb/in lb/in s volume References Notes
p-Chloro o-toluidine - - - - - - 8
hydrochloride 650
Chocolate crumb 340 - - - - - - 8
580 400 0.230 140 56 5000
Chromium - 3
Cinnamon 440 230 0.060 30 121 3900 - 5
Citrus peel 500 330 0.060 100 51 1200 - 5
Coal, brown 485 230 - - - - - 2 See also Lignite
Coal, 8 % volatiles 730 - - - - - - 7
Coal, 12 % volatiles 670 240 - - - - - 7
Coal, 25 % volatiles 605 210 0.120 120 62 400 - 7
Coal, 37 % volatiles 610 170 0.055 60 90 2300 - 7 Standard
Pittsburgh coal
Coal, 43 % volatiles 575 180 0.050 50 92 2000 - 7
Cobalt 760 370 - - - - - 3
Cocoa 500 200 0.065 120 69 1200 - 5
Coconut 450 280 - - - - - 2
Coconut shell 470 220 0.035 60 115 4200 - 5
Coffee 360 270 0.085 160 38 150 10 5,8 Inert gas carbon
dioxide
Coffee, extract 600 - - - 47 - - 2
Coffee, instant 410 350 0.280 Did not 68 500 - 5
ignite
Coke >750 430 - - - - - 2
Coke, petroleum, - Guncotton
13 % volatiles 670 - 1.00 - 36 200 - 7 ignition source in
min. expl. conc.
and max. expl.
pressure tests.
Colophony 325 Melts - - - - - 2
Copal 330 Melts - - 68 - - 2 See also gum
manila
Copper 700 - - Did not Did not Did not - 3
ignite ignite ignite
Copper-zinc, gold bronze 370 190 1.00 - 44 1300 - 3
Cork 460 210 0.035 35 96 7500 - 6
Corn cob 450 240 0.045 45 127 3700 - 5
Corn dextrine 410 390 0.040 40 124 7000 - 5
Cornflour 390 - - - - - - 8
Cornstarch 390 - 0.040 30 145 9500 - 5
Cotton flock 470 - 0.050 25 94 6000 - 4
Cotton linters 520 - 0.50 1920 73 400 5 5
Cottonseed meal 530 200 0.055 80 89 2200 - 5
Coumarone-indene resin 550 - 0.015 10 93 11000 11 4
Crystal violet 475 Melts - - - - - 2
Cyclohexanone peroxide - - - 21 84 5600 - 8
Dehydroacetic acid 430 - 0.030 15 87 8000 - 1
Dextrin 410 440 0.050 40 99 9000 - 6
Maximum
oxygen
concen-
Minimum Minimum Maximum tration
ignition explosible Minimum Maximum rate of to prevent
temperature concen- ignition explosion pressure ignition
oC tration energy pressure rise % by
2 2
Dust Cloudlayer g/l mJ lb/in lb/in s volume References Notes
Dextrose monohydrate 350 - - - - - - 8
Diallyl phthalate 480 - 0.030 20 90 8500 - 1
Diamino stilbene disulfonic
acid 550 - - - - - - 8 Group (b) dust
Diazo aminobenzene 550 - 0.015 20 114 10000 - 1
Di-t-Butyl-p-cresol 420 - 0.015 15 79 13000 9 4
Dibutyl tin maleate 600 - - - - - - 8
Dibutyl tin oxide 530 - - - - - - 8
Dichlorophene 770 - - - 72 3000 - 1
2,4-Dichlorophenoxy ethyl
benzoate 540 - 0.045 60 84 2200 - 1
Dicyclopentadiene dioxide 420 - 0.015 30 89 9500 - 4
Dihydrostreptomycin
sulphate 600 230 0.520 - 42 200 7 1
3-3' Dimethoxy 4-4' diamino
diphenyl - - 0.030 - 82 >10000 - 1
Dimethylacridan 540 - - - - - - 8
Dimethyl diphenyl urea 490 - - - - - - 8
Dimethyl isophthalate 580 - 0.025 15 84 8000 - 4
Dimethyl terephthalate 570 - 0.030 20 105 12000 6 4
S-S'-Dimethyl xanthogene-
thylene bis dithiocarbamate 400 - 0.300 3200 84 1500 - 1
Dinitro aniline 470 - - - - - - 8
3,5-Dinitrobenzamide 500 Melts 0.040 45 163 6500 - 1
3,5-Dinotrobenzoic acid 460 - 0.050 45 139 4300 - 1
Dinitrobenzoyl chloride 380 - - - - - - 8
Dinitrocresol 340 Melts 0.03 - - - - 1,2
4,4'-Dinitro-sym-diphenyl
urea 550 - 0.095 60 102 2500 - 1
Dinitro stilbene disulphonic
acid 450 - - - - - - 8
Dinitrotoluamide 500 - 0.050 15 153 >10000 - 6
Diphenyl 630 - 0.015 20 82 3700 - 1
4,4'-Diphenyl di 590 140 0.065 30 143 5500 - 1
sulphonylazide
Diphenylol propane
(bisphenol-A) 570 - 0.012 11 81 11800 5 4,8 Inert gas
nitrogen
Egg white 610 - 0.14 640 58 500 - 5
Epoxy resin 490 - 0.015 9 94 8500 - 4,8
Esparto grass - - - - 94 7300 - 8
Ethyl cellulose 340 330 0.025 15 112 7000 - 4
Ethylene diamine tetra
acetic acid 450 - 0.075 50 106 3000 - 1
Ethyl hydroxyethyl cellulose
390 - 0.020 30 94 2200 - 6
Ferric ammonium
ferrocyanide 390 210 1.500 - 17 100 - 1
Maximum
oxygen
concen-
Minimum Minimum Maximum tration
ignition explosible Minimum Maximum rate of to prevent
temperature concen- ignition explosion pressure ignition
oC tration energy pressure rise % by
2 2
Dust Cloudlayer g/l mJ lb/in lb/in s volume References Notes
Ferric dimethyl dithio
carbamate 280 150 0.055 25 86 6300 - 1
Ferric ferrocyanide 370 - - - 82 1000 - 1
Ferrochromium 790 670 2.00 - - - - 3
Ferromanganese 450 290 0.130 80 62 5000 - 3
Ferrosilicon (45 % Si) 640 - - - - - - 2
Ferrosilicon (90 % Si) Did not 980 0.240 1280 113 3500 - 3
ignite
Ferrotitanium 370 400 0.140 80 55 9500 - 3
Ferrous ferrocyanide 380 190 0.400 - - - - 1
Ferrovanadium 440 400 1.300 400 - - - 3
Fish meal 485 - - - - - - 2
Fumaric acid 520 - 0.085 35 103 3000 - 4
Garlic 360 - 0.10 240 57 1300 - 5
Gelatin, dried 620 480 <0.5 - 78 1200 - 1
Gilsonite 580 500 0.020 25 78 4500 - 7
Graphite 730 580 - - - - - 7
Grass - - - - 56 400 - 8
Gum arabic 500 260 0.060 100 117 3000 - 4
Gum Karaya 520 240 0.100 180 116 2500 - 4
Gum manila (copal) 360 390 0.030 30 89 6000 - 4
Gum tragacanth 490 260 0.040 45 123 5000 - 4
Hexa methylene tetramine 410 - 0.015 10 98 11000 11 4
Horseradish - - <0.100 - 96 1600 - 6
Hydrazine acid tartrate 570 - 0.175 460 30 200 - 1
p-Hydroxy benzoic acid 620 - 0.040 - 37 - - 1
Hydroxyethyl cellulose 410 - 0.025 40 106 2600 - 6
Hydroxyethyl methyl
cellulose 410 - - - - - - 8
Hydroxy propyl cellulose 400 - 0.020 30 96 2900 - 6
Iron 430 240 - - - - - 2
Iron, carbonyl 420 230 0.105 100 47 8000 - 3
Iron pyrites 380 280 1.00 8200 5 100 - 3
Isatoic anhydride 700 - 0.035 25 80 4900 - 1
Isinglass 520 - - - Nil Nil - 8
Isophthalic acid 700 - 0.035 25 78 3100 - 4
Kelp 570 220 Did not Did not 19 200 - 5
ignite ignite
Lactalbumin 570 240 0.040 50 97 3500 - 4
Lampblack 730 - - - - - - 7
Lauryl peroxide - - - 12 90 6400 - 8
Lead 790 290 - Did not 3 100 - 3 Flame ignition
ignite source in pressure
test
Leather 390 - - - - - - 8
Lignin 450 - 0.040 20 102 5000 7 4
Lignite 450 200 0.030 30 94 8000 - 7
Lycopodium 480 310 0.025 40 75 3100 9 5
Maximum
oxygen
concen-
Minimum Minimum Maximum tration
ignition explosible Minimum Maximum rate of to prevent
temperature concen- ignition explosion pressure ignition
oC tration energy pressure rise % by
2 2
Dust Cloudlayer g/l mJ lb/in lb/in s volume References Notes
Magnesim 560 430 0.030 40 116 15000 3
Maize husk 430 - - - 75 700 - 8
Maize starch 410 - - - - - - 2
Maleic anhydride 500 Melts - - - - - 2
Malt barley 400 250 0.055 35 95 4400 - 5
Manganese 460 240 0.125 305 53 4900 - 3
Manganese ethylene bis 270 - 0.07 35 - - - 8
dithio carbamate
Manioc 430 - - - - - - 8
Mannitol 460 - 0.065 40 97 2800 - 1
Melamine formaldehyde 410 - 0.02 50 93 1800 - 4,8
resin
DL Methionine 370 360 0.025 35 119 5700 7 1
1-Methylamino 830 Melts 0.055 50 71 3300 - 1
anthraquinone
Methyl cellulose 360 340 0.030 20 133 6000 - 4
2,2-Methylene bis-4-ethyl-6-t-
butyl phenol 310 - - - 76 7300 - 8
Milk 440 - - - - - - 8
Milk, skimmed 490 200 0.050 50 95 2300 - 5
Milk sugar 450 Melts - - 31 - - 2
Molybdenum 720 360 - - - - - 3
Molybdenum disulfide 570 290 - - - - - 6
Monochloracetic acid 620 - - - - - - 8
Monosodium salt of trichloro 540 - - - - - - 8 Group (b) dust
ethylphosphate
Moss, Irish 530 230 Did not Did not 21 300 - 5
ignite ignite
Naphthalene 575 Melts - - 87 - - 2
b-Naphthalene-azo-dimethyl
aniline 510 Melts 0.020 50 70 2300 - 1
b-Naphthol 670 - - - - - - 8
Naphthol yellow 415 395 - - - - - 2
Nigrosine hydrochloride 630 - - - - - - 8
p-Nitro-o-anisidene 400 - - - - - - 8
p-Nitro-benzene arsonic -
acid 360 280 0.195 480 77 900 - 1
Nitrocellulose - - - 30 >256 >20900 - 8
Nitro diphenylamine 480 - - - - - - 8
Nitro furfural semi
carbazone 240 - - - >143 8600 - 8
Nitropyridone 430 Melts 0.045 35 111 >10000 - 1
p-Nitro-o-toluidine 470 - - - - - - 8
m-Nitro-p-toluidine 470 - - - - - - 8
Nylon 500 430 0.030 20 95 4000 6 4
Oilcake meal 470 285 - - - - - 2
Onion, dehydrated 410 - 0.130 Did not 35 500 - 5
ignite
Maximum
oxygen
concen-
Minimum Minimum Maximum tration
ignition explosible Minimum Maximum rate of to prevent
temperature concen- ignition explosion pressure ignition
oC tration energy pressure rise % by
2 2
Dust Cloudlayer g/l mJ lb/in lb/in s volume References Notes
Paper 440 270 0.055 60 96 3600 - 6
Para formaldehyde 410 - 0.040 20 133 13000 - 4
Peanut hull 460 210 0.045 50 116 8000 - 5
Peat 420 295 - - - - - 2
Peat, sphagnum 460 240 0.045 50 104 2200 - 5
Pectin 410 200 0.075 35 132 8000 - 5
Penicillin, N-ethyl piperidine,
salt of 310 - - - - - - 8
Penta erythritol 450 - 0.030 10 90 9500 7 4
Phenol formaldehyde 450 - 0.015 10 107 6500 - 8,4
Phenol furfural resin 530 - 0.025 10 88 8500 - 4
Phenothiazine 540 - 0.030 - 56 3000 - 1
p-Phenylene diamine 620 - 0.025 30 94 11000 - 4
Phosphorus, red 360 305 - - - - - 2
Phosphorus pentasulfide 280 270 0.050 15 64 >10000 - 1
Phthalic acid 650 Melts - - 62 - - 2
Phthalic anhydride 605 Melts 0.015 15 72 4200 11 2,4
Phthalimide 630 - 0.030 50 89 4800 - 1
Phthalodinitrile >700 Melts - - 43 - - 2
Phytosterol 330 Melts 0.025 10 76 >10000 - 1
Piperazine 480 - - - 72 1400 - 1
Pitch 710 - 0.035 20 88 6000 - 7
Polyacetal 440 - 0.035 20 113 4100 - 4
Polycrylamide 410 240 0.040 30 85 2500 - 4
Polyacrylonitrile 500 460 0.025 20 89 11000 - 4
Polycarbonate 710 - 0.025 25 96 4700 - 4
Polyethylene 390 - 0.020 10 80 7500 - 4,8
Polyethylene oxide 350 - 0.030 30 106 2100 5 4
Polyethylene terephthalate 500 - 0.040 35 98 5500 - 4
Poly isobutyl methacrylate 500 280 0.020 40 74 2800 - 4
Poly methacrylic acid 450 290 0.045 100 97 1800 - 4
Polymethyl methacrylate 440 - 0.020 15 101 1800 7 4
Polymonochlorotrifluoro Did not Did not Did not Did not - 4
ethylene 600 720 ignite ignite ignite ignite
Polypropylene 420 - 0.020 30 76 5500 - 4
Polystyrene 500 500 0.020 15 100 7000 - 4
Polytetrafluoro ethylene 670 570 Did not Did not Did not Did not - 4
ignite ignite ignite ignite
Polyurethane foam 510 440 0.030 20 87 3700 - 4
Polyurethane foam, fire
retardant 550 390 0.025 15 86 3700 - 4
Polyvinylacetate 450 - 0.040 160 69 1000 11 4,8 Inert gas carbon
dioxide
Polyvinyl alcohol 450 Melts - - 78 - - 2
Polyvinyl butyral 390 - 0.020 10 84 2000 5 4
Polyvinyl chloride 670 - Did not Did not 38 500 - 4 Flame ignition
ignite ignite source
Polyvinylidene chloride 670 - - - - - - 8 Group (b) dust
Maximum
oxygen
concen-
Minimum Minimum Maximum tration
ignition explosible Minimum Maximum rate of to prevent
temperature concen- ignition explosion pressure ignition
oC tration energy pressure rise % by
2 2
Dust Cloudlayer g/l mJ lb/in lb/in s volume References Notes
Polyvinyl pyrrolidone 465 Melts - - 15 - - 2
Potassium hydrogen tartrate
520 - - - - - - 1
Potassium sorbate 380 180 0.120 60 79 9500 - 1
Potato, dried 450 - - - 97 1000 - 8
Potato starch 430 - - - - - - 2
Provender 370 - - - 93 1400 - 8
Pyrethrum 460 210 0.100 80 95 1500 - 1
Quillaia bark 450 - - - - - - 8
Rape seed meal 465 - - - - - - 2
Rayon, viscose 420 - - - - - - 8
Rayon, flock - - 0.03 - - - - 8
Rice 440 240 0.050 50 105 2700 - 5
Rosin 390 - 0.015 10 87 1200 - 4
Rubber 380 - - - - - - -8
Rubber, crude, hard 350 - 0.025 50 80 3800 13 4
Rubber, crumb 440 - - - 84 3300 - 8
Rubber, vulcanized 360 - - - 40 - - 2
Rye flour 415 325 - - 335 - - 2
Saccharin 690 - - - - - - 1
Salicylanilide 610 Melts 0.040 20 73 4800 - 1
Salicylic acid 590 - 0.025 - 84 6800 - 4,8
Sawdust 430 - - - 97 2000 - 8
Sebacic acid - - - - 74 400 - 8
Senna 440 - 0.010 105 49 300 - 8
Shellac 400 - 0.020 10 73 3600 9 4
Silicon Did not 760 <0.10 80 94 13000 - 3
ignite
Soap 430 600 0.085 100 77 2800 - 6
Sodium acetate 590 - 0.030 35 90 4600 - 1
Sodium amatol 580 680 0.050 80 91 800 - 1
Sodium benzoate 560 680 0.050 80 91 3700 - 1
Sodium carboxmethyl 320 - 1.10 440 49 400 5 8
cellulose
Sodium 2-chloro-5 nitro-
benzene sulphonate 550 440 - - - - - 1
Sodium 2,2-dichloro
propionate 500 - 0.260 220 68 500 - 1
Sodium dihydroxy
naphthalene disulfonate 510 - - - - - - 8 Group (b) dust.
Sodium glucaspaldrate 600 - - - - - - 8
Sodium glucoheptonate 600 - - - - - - 8
Sodium monochloracetate 550 - - - - - - 8
Sodium m-nitrobenzene
sulphonate - - - - 92 400 - 1
Sodium m-nitrobenzoate - - - - 87 2900 - 1
Sodium pentachlorophenate Did not 360 - - Did not Did not - 1
ignite ignite ignite
Maximum
oxygen
concen-
Minimum Minimum Maximum tration
ignition explosible Minimum Maximum rate of to prevent
temperature concen- ignition explosion pressure ignition
oC tration energy pressure rise % by
2 2
Dust Cloudlayer g/l mJ lb/in lb/in s volume References Notes
Sodium propionate 479 - - - 70 700 - 8
Sodium secobarbital 520 - 0.100 960 76 800 - 1
Sodium sorbate 400 140 0.050 30 87 6500 - 1
Sodium thiosulfate 510 330 - - 11 <100 - 1 Guncotton
ignition source in
pressure test.
Sodium toluene sulphonate 530 - - - - - - 8
Sodium xylene sulphonate 490 - - - - - - 8
Soot >690 535 - - Did not Did not - 2
ignite ignite
Sorbic acid 440 460 0.020 15 106 >10000 5 1,8 Inert gas nitrogen
L-Sorbose 370 - 0.065 80 76 4700 - 1
Soya flour 550 340 0.060 100 94 800 9 5
Soya protein 540 - 0.050 60 87 6500 9 5
Starch 470 - - - - - - 8
Starch, cold water 490 - - - - - - 8
Stearic acid 290 - - 25 80 8500 - 1
Steel 450 - - - - - - 8
Streptomycin sulphate 700 - - - - - - 8
Sucrose 420 Melts 0.045 40 86 5500 - 1
Sugar 370 400 0.045 30 109 5000 - 5
Sulphur 190 220 0.035 15 78 4700 - 1
Tantalum 630 300 <0.20 120 55 4400 - 3
Tartaric acid 350 - - - - - - 8
Tea 500 - - - 93 1700 - 8
Tea, instant 580 340 Did not Did not 48 400 - 5
ignite ignite
Tellurium 550 340 - - - - - 3
Terephthalic acid 680 - 0.050 20 84 8000 - 4
Tetranitro carbazole 395 Melts - - - - - 2
Thiourea 420 Melts - - 29 100 - 1
Thorium 270 280 0.075 5 79 5500 - 3
Thorium hydride 260 20 0.080 3 81 12000 - 3
Tin 630 430 0.190 80 48 1700 - 3
Titanium 375 290 0.045 15 85 11000 Ignites in 2,3
carbon
dioxide
Titanium hydride 480 540 0.070 60 121 12000 3 3
Tobacco 485 290 - - - - - 2
Tobacco, dried 320 - - - 85 1000 - 8
Tobacco, stem 420 230 Did not Did not 53 400 - 5
ignite ignite
Tribromosalicyl anilide 880 Melts - - - - - 1
Trinitro toluene - - 0.070 75 63 2100 - 6
s-Trioxane 480 - 0.143 - 85 600 - 1
, '-Trithiobis (N,N-
dimethyl-thioformamide) 280 230 0.060 35 96 6000 - 1
Maximum
oxygen
concen-
Minimum Minimum Maximum tration
ignition explosible Minimum Maximum rate of to prevent
temperature concen- ignition explosion pressure ignition
oC tration energy pressure rise % by
2 2
Dust Cloudlayer g/l mJ lb/in lb/in s volume References Notes
Tung 540 240 0.07 240 74 1900 - 5
Tungsten 730 470 - - Did not Did not - 3
ignite ignite
Uranium 20 100 0.060 45 69 5000 - 3
Uranium hydride 20 20 0.060 5 74 9000 - 3
Urea 900 - Did not Did not Did not Did not - 4,8 Group (b) dust.
ignite ignite ignite ignite
Urea formaldehyde
molding powder 460 - 0.085 80 89 3600 9 4
Urea formaldehyde resin 430 - 0.02 34 110 1600 - 8
Vanadium 500 490 0.220 60 57 1000 10 3
Vitamin B1 mononitrate 380 190 0.035 35 120 9000 - 1
Vitamin C 460 280 0.070 60 88 4800 - 1
Walnut shell 420 210 0.035 60 121 5500 - 5
Wax, accra 260 - - - - - - 8
Wax, carnauba 340 - - - - - - 8
Wax, paraffin 340 - - - - - - 8
Wheat, flour 380 360 0.050 50 109 3700 - 5
Wheat, grain dust 420 290 - - 43 - - 2
Wheat starch 430 - 0.045 25 100 6500 - 5
Wood 360 - - - 90 5700 5 8
Wood, bark 450 250 0.020 60 103 7500 - 4
Wood, flour 430 - 0.050 20 94 8500 7 4
Wood, hard 420 315 - - 66 - - 2
Wood, soft 440 325 - - 63 - - 2
Yeast 520 260 0.050 50 123 3500 - 5
Zinc 680 460 0.500 960 70 1800 - 3
Zinc ethylene dithio-
carbamate 480 180 - - 45 300 - 1
Zinc stearate 315 Melts 0.020 10 80 >10000 - 1,2
Zirconium 20 220 0.045 5 75 11000 Ignites in 3
carbon
dioxide
Zirconium hydride 350 270 0.085 60 90 9500 3 3
Cyclones 1 Page
The following pages show a typical specification for a dilute phase pneumatic
conveying system, used for low linear density polyethylene. (Contract 468200,
Specification SP-4682-48-7, Pneumatic Conveying Systems).
This plant was built in Saudi Arabia and worked very well.
A similar plant for polypropylene was built in Cologne, Germany where a dense
phase conveying system was used, manufactured by Buhler Miag. Double rotary
feeders were used in tandem to suit the higher pressures (up to 25 psig).
Specification SP-4682-48-7
1.1 This specification sets forth and defines the design, engineering, materials of construction
and fabrication requirements for pneumatic conveying systems handling Linear Low
Density Polyethylene pellets and granules at Al-Jubail, Saudi Arabia.
1.2 All systems will conform to the design basis described in Paragraph 3.0
1.3 The word VENDOR used in this specification refers to the prime manufacturer receiving
this specification; any and all subsuppliers or material and/or equipment furnished to the
VENDOR shall be required to meet all of the requirements of these specifications. It
shall be VENDOR's responsibility to see that subsuppliers and sub-supplied materials
conform to these specifications. The word PURCHASER used in this specification refers
to Fluor Corporation or its agent.
1.4 Any change in or exception to any part of this specification by the VENDOR must be
defined by the VENDOR in his proposal. Except for the exceptions listed in the
VENDOR's proposal, the content of this specification and all related specifications and/or
attachments fully meet the understanding and acceptance of the VENDOR. No change in
design, engineering, materials of construction, fabrication and/or supply of any system or
component thereof shall be made without the written approval and acceptance of the
PURCHASER.
2.0 GENERAL
2.1 As a minimum requirement of the VENDOR, the design, fabrication and supply of each
system shall include all items specifically listed herein. The fact that certain items may
not be listed or described in detail (such as injector tees, water cooled air coolers,
blowers, rotary feeders, line filters, line mufflers, bag filters, diverter gates and valves, air
regulators, filters, oil lubricators and the like), shall net relieve the VENDOR of the full
responsibility of designing, fabricating and supplying such items and/or material in order
to make and guarantee each component and system to be a complete operating unit.
Refer to the following paragraph for specific items furnished by the PURCHASER.
2.2 Motor drivers for blowers, rotary feeders and other motor drivers for equipment items
shall be furnished by the PURCHASER.
PURCHASER will be selecting a specific motor supplier, and VENDOR will be required
to purchase drivers only from this supplier. However, if a motor is specially
manufactured for a piece of equipment, an exception may be made. VENDOR must
submit a description of the special motor for PURCHASER'S approval. Mounting of all
motors will be by the VENDOR.
2.2.1 Unless specifically noted herein, all starters and controls will be supplied by the
PURCHASER.
2.2.2 VENDOR shall supply motor support base plate as part of the blower base if it is
designed as an integral part of the blower base. All other drive components, such
as chain and/or "V" belt drives, motor slide rails, bases, guards, and drive sheaves
shall be furnished by the VENDOR. Drive guards shall provide protection but
allow a clear view of the drive without removing the guard.
2.2.3 All blowers shall be furnished complete with their own bed plates or fabricated
plates or cast frames as may be the case. The bed plate or frame shall be sized to
act as a common base for the motor, silencers, and belt or coupling guards.
VENDOR shall mount the blower, silencers, filters, motor, drive and belt guard
(with belts) and ship complete as an assembled unit.
NOTE: Motors shall be designed for continuous operation at the rated load;
operation at rated conditions shall not utilize the service factor of the motor (if
any). V-Belt drives shall be designed on the basis of supplied motor power
before taking in account belt service factor.
2.3 All system control panels, panel mounted and remote initiating devices and indicating
lights complete with wiring to all local and panel mounted devices and lights will be
furnished by the PURCHASER.
2.4 All pneumatically operated valves complete with solenoids (where applicable), air
cylinders, filters, lubricators, speed control regulators and position switches to actuate
local and panel mounted devices and lights shall be furnished by the VENDOR. All such
devices shall be designed for continuous duty in the high humidity, sandy, seaport
conditions of Al-Jubail, Saudi Arabia.
2.5 Valving will be electrically interlocked by the PURCHASER so that operating errors will
be reduced in critical systems. Multiple contact position switches shall be furnished by
the VENDOR.
2.6 VENDOR shall furnish all gasket and bolting materials where VENDOR furnished
equipment and/or material connects to equipment and/or material furnished by others.
2.7 VENDOR shall supply certified dimensional outline drawings, cross sections, operating
instructions, parts lists, design data, shop and erection drawings covering each system for
all component parts. This includes equipment items such as blowers, rotary feeders,
injector tees, line mufflers, bag filters and shaker mechanisms, line filters, diverter gates
and diverter valves, water cooled air coolers, air regulators, oil lubricators and the like,
instruments and related controls (where applicable and as qualified in this Section),
product receivers, gaskets and insulating material for flanged pipe joints, motor drives,
motor drive components, butterfly valves, slide gates, transition pieces, conveying and
return air piping and the like. All equipment items and component parts of each separate
conveying system shall be identified with a metal tag showing all of the following data:
2.7.1 The PURCHASER's respective line number of which the particular item is a part
and VENDOR's detailed "spool" isometric,
i.e., "Line 22-21 ALC-10" - SHT1-MK5."
2.8 All shop piping (cutting and/or spool) drawings prepared by the VENDOR shall conform
to the general arrangement shown on the PURCHASER's final drawings. When
applicable, equipment outline drawings shall show anchor bolt diameter and location plus
load requirements for the design of reinforced concrete foundations and other supports.
Outline drawings shall also show any special space requirements for maintenance or
routine operations.
2.9 Specifications and/or drawings transmitted as attachments are applicable and shall be
considered a part of this specification. The fact that certain detail shown on these
drawings or called for in these specifications is not specifically referred to in this
specification does not relieve the VENDOR from including such detailed material and/or
equipment in his supply. In the absence of specific mention to the contrary, it will be
assumed that the VENDOR's proposal is all inclusive and, as such, fully meets with the
full compliance of this specification and/or drawings and specifications included as
attachments.
2.10 In addition to the specific items noted elsewhere in this specification, the following will
also be furnished by the PURCHASER:
2.10.1 Electrical wiring to all limit switches, motors, controls and electro-pneumatically
controlled solenoid valves and slide gates.
2.10.3 All product storage tanks and product weigh tanks including product blenders.
2.10.5 Local and main control panels including all motor control centers.
2.10.8 Foundations for equipment and structural supports, all structural steel and/or
aluminum supporting structures. Integral type equipment supporting steel or
aluminum to be furnished by VENDOR. All filters, line coolers, cyclones, etc.
shall have tabs or connection points designed for the attachment of supports.
Such tabs shall be provided by VENDOR.
2.11 A complete list of all sub-suppliers shall be furnished to the PURCHASER by the
VENDOR.
2.12 All equipment that requires lubrication and is shipped without such lubricant in place
shall be clearly marked to warn personnel that the addition of lubricant is required before
the operation of the equipment.
2.13 Equipment furnished under this specification shall conform to applicable requirements of
the following Fluor specifications:
2.13.4 Deleted
2.15 Utilities
2.17.1 For motor starters, supplementary control devices and intermediate wiring refer
to Fluor Specification SP-4682-60-2, Electrical Requirements for Packaged
Mechanical Equipment.
2.17.2 All instruments and controls shall be in accordance with Fluor Specifica-tion SP-
4682-70-7, Instrumentation Supplied by Equipment VENDORs, and the
requirements specified herein.
2.17.3 All required interface connection points for equipment supplied by others shall
be in accordance with Fluor Specification SP-4682-60-2, Electrical Requirements
for Packaged Mechanical Equipment.
2.18 Identification
2.18.1 Marking
Each assembly shall have its Equipment Tag Number as indicated by the
Purchase Order and/or specification (data) sheet, impression stamped on a
nameplate permanently attached to the assembly.
2.18.2 Tagging
Each item shall be identified with its Purchase Order number and Item number.
In addition, manufacturer's part number shall be match marked to a
corresponding drawing for installation purposes. Tags shall be corrosion
resistant metal (not aluminum) and impression stamped. (Also see Section 2.7 of
this specification).
2.19.1 Equipment shipped to the jobsite will be exposed to Saudi Arabia's Al-Jubail area
climatic construction conditions for several months prior to installation.
Provisions shall be made by the supplier for long term protection of this
equipment against damage which may be caused by wind, dust, salt laden
atmosphere, sand, and rain.
2.19.2 After inspection and prior to shipment, all unpainted and unmachined exterior
surfaces shall be primed and painted. All machined or threaded exterior surfaces
shall not be primed but rather coated with Esso Rust-Ban 324 or 385. Internal
machined or threaded surfaces shall be coated with Rust-Ban 339. Provision of
strong air tight sealed enclosure containing silica gel or other desiccant is
acceptable as an alternate to the above. Painting shall be in accordance with
Specification SP-4682-80-2.
2.19.3 VENDOR shall be solely responsible for the adequacy of the "Preparation for
Shipment" provisions employed with respect to materials and application to
provide equipment to its destination in an "ex-works" condition.
3.1 The polyethylene product that is to be transferred by each pneumatic conveying system
will have the approximate characteristics as per Section 3.16 of this specification.
3.2 See the attached plot plan drawings, system descriptions, and preliminary isometric
drawings for definition, capacity, and routings of the conveying systems.
3.3 A primary consideration in the design, fabrication and operation of each system will be to
ensure product cleanliness and the prevention of any cross-contamination between
transfers of different grades of products. All piping interiors of piping runs that actually
carry product shall be without internal projections (such as welds at pipe joints). Internal
diameters of mating parts shall be the same or tapered if required; internal surface
alignment must be maintained to avoid creating any internal discontinuity. Care shall be
taken to prevent misalignment of pipe joints that would result in an intake of air, dust,
and the like from internal negative pressure. Gaskets for any joint shall be so cut to avoid
internal projection after installation.
3.4 All piping that will be used to physically convey and transfer product shall be "treated" or
"prepared" internally over the entire perimeter and length of each piece of pipe after
fabrication. This internal "treatment" or "preparation" is required to minimize the
creation of product "smears," "fluff," and/or "streamers" during product transfer. If
sandblasting is used, treatment shall be equivalent to sandblasting with #6 flint.
VENDOR shall submit sample of treated pipe for approval prior to fabrication.
3.5 System components such as valves, feeders, etc., shall be furnished with circular cross
sections and circular late flanges. Square flanges are not prohibited, but shall be used
only when the square flange and transition is proven necessary for design purposes or
where a particular piece of equipment is only manufactured with a square flange.
3.6 Pressure drop in that portion of pipe before product entering the conveying line shall be
minimized. In general, the "air only" piping shall be one pipe diameter larger than the
"conveying" piping, unless the pipe run is quite short.
3.7 System capacities as shown in the attached system description sheets are stated as the
average transfer rate which must be realized over the entire transfer period, from start of
the first blower in the system until the lines are cleared of the pellet "dribble" at the end
of the transfer. Transfer quantities for rating purposes will be he complete contents of
storage silos.
3.8 Product pick-up velocity shall be 18.4 m/s (3600 FPM) for pellet only systems and
21 m/s (4100 FPM) for any system handling granules plus or minus 0.5 m/s. After taking
into account air losses through rotary feeder and diverter valve leakages, air terminal
velocities for pellet service shall not exceed 30.5 m/s (6000 FPM) to minimize creation of
fines, streamers and the like.
3.9 For each system a table shall be prepared giving the following process data as a
minimum:
Capacity
Line Size
Pick-up Point(s)
Terminal Point(s)
Motor KW Provided
3.10 Each conveying System shall be designed such that temperature of the conveying air will
not exceed 50°C (40°C alternate). Coolers shall be provided and shall be designed for
rated air flow and a temperature rise across the blower at its maximum pressure rating at
maximum ambient air temperature. Ambient air conditions and utilities available are
shown on the pneumatic line heat exchanger data sheets.
3.11 All conveying lines and equipment shall be bonded and grounded to dissipate static
electricity. Where flexible connections are used, these shall be "jumpered" with bonded
conductors.
3.12 Control schemes for the various systems will be shown on the Mechanical Flow
Diagrams. In general, when the pick-up point is a storage silo, transfer rate will be
controlled by regulating the slide valve at the silo discharge based on "push" blower
pressure in the pull-push system.
3.13 Filters shall be furnished for all systems under the following general classifications:
Product Dust Filters installed on the intake side of blowers at the terminal end of "pull" or
"vacuum" blowers and on the discharge side of pellet receivers on "push systems, to
remove product dust exhaust to atmosphere.
Vacuum System Intake Filters installed at the inlet end of "vacuum" or "pull" systems to
remove air-borne particles from the conveying air.
Line Filters installed at the discharge side of "push" blowers remove air-borne particles
from the conveying air.
Intake Filter Silencers installed at the intake of "push" blowers to remove air-borne
particles from entering the blower and to reduce blower noise levels.
Product Filter-Receivers installed at transfer points from pull systems to push systems to
act as both a receiver and a filter.
Bin and Silo Vent Collector installed on bins and silos to remove product dust from
exhaust air.
3.14 Every effort shall be made to maximize interchangeability of filter bags and elements
throughout the system.
4.0 ENGINEERING
4.1 The basic arrangement of all equipment for each conveying system will be provided by
PURCHASER. Drawings shall show the preferred routing of all air and conveying lines,
pick-up and discharge points and location of major pieces of equipment. These drawings
are intended as the basis of design by the VENDOR. The VENDOR may propose
corrections and/or changes to the general routing and/or equipment shown on the
drawings. Such proposed changes shall be clearly outlined by VENDOR for review and
approval of PURCHASER.
4.2 The successful VENDOR shall submit certified equipment outlines covering equipment
component items offered by the VENDOR for all systems. PURCHASER will then
complete plan and elevation drawings which will then be transmitted to VENDOR.
4.3 The VENDOR shall use these final plans and elevation drawings to establish his design
and layout and fabrication requirements for the ultimate final fabrication and installation
drawings.
4.4 In the event PURCHASER elects to prepare detailed "spool" isometric drawings for
piping systems, these shall be reviewed and approved by VENDOR for full compliance
with his design. These detailed "spool" isometric drawings shall not be released to
VENDOR'S fabricator until they have been checked and signed by the VENDOR.
4.5 If VENDOR is required to prepare the detailed isometric drawings covering all
VENDOR supplied conveying and air lines and other VENDOR supplied equipment
piping, these shall be checked and signed by VENDOR and then submitted to
PURCHASER for review. It shall not be the PURCHASER'S function to check or
approve such drawings and VENDOR shall take responsibility for their accuracy. These
"spool" isometrics are not to be used by VENDOR'S fabricator until they have been
reviewed by PURCHASER.
4.6 The specification, design and/or drawing functions performed or to be performed by the
PURCHASER shall not be construed as a means of diminishing the VENDOR's
responsibility for the design engineering, guarantee, fabrication and/or supply of any
work,
4.7 PURCHASER's approval will not relieve the VENDOR of his responsibility, i.e., the
VENDOR shall assume full responsibility for compliance with specific codes, inquiry
and/or purchase order terms and conditions; PURCHASER's approval or review conveys
no responsibility for the accuracy of shop dimensions, satisfactory field fit-up and
erection, design and/or compliance with codes. All these remain the full responsibility of
VENDOR.
5.1 All equipment and materials of construction shall be in strict accordance with this
specification, referenced specifications, and attached drawings and component sections.
5.2 Metal parts of surfaces in contact with product shall be either aluminum or stainless steel,
except for product material to be discharged to trash bins (see data sheets and isometric
drawings). This includes surfaces which are used in air only piping located downstream
of line filters. No substitution will be permitted unless approved in writing by
PURCHASER. All conveying piping shall be as noted elsewhere in this specification.
5.3 Nonmetallic parts in contact with pellets shall be soft white neoprene, clear plastic which
is compatible with conventional low density polyethylene, or Teflon.
5.4 Except as noted herein and/or in the attached drawings, all storage tanks (supplied by
other's) shall be equipped with an outlet slide valve supplied by pneumatic system
VENDOR. All outlet slide valves shall be required to close and seal tightly against flow
of pellets while conveying systems are operating. Valves shall be set initially for a 10
second duration of stroke in each direction of travel. Those slide valves requiring
positioners to regulate product flow shall be shown on the attached drawings and/or data
sheets.
5.5 Pressure and vacuum relief valves shall be located on the suction and pressure lines of
each system and shall be furnished and mounted by the VENDOR. Valves shall be set
for either maximum pressure rating of the blower or installed motor KW whichever
governs. Valves shall be sized to allow continuous safe operation of blower while valves
are relieving.
5.6 Each vacuum or pull system shall include a tap for a vacuum gage located immediately
upstream of the blower air inlet flange unless noted elsewhere in the drawings. Heavy
duty, vibration resistant vacuum gages with connecting tubing and pulsation snubbers
shall be furnished by VENDOR mounted on a free standing pedestal that is firmly
connected to he blower package base.
5.7 Each "push" system shall include a tap for a pressure gage located immediately
downstream of the blower air discharge silencer unless noted otherwise in the drawings.
Heavy duty, vibration resistant pressure gages with connecting tubing and pulsation
snubbers shall be furnished by VENDOR mounted on a free standing pedestal that is
firmly connected to the blower package base. On both the intake and discharge of ALL
blowers or associated piping, a spare 3/8 inch coupling with plug shall be provided.
5.8 In cases where a brass body, vacuum or pressure gage tap, temperature indicator or
thermowell is used, an isolating bushing made of stainless steel shall be used between the
tap or indicator and the screwed coupling welded to the air piping.
5.9 Except as noted elsewhere, instrument connections shall be 1"-3000 pounds forged
aluminum screwed half coupling to alloy 6061-T6. Teflon tape is to be used for thread
compound for SS to aluminum screwed joints.
5.10 Product entry to tanks shall be through "target boxes" supplied by others.
5.11 Aluminum piping and flanges shall be isolated from carbon steel bolting and pipe
supports with stainless steel shims.
5.12 Deleted
5.13 The equipment furnished under this specification shall be designed and fabricated by a
manufacturer regularly engaged in the manufacture of pneumatic conveying systems and
auxiliary equipment.
5.14 VENDOR shall bid equipment similar in mechanical design and detail to equipment
previously designed and constructed by the VENDOR which has demonstrated a
minimum of two (2) years of successful operation in similar service.
5.15
6.0 INSPECTION
Materials furnished by the VENDOR shall be subject to inspection, test and/or rejection by
PURCHASER. Any rejection by the inspector shall be final; however, his inspection and
acceptance shall in no way release the VENDOR from guarantee as to materials, workmanship,
performance or compliance with this specification.
7.0 GUARANTEE
VENDOR shall guarantee equipment and piping proposed and/or furnished against defective
design, material and workmanship as specified.
The VENDOR shall be required to guarantee that all pipe, equipment and components of all
systems covered by this specification will be designed and arranged and be of sufficient capacity
and/or size to perform all of the transfers at the conveying rates as defined in Paragraph 3.7.
VENDOR shall guarantee equipment proposed and/or furnished against defective design,
material and workmanship in accordance with the terms of the "Request for Quotation" and/or
"Purchase Order." In addition, VENDOR shall guarantee the performance of the equipment
proposed and/or furnished with regard to the mechanical design requirements set forth in this
specification.
8.0 EXCEPTIONS
Unless specific exceptions are listed under the heading "Exceptions" in the VENDOR's proposal
with a description of proposed substitution or exception, it shall be mutually understood that the
proposal is based on equipment and piping which fully complies with the requirements and intent
of this specification.
9.1 Scope
This section covers the requirements for furnishing blowers, inlet filter silencers, and
discharge silencers for dilute phase pneumatic conveying of polyethylene pellets or
granules.
9.2 Service
9.2.1 "Push" type blowers will draw ambient air through intake filters and silencers
and discharge through discharge silencers conveying air to pneumatic conveying
systems.
9.2.2 "Pull" type blowers will draw air from pneumatic conveying systems and
discharge through discharge silencers to atmosphere. Intake silencers shall be
supplied as required to meet noise level of Fluor Specification SP-4682-100-1.
Blowers shall be furnished complete, each with its own bed plate or fabricated plate or
cast iron frame as may be the case. The bed plate or frame shall be sized to act as a
common base for the blower, motor silencers and belt or coupling guards. VENDOR
shall mount motor, blower, sheaves, V-belts, silencers coupling and/or belt guards as a
complete assembly unit. See data sheets attached as part of this specification. The
attachment of intake and discharge silencers shall be sufficiently rigid to project blowers
from the effects of piping forces and moments induced by module sea shipping loads,
dead and live loads, wind or seismic loads, thermal expansion loads, and piping
vibrations, etc. Where intake silencers are not furnished on pull type blowers, allowable
piping loads shall be furnished by VENDOR on dimensional outlines, or PURCHASER's
piping flexibility shall be reviewed and approved by VENDOR.
9.4.1 Blowers shall be positive displacement type machines and shall be furnished
complete with sheaves, V-belt drives and belt guards, or direct coupled drive, to
VENDOR's standard. Gear boxes are not preferred and should be avoided if
possible. Blowers that do require direct drive shall be equipped with thrust
bearing(s). For blowers with motors larger than 150 kW (200 H.P), belt drives
shall not be used.
9.4.2 Blowers shall be designed and rated for continuous operation. Rotors shall be
statically balanced and complete rotor sets shall be dynamically balanced.
Pressure lubrication systems and oil coolers are not preferred and should be
avoided if possible.
9.4.3 All blowers shall be sized so the gear feet per minute shall not exceed 90 percent
of rated maximum and blower r/min shall not exceed 95 percent of rated
maximum conditions.
9.4.4 All blowers shall be equipped with heavy duty seals designed for high
temperature use with intermediate venting to prevent contamination of the air
stream by lubricants, either direct or air-borne. Labyrinth type seals are
acceptable, and mechanical seals should be avoided if possible.
9.4.5 Each vacuum or "pull" system shall include a heavy duty, vibration resistant
vacuum gauge (Ashcroft Duragauge 1279 or equal) and snubber and vacuum
relief valve(s) located immediately upstream of the blower or silencer (if used)
inlet flange.
9.4.8 Each pressure or "push" system shall include a heavy duty, vibration resistant
pressure gauge (Ashcroft Duragauge 1279 or equal) and snubber, and relief
valve(s) located downstream of the discharge muffler.
9.4.9 Pressure systems shall be equipped with the discharge silencer immediately
downstream from the blower discharge, and the intake filter and silencer
immediately upstream.
9.4.10 Air intake filters, intake silencers, and discharge silencers shall be selected and
sized by the VENDOR to limit blower noise level to conform with Fluor
Specifica-tion SP-4682-100-1, "Noise Limits for Mechanical Equipment."
Acoustical enclosures shall not be utilized to effect sound attenuation. Pulsation
and vibration affects on downstream or upstream equipment shall also be
considered in silencer design. All silencers shall be welded in accordance with
Section 9 of the ASME code.
9.4.11 Intake filters for blower packages shall be replaceable panel/cartridge type.
VENDOR shall describe the filter proposed and specify an efficiency that will
ensure operation of the blowers and system requirements as defined under the
"Guarantee" portion of this specification. VENDOR shall make every effort to
provide intake filters such that the same basic element(s) can be used on all
blower packages to minimize spares inventory. VENDOR shall furnish and
mount a differential pressure indicator (Midwest Instruments or equal) to indicate
pressure drop across the filter media. Also, an additional 3/8 inch coupling with
plug shall be provided on the clean side of the element(s).
9.4.13 All blowers shall have an impact resistant oil level sight glass in an easily viewed
position.
9.4.14 Vacuum and pressure relief valves shall be non-adjustable spring type (Kunkle
or equal) sized to relieve the full volume of the blower. Valve setting shall be set
at the maximum safe continuous value for the blower or the motor, whichever
governs.
9.4.15 Minimum instrumentation for V-belt blowers shall include a high air temperature
switch, pressure or vacuum gages, and on blowers equipped with pressure
lubrication, an oil pressure and temperature indicator and a low oil pressure
switch.
9.4.17 Drive motors will be furnished by PURCHASER and installed on the base by
VENDOR.
9.4.18 Assemblies furnished under this section shall be equipped with nameplates of
stainless material showing equipment number, design conditions (pressure and
temperature and air volume), test conditions (pressure) and PURCHASER's
drawing number. In addition, PURCHASER's item number shall be stenciled in
38 mm high (1-1/2 inches) black characters for rapid identification.
For each blower proposed, VENDOR shall furnish complete performance data. As a
minimum, the data shall include graphs showing operating speed versus power required
3
and operating speed versus inlet capacity (in m n/hr). For push blowers, these graphs
should show curves for standard inlet conditions and discharge conditions from 0.14 bar
gage (2 psig) to maximum discharge pressure in 0.14 bar (2 psi) increments. For pull
blowers, the graphs should show curves for discharge to standard atmospheric conditions
and inlet conditions from 50 mm Hg (2 inch) vacuum to maximum vacuum in 50 mm Hg
(2 inch) increments. VENDOR shall also furnish graphs showing "Slip r/min" versus
discharge pressure for push blowers and "Slip r/min" versus inlet vacuum for pull
blowers. "Slip r/min" is defined as the blower speed required to maintain the pressure
differential across the blower without net air movement through the blowers.
10.1 Scope
This section covers the requirements for furnishing Heat Exchangers for installation in
dilute phase pneumatic conveying systems for polyethylene pellets or granules.
10.2 Service
Heat Exchangers furnished under this specification will be used in pneumatic conveying
systems to cool discharge air from positive displacement blowers and will be located
between blower discharge silencers and line filters. Liquid coolant will be seawater.
Heat Exchangers shall be furnished as complete factory assembled units ready for jobsite
installation. See data sheets attached as part of this specification. VENDOR shall make
every effort to minimize the number of differently sized tube bundles to minimize spares
inventory.
10.4.2 Shell covers and tube or coil bundles shall be readily removable without
disconnection of the pneumatic pipe system.
10.4.3 Exchangers shall be equipped with high point air vents and large drain couplings.
10.4.5 Supports for exchangers are required and shall be shop welded. Holes for anchor
bolts shall be slotted on one support to allow for expansion if necessary.
10.4.6 Tube coil shall be hydrostatically tested prior to installation, and shell space shall
be hydrostatically tested after installation of the tube coil. Test shall be based on
not less than 1-1/2 times the operating pressures for both air and water side.
10.4.7 Tubes shall be 90 cu/10 ni or admiralty for seawater service with compatible fins.
Tube diameter and wall thickness shall be indicated by VENDOR. Assume a
fouling factor for seawater of .0004 m2oC/W (.0025 ft2oF hr/btu).
10.4.8 Units shall be constructed per ASME Code. Longitudinal seams shall be spot
checked per UW-52 of ASME Code. A code stamp is not required.
10.4.9 Design water flow velocity shall be 1.22 m/sec minimum and 2.44 m/sec
maximum (4 ft/sec to 8 ft/sec). Discharge air temperature shall not exceed 50°C
(122°F), with an alternate design using 40°C (104°F).
10.4.10 Air outlet and inlet nozzles shall be equipped with high quality vibration and
impact resistant air temperature indicators, with stem lengths that protrude into
the air piping half of the pipe diameter.
10.4.11 Side inlet and outlet nozzles of cooler tubes 2 inches and larger shall be equipped
with one X 1 inch and one X 3/4 inch - 3000 pounds forged steel full coupling
for temperature and pressure sensor connections.
10.4.12 In cases where a brass body, vacuum or pressure gauge, temperature indicator or
thermowell is used, an isolating bushing made of stainless steel shall be used
between the gauge or indicator and the aluminum screwed coupling welded to the
air piping.
10.4.13 Assemblies furnished under this specification shall be equipped with nameplates
of stainless material showing item number, drawing number, design conditions
(pressure and temperature) and test conditions (pressure). In addition, drawing
number shall be stenciled in 38 mm (1-1/2 inches) high black characters for rapid
identification.
10.4.14 VENDOR shall furnish two 3/8 inch pipe couplings with plugs in the air ducting,
one on each side of the cooling tube bundle.
11.1 Scope
This section covers the requirements for furnishing Pneumatic Line Filters for installation
in dilute phase pneumatic conveying systems for polyethylene pellets or granules.
11.2 Service
The Line Filters will be used to remove air-borne particles in pneumatic conveying
systems and will be installed on the discharge side of the "push" blowers.
11.3.1 Line Filters shall employ sufficient effective filtration area so that pressure drop
shall not exceed 64 mm (2-1/2 inches) water column.
11.3.2 Filters shall be 100 percent efficient for removal of air-borne particles of
5 microns and larger.
11.3.3 All filters of this type shall be designed to use the same size and type of dust
bags. See data sheets attached as part of this specification-
11.4.1 Metallic parts of filters in direct contact with air shall be of aluminum or type
300 series stainless steel.
11.4.3 Inlet flanges shall be located on the side of the filter body. Outlet flanges shall
be centrally located at the top of the filter body.
11.4.4 Filters shall be equipped with a VENDOR's standard diameter cleanout, centrally
located at bottom of filter. No shaker or backwash device is required.
11.4.5 Bag collars shall be welded to tube sheets and tube sheets shall be welded to
housings.
11.4.6 Filters shall be equipped with not less than two (2) pressure tight, hinged man-
way doors located 90o to inlet flange.
11.4.7 Air flow velocity across filter bags shall not exceed 2.43 m/min (8 ft/min).
11.4.8 Filter material shall be continuous multifilament dacron polyester and shall
conform to the following:
Weave: 3 x 1 twill
11.4.9 Construction of filter bags shall be such that no raw edges are exposed to the
product carrying air stream. All bag attachments to support brackets shall be
made by using polypropylene sash cord completely enclosed by covering seam of
the bag material. All sewing thread shall be of continuous monofilament dacron
or equal.
11.4.10 Item numbers as shown on data sheets shall be stamped on nameplates and
stenciled in 38 mm (1-1/2 inches) high black characters on filter bodies.
11.4.11 Design and construction of tube sheets and other internals shall be of sufficient
strength to withstand a pressure drop equal to maximum blower discharge
pressure.
11.4.12 An internal screen or grate shall be provided on the clean air outlet pipe to
prevent bags that may come loose from entering the conveying system.
11.4.13 VENDOR shall furnish and mount a differential pressure indicator (Midwest
Instruments or equal) to indicate pressure drop across the filter media. Also,
additional 3/8 inch pipe couplings with plugs shall be provided, one on each side
of the element.
11.5.1 All filter units shall be individually tested for air leakage at 15 psig.
11.5.2 The line filters shall be thoroughly cleaned and free of grease, weld spatter, scale,
rust and any other foreign material.
12.1 Scope
This section covers the requirements for furnishing Rotary Feeders to be installed in
dilute phase pneumatic conveying systems for polyethylene pellets or granules.
12.2 Service
The Rotary Feeders will be used to feed polyethylene product into pneumatic conveying
systems and gravity chutes, and to discharge collected fines and streamers into waste
containers.
12.3.1 Feeders shall be of the rotary lock drop through type with flanged inlet and outlet
per data sheet attached.
12.3.2 Differential pressure across the feeders shall be limited to one bar (15 lbs/in2).
12.3.3 Every effort shall be made to minimize the number of different sized feeders. All
feeders for discharging waste material shall be the same size.
12.4.1 Metallic parts of feeders in direct contact with product shall be of machined cast
aluminum or 300 series stainless steel fabrication. Nonmetallic parts in direct
contact with product shall be of Teflon. For feeders discharging to trash bins,
standard packing and iron/steel construction shall be supplied (see data sheets).
12.4.2 Feeder housing shall be stainless steel for product, cast iron for waste (see data
sheets), and shall be ribbed from flange to flange, and shall have motor base
support lugs as an integral part to permit the mounting of the gear motor base
directly to the unit.
12.4.3 Rotors shall be stainless steel for product, carbon steel for waste (see data
sheets), open end type (gussets are acceptable), and shall have not less than a
total of four (4) vanes in contact with the seal between inlet and outlet. Rotor
blade tips for all feeders shall be relieved on all three sides.
12.4.4 Rotors for product and waste shall be tipped with approximately 2.5 mm (0.10
inch) of Ampco Bronze.
12.4.5 Rotor speeds shall not exceed 20 r/min. For variable speed units, speed at normal
rate shall not exceed 20 r/min. For calculating feeder speed, assume that the
feeder pockets are only 65 percent full.
12.4.6 Feeder end plates shall be aluminum for product, cast iron for waste. All
aluminum headplates shall have purge air taps wish lantern rings and
interconnecting piping between both headplates.
12.4.7 Both end plates shall be drilled, tapped and plugged with 25 mm (1 inch)
diameter holes to permit checking rotor clearance.
12.4.8 Maximum clearance between rotor tips and housing I.D. shall be 150 microns
(0.006 inch).
12.4.9 For product rotor bearings shall be outboard of the stuffing boxes. Stuffing
boxes shall be lubricant free type. For waste, bearings shall be mounted in the
headplates with standard packing material (see data sheets).
12.4.10 Feeders with outboard bearings shall have "Drop-Outs" between rotor shroud and
end cover.
12.4.11 Feeder inlets shall be "raked" to minimize shearing of product. Pellet adaptors
are not acceptable.
12.4.12 All stainless steel feeders used in pneumatic conveying systems shall be supplied
with a vent port(s). If specified on a data sheet, a continuous filter sized for the
maximum expected leakage at maximum allowable rotor to housing wear shall
be included. Feeders discharging to waste do not require a vent (see data sheets).
12.4.13 All internal surfaces shall be free of projections (such as welds) that would tend
to create agglomerates.
12.4.14 Feeders shall be complete with drive gearmotor, chain drive, and guard allowing
visual inspection of the drive without removing the guard.
12.4.15 When specified on data sheets, safety switches (centrifugal type) shall be
provided mounted on the feeder shaft to shutdown other components. The
motion switch shall be single pole double throw with 5 amperes (resistive)
contact rating, and meet electrical area requirements specified in data sheets. The
contacts are to be normally open and switching point shall be fully adjustable.
Complete specifications and adjustment procedure shall be provided in the data
package.
12.4.16 Drive gearmotors shall be rated at least 10 percent above the required KW and in
no circumstance shall motors less than 0.37 KW (l/2 HP) be accepted.
12.4.17 Feeders shall be equipped with nameplates of stainless material. Equipment tag
item numbers shall be stenciled in 38 mm (1-1/'2 inches) high black characters.
12.5.1 Feeders shall be individually shop test run at not less than 1 bar gage (15 psig).
12.5.3 Test results shall be recorded on nameplates. (Leak rate at 1 bar gage (15 psig)).
12.5.4 The Rotary Feeders and all related equipment shall be thoroughly cleaned and
free of grease, weld spatter, scale, rust, and any other foreign material.
13.1 Scope
This section covers the requirements for furnishing pneumatically operated diverter
valves for installation in dilute phase pneumatic conveying systems for polyethylene
pellets or granules.
13.2 Service
Valves will be used to divert the flow of polyethylene pellets and granules in a pneumatic
conveying system.
Diverter valves shall be plug or tunnel type with quick acting operators and flange line
connections.
13.4.1 Metallic parts of diverter valves in direct contact with product shall be of
aluminum or 300 series stainless steel fabrication. Nonmetallic parts in direct
contact with product shall be of white neoprene or of teflon.
13.4.2 Valve bodies, end plates and plug type valves shall be of aluminum. VENDOR
shall furnish "oilite" bronze bushings (plug bearings). Product shall be prevented
from direct contact with bronze bushings by the use of closure seals fabricated of
teflon or equal material.
13.4.3 Clearance between O.D. of plug and I.D. of valve body shall be subject to
PURCHASER's approval. In general the clearance shall be 150 micron (0.006
inch) but shall vary with size.
13.4.4 Valves shall be furnished complete with cushioned type pneumatic operators,
adjustable speed control valves, mounting plate, air pressure regulators,
lubricators and filters.
13.4.5 Solenoid valves furnished as part of the diverter valves shall be double acting,
momentary contact type, with epoxy encapsulated continuous duty coils and
conduit connection box. Solenoid shall be pre-wired in to the junction box of
Paragraph 13.4.6.
13.4.6 Limit switches shall be proximity type. VENDOR shall furnish complete control
wiring and conduit to a junction box mounted on valve body.
13.4.7 All electrical and control components shall meet area classification of Class II,
Group G, Division 2.
13.4.8 Diverter valves shall be actuated by way of steel rack and spur gearing, or Bettis
operator or equivalent. In the event of a power failure or air pressure loss, no
change in valve position shall occur.
13.4.9 VENDOR shall physically mark or stamp each valve to indicate the direction or
position of the plug (eq. "S") with an arrow indicating the position of the plug
and that flow is straight-through and ("D") with an arrow indicating the position
of the plug and that flow is diverted to the branch line. In either case, the
direction of the diverter valve rack extension shall be related to the directional
arrow.
13.5.1 Complete valve assemblies shall be shop tested for total leakage, leakage across
valve and for functional operation. Leakage tests shall be carried out at 1 bar
gage (15 psig).
13.5.2 VENDOR shall furnish valves complete with nameplates of stainless material.
Item numbers shall be stenciled in black 38 mm (1-1/2 inches) high characters.
14.1 Scope
This section covers the requirements for furnishing Product Receivers (Cyclones) to be
installed in dilute phase pneumatic conveying systems for polyethylene pellets and
granules.
14.2 Service
Vacuum type Product Receivers will be installed in vacuum conveying systems and will
separate product pellets from conveying air. Product will be transferred by way of a
rotary feeder to pressure conveying systems. Conveying air, dust, fines, etc., will be
exhausted to remote bag filters with ultimate air discharge to atmosphere through positive
displacement blowers.
Pressure type Product Receivers will be installed at the terminal end of pressure
conveying systems and will separate product pellets and granules from conveying air.
Product will be transferred by way of a rotary feeder. Conveying air and entrained dust,
fines, etc., will be exhausted to a bag filter.
Product receivers shall be designed to cyclonically separate the product and conveying
air/fines. Cyclone receivers shall be designed to handle both pellets and granules and
shall have a product discharge flange designed to bolt directly to a rotary valve.
14.4.1 Metallic parts of receivers in direct contact with the product shall be aluminum or
300 series stainless steel.
14.4.2 Receivers shall be cylindrical with a 60o cone bottom designed so that product
discharge connections shall fit directly on the flange of a rotary feeder without
the use of a transition piece.
14.4.3 Receivers shall be constructed for the design pressure of one bar gage for
pressure service and 250 mm Hg for vacuum service.
14.4.4 Internal design of each item shall be free of projections, welds, etc., that would
tend to create agglomerates.
14.4.5 Internal surfaces of receivers and separators, which are contacted by product,
shall be "treated" by sandblasting to reduce creation of floss.
14.4.6 All receivers and shall have only one (1) product inlet connection. A connection
point for a PURCHASER supplied level device must be supplied complete with a
baffle or other suitable device to prevent nuisance tripping of the level indicator.
14.4.7 Receivers shall be equipped with nameplates of stainless material. Item Numbers
shall be clearly stamped thereon. In addition, Item Numbers shall be stenciled in
38 mm (1-1/2 inches) high black characters.
14.5.1 For pressure service, receivers shall be individually tested for leaks at not less
than 1 bar gage (15 psig) internal air pressure, checking for leaks with a solution
of soap and water. For vacuum service, receivers shall be individually tested at a
vacuum of 250 mm (20 inches) mercury column.
15.1 Scope
This section covers the requirements for furnishing pneumatically operated Knife Gate
Valves for installation at storage bin discharge points.
15.2 Service
Knife Gate Valves will be used to control the flow of product material from bins to
pneumatic conveying systems.
In the fully closed position, valves must isolate the conveyor systems during bin
washdown to prevent the ingress of air, dirt or water.
15.4.1 Metallic parts of valves in direct contact with product shall be of machined cast
aluminum or type 304 stainless steel fabrication. Nonmetallic parts in direct
contact with product shall be of teflon or as specified.
15.4.2 Valves shall have manufacturer's standard flanged inlets and outlets.
15.4.4 Gland packing shall be square braided asbestos, teflon impregnated, and glands
shall be of cast machined aluminum.
15.4.6 Limit switches shall be proximity type. VENDOR shall furnish complete control
wiring and conduit to a junction box mounted on valve body.
15.4.7 Solenoid valves furnished as part of the Knife Gate Valves shall be single
solenoid four way valves with epoxy encapsulated continuous duty coils and
conduit connection box. Solenoid shall be pre-wired to the junction box of
Paragraph 15.4.6.
15.4.8 Pneumatic cylinders shall be heavy duty, double acting, fully adjustable from 0 to
full stroke length, with cushion control at rod ends.
15.4.9 VENDOR shall furnish valves complete with speed control. Valves shall be set
initially for a ten (10) second full stroke in each direction.
15.5.10 Valves shall be electrically complete, and equipped with "fail-safe" mechanisms
to close valves in the event of power or air failure. All auxiliary air tanks,
pressure sensors, etc., that make up a complete unit shall be supplied.
15.5.11 Valves that must also function as flow metering devices shall be equipped with
infinitely adjustable Bailey type positioners supplied with pressure gages for
remote stroke adjustment control (input signal will be 0.2 to 1.0 barg) so that
stroke may be limited from fully closed to any designated opening.
15.5.12 500 micron thick (20 mil) polyethylene film shall be fitted between aluminum
and mounted dissimilar metals.
15.5.1 Complete valve assemblies shall be shop tested for functional operation. The
"fail-safe" closing feature on valves so equipped shall also be shop tested and
operation verified for both air and power loss conditions.
15.5.2 The Knife Gate valves and all related equipment shall be thoroughly cleaned and
free of grease, weld spatter, scale, rust and any other foreign material.
16.1 Scope
This section covers the requirements for dust collectors which will be used for bin and
silo vent dust collection.
16.2 Service
The filters will separate pneumatic conveying air from dust, fines, and streamers created
by pneumatic conveying of polyethylene pellets and granules.
16.3.1 The dust collector furnished under this specification shall be continuous duty
fabric type, equipped with a reverse et cleaning system. All filters of this type
shall use the same size and type of dust bag. The dust collector shall be designed
for continuous 24 hours per day operation.
16.3.2 Clean pressure drop shall not exceed 50 mm (2 inches) water column.
16.3.3 The particulate emission shall not exceed 3.1 grain per dry normal cubic meter of
air.
Screen Analysis WT %
+20 Mesh 6*
-20 +30 Mesh 5
-30 +60 Mesh 45
-60 +100 Mesh 17
-100 +140 Mesh 10
-140 +200 Mesh 12
-200 Mesh 5
16.5.1 Dust collector design shall be suitable for dust tight or operation and outdoor
installation.
16.5.2 The plenum, housing, and hopper sections shall be aluminum. The bag retainers
shall be type 304 stainless steel. All gasketing shall be white neoprene.
16.5.3 The dust collector shall be designed for continuous operation with automatic
reverse jet bag cleaning devices. VENDOR furnished items shall include
diaphragm valves, solenoid valves, timer, air header and surge tank, and
compressed air shutoff valve.
16.5.4 Filter media shall be 16 ounce polypropylene felt with hi-gloss finish and
complete with stainless steel ground wires for the elimination of electrostatic
charge buildup. Bags shall be equipped with type 304 stainless steel quick
disconnect clamps.
16.5.5 If required for maintenance, the VENDOR shall furnish a service platform and
supports.
16.5.6 Dust tight hinged access door as required for general inspection, maintenance,
and bag replacement shall be furnished by VENDOR.
16.5.7 VENDOR shall furnish and mount a differential pressure indicator (Midwest
Instruments or equal) to indicate pressure drop across the filter media. Also, an
additional 3/8 inch pipe coupling with plug shall be provided on the filter body.
16.5.8 Each unit shall be equipped with grounding wire to ground the bags to prevent
the buildup of electrostatic charges.
16.5.9 The dust collector shall be of factory welded construction with a full size bolting
flange for direct connection to the bin or silo. The air outlet shall be located in
the top or roof of the dust collector and equipped with a weather hood and bird
screen.
16.5.10 A safety grate shall be included just below the bags to prevent personnel, tools,
bags, etc., from falling into the bin or silo.
16.5.11 Air flow velocity across filter bags shall not exceed 2.43 m/min (8 ft/min).
Completed filter unit shall be shop tested to verify timer and solenoid valve operation.
17.1 Scope
This section covers the requirements for furnishing Product Dust Filters to be installed in
dilute phase pneumatic conveying systems for polyethylene pellets and granules.
17.2 Service
Filters will be installed on the intake side of vacuum blowers at the terminal end of "Pull"
conveying systems or on the discharge side of Pellet Receivers of "Push" conveying
systems.
Filters will remove product dust from conveying air, prior to air entering the blower on
"Pull" systems and prior to air discharge to atmosphere on "Push" systems.
The discharge of collected material will be through a rotary air lock to a trash bin.
17.3.1 Filters shall be bag type, equipped with reverse air jet cleaning system. All filters
of this type shall use the same size and type of dust bag.
17.3.2 The dust collector shall be designed for continuous 24 hours per day operation.
17.3.3 Filters shall employ sufficient effective filtration area so that clean pressure drop
will not exceed 50 mm (2 inches) water column.
17.3.4 The particulate emission shall not exceed 3.1 grain per dry normal cubic meter of
air.
Retained On WT %
20 Mesh 13.9
30 Mesh 22.7
60 Mesh 64.0
100 Mesh 82.0
140 Mesh 93.2
200 Mesh 98.8
17.5.2 Filter shall be provided with "dust-tight" flanges and shall be equipped with a
suitable rotary discharge valve designed to act as an air lock and also to control
the dust discharge from the collector. Dust discharge valves shall be flanged and
designed for bolting directly to the discharge connection on the hopper.
Discharge side of valves shall not be less than 1060 mm (42 inches) from ground
level. The clear space between support members shall be least 1 m (39 inches).
17.5.5 Filters shall be shall be clearly. Numbers shall be black characters provided with
nameplates and Item Numbers stamped thereon. In addition, Item stenciled in
38 mm (1-1/2 inches) high on filter bodies.
17.5.6 The dust collector shall be designed for continuous operation with automatic
reverse jet bag cleaning devices. VENDOR furnished items shall include
diaphragm valves, solenoid valves, timer, air header and surge tank and
compressed air shutoff valve.
17.5.7 Bag collars shall be welded to tube sheets and tube sheets shall be welded to
housing. Tube plate "pinched" between flanges is an acceptable alternative.
17.5.8 Filter material shall be polyester twill and shall conform to the following:
2 2
Weight: 224 gm/m (10 oz/yd )
17.5.9 Construction of filter bags shall be such that no raw edges are exposed to the air
stream. All bag attachments to support brackets shall be made by using
polypropylene sash cord completely enclosed by a covering seam of the bag
material. All sewing thread shall be of continuous monofilament "Dacron" or
equal.
17.5.10 Design and construction of tube sheet and other internals shall be of sufficient
strength to withstand a pressure drop equal to maximum blower suction vacuum
in the event of blockage of the tube sheet.
17.5.11 Each unit shall be equipped with grounding wire to ground the bags to prevent
the buildup of electrostatic charges. A rupture disc or similar explosion relief
device is required.
17.5.12 VENDOR shall furnish and mount a differential pressure indicator (Midwest
Instruments or equal) to indicate pressure differential across the media. Also,
additional 3/8 inch pipe couplings with plugs shall be provided one on each side
of the element.
17.5.13 Air flow velocity across filter bags shall not exceed 1.51 m/min (5 ft/min).
17.6.1 For pressure service, filters shall be individually tested for leaks at not less than 1
bar gage (15 psig) internal air pressure, checking for leaks with a solution of soap
and water. For vacuum service, filters shall be individually tested at a vacuum of
250 mm. (20 inches) mercury column.
17.6.3 Filters shall be thoroughly cleaned and free of grease, weld spatter, scale, rust
and any other foreign material.
18.1 Scope
This section covers the requirements for furnishing Vacuum System Intake Filters for
installation in dilute phase pneumatic conveying systems for polyethylene pellets or
granules.
18.2 Service
The Intake Filters will be used to remove air-borne particles from supply air at the inlet
end of the vacuum pneumatic conveying pipe systems.
18.3.1 Filters shall employ sufficient effective filtration area so that clean pressure drop
shall not exceed 50 mm (2 inches) water column.
18.3.2 Filters shall be 100 percent efficient for removal of air-borne particles of
5 microns and larger.
18.3.3 All filters of this type shall use the same size and type of dust bag.
18.4.1 Metallic parts of filters in direct contact with air shall be of aluminum or
300 series stainless steel. Shell thickness shall be not less than 5 mm (3/16 inch).
18.4.4 Outlet connection shall be located near the top of the filter.
18.4.5 Bag collars shall be welded to tube sheets and tube sheets shall be welded to
housings.
18.4.6 Filters shall be equipped with not less than two (2) quick opening manway doors.
18.4.7 Air flow velocity across filters shall not exceed 2.43 m/min (8 ft/min).
18.4.8 Filter material shall be continuous multifilament dacron polyester fiber and shall
conform to the following:
2 2
Weight: 105 gm/m (4.7 oz/yd )
18.4.9 Construction of filter bags shall be such that no raw edges are exposed to the air
stream. All bag attachments to support brackets shall be made by using
polypropylene sash cord completely enclosed by a covering seam of the bag
material. All sewing thread shall be of continuous monofilament dacron or
equal.
18.4.11 Filters shall be equipped with nameplates of stainless material. Item Numbers,
test condition, etc., shall be stamped thereon. In addition, Item Numbers shall be
stenciled in 38 mm (1-1/2 inches) high black characters.
18.4.12 Design and construction of the tube sheet and other internals shall be of sufficient
strength to withstand a pressure drop equal to maximum blower suction vacuum
in the event of blockage of the tube sheet.
18.4.13 An internal screen or grate shall be provided on the clean air outlet pipe to
prevent bags that may come loose from entering the pneumatic conveying
systems.
18.4.14 VENDOR shall furnish and mount a differential pressure indicator (Midwest
Instruments or equal) to indicate pressure drop across the filter media. Also, an
additional 3/8 inch pipe coupling with plug shall be provided on the clean side of
the filter.
18.5.1 Filters shall be individually inspected to verify the mechanical design and
assembly.
18.5.2 All filters shall be individually tested for air leakage and vacuum tested to 250
mm (20 inches absolute pressure) mercury column.
18.5.3 The intake filters shall be thoroughly cleaned and free from grease, weld spatter,
scale, rust and any other foreign material.
19.1 Scope
This section covers the requirements for furnishing Product Filter Receivers to be
installed in dilute phase pneumatic conveying systems for polyethylene pellets and
granules.
19.2 Service
Filter-Receivers will be installed at the transfer point from vacuum conveying systems to
pressure conveying systems.
Filter-Receivers will remove product dust from conveying air, and act as a transfer point
from vacuum to pressure systems. Product inlet pipe shall tangentially enter the receiver.
The discharge of collected material will be through a rotary air lock to a pressure
conveying system.
19.3.1 Filters shall be bag type, equipped with reverse air let cleaning system. All filters
of this type shall use the same size and type of dust bag.
19.3.2 The dust collector shall be designed for continuous 24 hours per day operation.
19.3.3 Filters shall employ sufficient effective filtration area so that clean pressure drop
will not exceed 50 mm (2 inches) water column.
19.3.4 Internal design of each receiver shall be free of projections, welds, etc., that
would tend to create agglomerates. Surfaces which will contact the product shall
be sandblasted to reduce the creation of floss.
19.3.5 The particulate emission shall not exceed 3.1 grain per dry normal cubic meter of
air.
Retained On WT %
20 Mesh 13.9
30 Mesh 22.7
60 Mesh 64.0
100 Mesh 82.0
140 Mesh 93.2
200 Mesh 98.8
19.5.1 Metallic parts of filters shall be of aluminum or 300 series stainless steel.
19.5.2 Filter shall be provided with "dust-tight" flanges and shall be equipped with a
suitable rotary feeder valve. Rotary feeders shall be flanged and designed for
bolting directly to the discharge connection on the hopper.
19.5.5 Filters shall be provided with nameplates and Item Numbers shall be clearly
stamped thereon. In addition, Item Numbers shall be stenciled in 38 mm (1-1/2
inches) high black characters on filter bodies.
19.5.6 The dust collector shall be designed for continuous operation with automatic
reverse jet bag cleaning devices. VENDOR furnished items shall include
diaphragm valves, solenoid valves, timer, air header and surge tank and
compressed air shutoff valve.
19.5.7 Bag collars shall be welded to tube sheets and tube sheets shall be welded to
housing. Tube plate "pinched" between flanges is an acceptable alternative.
19.5.8 Filter material shall be polyester twill and shall conform to the following:
2 2
Weight: 224 gm/m (10 oz/yd )
Thread Count: 96 x 60 (ends/picks)
Weave: 3/1 twill
3 2 2
Air Permeability: 0.127 m /sec-m (25 SCFM/ft )
19.5.9 Construction of filter bags shall be such that no raw edges are exposed to the air
stream. All bag attachments to support brackets shall be made by using
polypropylene sash cord completely enclosed by a covering seam of the bag
material. All sewing thread shall be of continuous monofilament "Dacron" or
equal.
19.5.10 Design and construction of tube sheet and other internals shall be of sufficient
strength to withstand a pressure drop equal to maximum blower suction vacuum
in the event of blockage of the tube sheet.
19.5.11 Each unit shall be equipped with grounding wire to ground the bags to prevent
the buildup of electrostatic charges. A rupture disc or similar explosion relief
device is required.
19.5.12 VENDOR shall furnish and mount a differential pressure indicator (Midwest
Instruments or equal) to indicate pressure differential across the media. Also,
additional 3/8 inch pipe couplings with plugs shall be provided one on each side
of the element.
19.5.13 Air flow velocity across filter bags shall not exceed 1.51 m/min (5 ft/min).
19.6.1 For vacuum service, filters shall be individually tested at a vacuum of 250 mm
(20 inches absolute pressure) mercury column.
19.6.3 Filters shall be thoroughly cleaned and free of grease, weld spatter, scale, rust
and any other foreign material.