Eletricidade Basica

Cpksthmc di
´ \HLC
I MITZHLHDCDI J C\HLC
Ć
Vrkn. Zkdrhek \c`tks di \kuzc

Vrkn. Cmvclhr Cmvis Tcvcris
Kutujrk di :636
:
\uaćrhk
\uaćrhk
3 Vrh`lĳ́phks
Vrh`l´ĳphks dc Imitrkst´
Imitrkstć ctthlc 9
3.3 H`trkdul
H`trkdul²c̋ck
˝k . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
3.: Tikrhc
ikrhc Imitr kˎ `hlc dc Act´
Imitrˎk`hlc Actíirrhc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
3.< Lk`dutkris i Hskmc`tis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
3.
3.4
4 Lc
Lcrerecc Imí
Imíttrhlc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . >
3.9 Vrklissks di Imitrhzcl²c̋ck ˝k . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . >
3.9.3 Ctrhtk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . >
3.9.: Lk`tctk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
3.9.< H`dul²ck c̋˝ k Imitrkst´
Imitrkstćctthlc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
3.9.4 H`dul²ck c̋˝ k Imitrkaceì́
Imitrkace`ítthlc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
3.
3.>
> Lc
Lcapapk k Im´
Imíittrhlk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
3.>
3.>.3
.3 H`ti`s
3.>.: H`ti`shdc
Dhril c̋˝hdcdi
² ck k idi dk Lcapk
Lca
\i`thdk dkpkLcapk
Im
Imí́ittrhlImí
k it
. tr.hl.k . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..
Im´ 2
8
3.5 Mih di Lkumkaj . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
: Vrh`l´ĳphks
ĳ́phks dc Imitrkdh`cˎ ahlc 3<
:.3 Dhniri`l² c di Vkti`lhcm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3<
:.3.3
.3.3 Dh Dhni
niri
ri`l
`l²²cc di Vk
Vktiti`l
`lhc
hcmm iì`tr
trii dkdkhs
hs pk
pk`t
`tks
ks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3<
:.3.:
:.3 .: Th Thpks
pks di ti`s ˝k . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
ti`sc̋ck . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
:.3.
:.3.< < Vkti Vkti`l`lhchcmm Imí
Imíttrhlk di ua Vk`tk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
:.
:.:
: Lk
Lkrr rri`
i`titi Imí
Imíttrhlc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
:.:.3 H`ti`shdcd
H`ti`shdcdii dc Lkrri Lkrri`ti`ti Im Imí́ittrhlc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
:.:.:
:.: .: \i`thd
\i`thdk k dc Lkrri`
Lkrri`ti ti Im´
Imíittrhlc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
:.:.<
:.: .< Th Thpks
pks di Lkrri`
Lkrri`ti ti Im´
Imíittrhlc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3>
:.:.4
:.: .4 Inihtk
Inihtkss dc Lkrri`
Lkrri`ti ti Im
Imí́ittrhlc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3>
:.< Aidhl
Aidhl²kisk̋˝ is Imí
Imíttrhlcs lka Aumt´ĳ́ĳa aitrk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
:.<.3 Ziskmul²c̋ck ˝k . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
:.<.: Irrk di Vcrcmcxi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
:.<.
:.<.<
< Tkm
kmirˎ
irˎc`lhc di Irrk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
:.<.
:.<.4
4 Ysk
Ysk dk Au
Aumtmt´ĳ́ĳa
aitrk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
< Zishs iˎ `lhc Im´

ishstti`lhc Imíittrhlc i Mih di Kba :<
<.
<.3
3 Zi Zish shstˎ
stˎi`lhc Imí
Imíttrhlc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . :<
<.3.3 Mih di Kba . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . :<
<.3.: Nctkris
Nctkris qui ditirah`ca rishstiˎ `lhc
ditirah`ca c rishst . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . :4
<.: Zishstkris . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . :>
<.:.3 Ispilhffilcl²c̋ck ˝ k di Zishstkris . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . :>
<.:.: Lḱ ´
kd dhek di Lkris . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . :>
<.:.< Thpks di Zishstkris . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . :5
<.<
<.< Aumt´ mtĳaitrk
ĳ́aitrk lkak Kba´ Kbaĳ́ĳaaitrk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . :8
4 iˎ `lhc Im´
Vkti`lhc Imíittrhlc <9
4.3 @kl²kisk̋˝ is di Vktˎi`lhc
i`lhc Imí
Imíttrhlc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . <9
4.: Diffi`hl²c̋ck
˝ k di Vkt
Vktˎi`lhc
iˎ `lhc Im´
Imíittrhlc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . <>
4.< ^cmkris @kah`chs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . <>
4.4 Nkraumcs
ḱraumcs
´ di Vktˎi`lhc
i`lhc Imí
Imíttrhlc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . <5
4.9 Inihtk Gkumi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . <5
<
4 ´
\YACZHK
4.> Aidhl
Aidhl²ck
c̋˝ k di Vktˎi`lhc
i`lhc Imí
Imíttrhlc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . <2
9 Lhrl
Lhrluh
uhtk
tk Im´
Imíittrhlk 4<
9.3
9.3 Lh
Lhrl
rluh
uhtktk Imí
Imíttrhlk \hapmis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4<
9.:
9.: Lh
Lhrl
rluh
uhtktk Im´
Imitrhlk
ítrhlk \´\íirrhi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4<
9.<
9.< Lh
Lhrl
rluh
uhtktk Imí
Imíttrhlk Vcrcmimk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
9.4
9.4 Lh
Lhrl
rluh
uhtktk Im´
Imíittrhlk Ahstk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4>
9.9 Ixirl´ĳ́ĳllhks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
> Nk`
k`ti
tiss Im´
Imíittrhlcs 95
5 Mihs di Ohrlbbknn 98
Lcp´ĳtumk
Lcp ĳ́tumk 3
Vrh`l´ĳphks
Vrh`l ĳ́phks dc Imitrkst´
Imitrkstcthlc
ćthlc
3.3 ˝
H`trkdul² ck C imitrksnirc pkssuh v´ vcrhcs
ć rhcs lca
lcacdc cdcs.
s. Ia lcd lcdcc lc-
acdc ixhstia cmeu`s imítrk`s,
imítrk`s, si`dk c achs hapkrtc`ti
Vcrc k istudk dc Imitrhlhdcdi sc̋ks˝ck h`dhspi`s´
h`dhspi`sćvihs
cvihs lirtcs pcrc k istudk dcs prkprhidcdis im íitrhlcs,
´ trhlcs, c lcacdc achs
`kl² k̋
kis
˝ is a
a´ĳ`hacs
ĳ́`hacs c rispihtk dc istruturc dc act íirhc.
´ rhc. Cs- ixtir`c, lbcacdc ”lcacdc di vcmˎ iˎ `lhc‑.. K `´
vcmi`lhc‑ úlmik ií´ k
ùlmik
sha, diviaks rilkrrir c uac c`´ c`cmhsi
ćmhsi dcs lcrcltir´
lcrcltirĳsthlcs
ĳ́sthlcs rispk`sćvim
rispk`s´ cvim pimc acùti`l² c̋ck
˝ k dks im´
imítrk`s
itrk`s `k ćtkak,
ctkak,
´ di-
dcs pcrtĳ́lumcs
pcrt´ĳlumcs im
imiai`tcris
iai`tcris qui
q ui lkap kiak̋˝ ia c actírhc,
actírhc, jia vhdk cf nkrl²c
²c ixirlhdc i`tri ks pr´ prktk`s
ḱtk`s dk `´ ùlmik
úlmik i ks
lkak dc acìhrc lka qui imcs si crrc`gca. im´
imítrk`s
itrk`s dc imitrksnirc.
K prh`l´
prh`lĳphk
ĳ́phk nu`dcai`tcm dc imitrkst´ ćthlc íí lk`bilhdk
imitrkstcthlc
lkak Zierc di Du Ncy qui dhz k sieuh`ti7
3.
3.:
: Tik
ikrh
rhc
c Im
Imit kˎ `hlc dc Act´
itrrk`hlc Actirhc
írhc
\cji-si qui tkdc act´ írhc íí nkracdc di akm´
actirhc akmilumcs
ílumcs i istc LCZEC\ IMITZHLC\
Í
´ TZHLC\ DI AI\AK \H@CM \I
ZIVIMIA I DI \H@CH\ KVK\TK\ \I CTZCIA.
íi´ nkracdc pkr ctkaks ćtk
´ aks.. Ks ctkaks ćtkaks
´ lk`sthtuia c ai`kr
pkrl²ck c̋˝ k dc act´
actirhc,
írhc, qui lk`sirvc cs prkprhidcdis dk imi-
C nkrl²c
²c di ctrcl² c̋ck ˝ k ixirlhdc pimk `´ ù́lm
ulmik
ik skjri
skjri ks
ai`tk ia siu siu istcdk
istcdk `kracm. Lcdc ctkak ćtkak
´ pkssuh uac
im
imítrk`s
ítrk`s dipi`di auhtk dc dhstˎ cˎ `lhc, pkhs, quc`tk achs
dhstc`lhc,
zk`c li`trcm i uac rieh˝ riehckc̋k qui c lhrlu`dc, si`dk cajcs
dhstc`ti dk ù́lmik
`úlmik isthviria ks im´ imítrk`
itrk`s,
s, ai`kr sirćsirć
di`kah`cdcs di, rispilthvcai`ti, ù́lmik `úlmik i imitrksnirc.
c nkrl²c²c di ctrcl² ck c̋˝ k i ac achs
hs nclh
nclhmamai` i`ti
ti im
imis
is pkdi
pkdirrckc̋˝ k
ú´ lmik ixhstia ks prktk`s
@k ùlmik ḱ´ tk`s i ks `ˎ iˎ utrk`s i `c imi-
ìutrk`s
dismklcr-si pcrc kutrk ctkak. ćtkak.
´
trksnirc shtuca-si ks imítrk`s. imítrk`s. Istcs trˎis is pcrtĳ́lumcs
pcrt´ĳlumcs imi-
Ks im´
imitrk`s,
ítrk`s, nrclc
nrclcai`ti
ai`ti mhecdks ck siu rispilth rispilthvkvk
ai`tcris, cpiscr di `˝ `ck ú´ `hlcs, s˝
c̋k siria cs u`hlcs, sck
c̋k cs prh`lh-
ù́
ulmik,
´ lmik, qui ist˝istc̋kck shtucdks `c úmthac umthac
´ lcacdc (lcacdc
pchs pcrc k istudk dc imitrhlhdcdi i aceìthsak.
di vcmˎ
vcmii`lhc),
ˎ `lhc), ss˝ck
c̋k lbcacdks di im ítrk`s mhvris.
imítrk`s
Lkak ks prḱtk`s
pr´ktk`s s˝ sc̋k
ck pcrt´
pcrtĳ́lumcs
ĳlumcs qui istc̋k ist˝ck ffixcs `k
ú´ lmik i ks im´
ùlmik imitrk`s
ítrk`s pkdia si trc`snirhr di ua ctkak ć´ tkak
pcrc kutrk, `k `kssk istudk vcaks `ks priklupcr sia-
pri lka c ncmtc ku k ixlissk di im´ imitrk`s
ítrk`s `ks ć́tkaks
ctkaks ku
`ks lkrpks. ˝
Ia lk`d
lk `dhl k̋is `krachs, k ć́tkak
hl² kis ctkak íí imitrhlcai`ti ìu-
trk, pkhs pkssuh k aisak ù́airk `úairk di pr´ prḱtk`s
ktk`s i im´
imítrk`s.
itrk`s.
Suc`dk ua ćctkak ´ tkak ec`bc im imí́itrk`s,
trk`s, ffilc`dk
ffilc`dk lka pri-
dka´ĳ`hk
dka ĳ́`hk disscs pcrt´ pcrtĳlumcs
ĳ́lumcs imi pcssc c sir lbcacdk di
”´
”ĳ́k`
ĳk` ìect
ìecthvk‑
hvk‑ (ˎ ( cc`hk`s).
ˎ `hk`s). G´Gćc ks ćtkaks
ctkaks
´ lka im´
imítrk`s
itrk`s ia
ncmtc, ku sigc, lka pridka´ pridkaĳ`hk ḱ´ tk`s, s˝
ĳ́`hk dks prktk`s, sck
c̋k lbcac-
dks di ”ĳ́k`
”´ĳk` p
pkshthvk‑
kshthvk‑ (lćthk`).
(lćthk`).
3.< Lk`
Lk`dut
dutkr
kris
is i Hsk
Hskmc`
mc`tis
tis
´ tkak
Nheurc 3.37 Ctkak
Ć
Suc`tk achs cncstcdk dk ù́lmik `úlmik ist´
istćc ua imítrk`,
imítrk`, achs
Ck im´ ítrk` nkh ctrhjuĳ́dc
imitrk` ctrhju´ĳdc uac lcrec ìecthvc i cks nrclcai`ti mhecdk ck ctkak ćtkak
´ imi istć.
istć. Ks actirhchs lk`-
prḱtk`s lcrec pkshthvc. Ks ìutr
pr´ktk`s ìutrk`s,
k`s, pkr suc viz,
viz, `˝
`ck
c̋k dutkris sck c̋˝ k cquimis qui lk`duzia nclhmai`ti imitrh-
lhdcdi,
lhdc di, lkak k lkjri i k cmua´ cmuaĳ́`hk.
ĳ`hk. @ks lk`dutkris
lk`dutkris
pkssuia lcrec imítrhlc.
imítrhlc. aitć́cmhlks,
ait mhlks, ks im imí́itrk`s
trk`s dc úumthac
´ mthac lcacdc ss˝c̋ck k tck
c̋˝ k nrclc-
´
• IMITZK@
ÍTZK@ 7 LCZEC @IECTH^C (-) ai`ti mhecdks
mhecdks ck ` ú ulmik
´ lmik qui, cf tiapircturc cajhi`ti, c
iìrehc t´ tíirahlc
rahlc ií´ suffilhi`ti pcrc mhjir´ mhjirc-mks
ć-mks dks ćctkaks,
´ tkaks,
• ´ TK@ 7 LCZEC VK\HTH^C (+)
VZKTK@
Ḱ tkr`c`dk-ks im´ imitrk`s
ítrk`s mhvris. Hssk she`hffilc
she`hffilc qui `ks lk`-
9
L CV ´HTYMK
H́ TYMK 3 . V ZH@L´HVHK\ ´ THLC
H́ VHK\ DC I MITZK\TCTHLC
Ć
dutkris aitćmhlks,
aitćmhlks, c lk`dul²ck
c̋˝ k di imitrhlhdcdi si dć
dć pimk imítrhlc
imítrhlc ixhsti`ti `k lkrpk.
akvhai`tk dks imímitrk`s.
ítrk`s.
`p 1 366
ì 1 26
q 1;
` 1 `p
` p √ ì 1 366 √ 26 1 :6
q 1 :6 Õ 3, > Õ 36√38
Nheurc 3.:7 Lk`dutkr q 1 <: Õ 36√38L
Ks actirhchs hskmc`tis s˝ sck

c̋k cquimis qui `˝`ck
c̋k lk`duzia
c imitrhlhdcdi, lkak k cr, c jkrrclbc i k vhdrk. @ks hsk- Ixiapmk
Ixiapm k 3.: 7 Ya ditirah`cdk lkrpk nkh imitrhzcdk
mc`tis, ks imítrk`s
imítrk`s dc umthac
úmthac
´ lcacdc sc̋k
s˝ck nkrtiai`ti mh- pkr ctrhtk, ffilc`dk lka uac quc`thdcdi di lcrec ffi`cm
ecdks ck `´ úlmik, di akdk qui, fc tiapircturc cajhi`ti,
ùlmik, di q 1 (√)426 Õ 36√>L. Diti Ditirahì
rahì qucm
qucm k thpk i qucm
pkulks imítrk`
imítrk`ss lk`sie
lk`sieuia uia si mhjircr.
mhjircr. C ixhstˎi`lhc
i`lhc di ú´ airk di pcrt´
k ` uairk pcrtĳlumcs
ĳ́lumcs qui pridkah`ca ìsti lkrpk.
pkulks imímitrk`s
ítrk`s mhvris
m hvris prcthlcai`ti
prct hlcai`ti hapidi c lk`dul² ck c̋˝ k
di imitrhlhdcdi
imitr hlhdcdi ia lk`dhl
lk`dh l²kis
k̋˝ is `krachs. q 1 ( √)426 Õ 36√>L
Lkak c lcrec íí ìecthvc, pridkah`ca ks im´
imitrk`s.
ítrk`s.
q 1 `Õi
q 426 Õ 36√>
`1 1 1 <66 Õ 363< im´
imítrk`s
itrk`s
i 3, > Õ 36√38
Nheurc 3.<7 Hskmc`ti

3.9 Vrklis
Vrklissks ˝
sks di Imitrhzcl²ck
Vkdiaks imitrhzcr ua lkrpk ctrcv´ ctrcvis
ís dc hk`hzcl c̋˝ k dks
hk` hzcl² ck
3.4 Lcrec Im
Imítrhlc
ítrhlc sius ćtkaks,
ctkaks,
´ hstk i,
í,
´ rithrc`dk ku h`sirh`dk imítrk`s
imítrk`s ia
ḱ´ rjhtcs, tkr`c`dk-ks ´ĳk`
sucs krjhtcs, ĳ́k` pkshthvks (lć́thk`s) ku ´ĳ́k`s
(lcthk`s) ĳk`s
\c
\cji ji-s
-sii qu
quii ia aḱd a´kdum
umk
k (v(vcm cmkr
kr si
siaa sh
sh`c
`cm)
m) c lc lcre
recc ìecthvks (ˎc`hk`s).
c`hk`s).
im´
imíitrh
trhlc
lc di ua pr´ ḱtk` ií´ he
prktk` heu ucm c lcr cre
ec imimí́itrhlc
trhlc di
ua imít
imítrk
rk`.
`. Is Istc
tc quc`t
quc`thdhdcd
cdii di lcrec
lcrec imítrhl
imítrhlc, c, pkr
lk`sthtuhr-si
lk`sthtu hr-si `c ai`kr pkrl²ck c̋˝ k di imitrhlhdcdi ixhsti`ti
ùa lkrpk ií´ di`kah`cdc ”Lcrec Imítrhlc Imítrhlc Imiai`tcr‑, c
qucm sirć
sirć riprisi`tcdc pimc mitrc i .
Cssha, tkdcs cs kutrcs quc`thdcdis di lcrecs im imítrhlcs
ítrhlcs
sirc̋k
sir˝ ck a´
aúmthpmks
umthpmks h`tihrks dc quc`thdcdi di lcrec im´ imítrhlc
itrhlc
imiai`tcr
imiai `tcr.. Vkr hssk, dhzi
dhziaks
aks qui c lcreclcrec im ítrhlc íi´ quc`
imítrhlc quc`--
thzcdc, hstk i, í,
´ í́i nkra
nkracd
cdcc pk
pkrr ua `´ ù́ai
uairkrk h`tihr
h`tihrkk di lcrlcrecs
ecs
imiai`tcris.
√ 38
Imítrhlc Imiai`tcr ⇚ i 1 3, > Õ 36 L
Lcrec Imítrhlc Nheurc 3.47 Imitrhzcl² c̋ck
˝ k dks lkrpks
C dhniri`l²c i`tri k ùairk
ú´ airk di prḱtk`s
pr´ktk`s i di imítrk`s
imítrk`s
íi´ qui ditirah`c c lcrec im imítrhlc
ítrhlc di ua lkrpk. Cssha,
Cssha,
pkdiaks lcmlumcr c lcrec imítrhlc imítrhlc di ua lkrpk ctrcvís
ctrcvís
dc iquc
i qucll²c̋ck
˝ k 3.37
3.9.
3.9.3
3 Ctrht
Ctrhtk
k
Ctrhtc`dk dkhs actirhchs hskmc`tis dhniri`tis, k lcmkr ei-
rcdk pkdi sir suffilhi`ti pcrc trc`snirhr imítrk`s imítrk`s di ua
q 1 `Õi (3.3) actirhcm pcrc k kutrk, ffilc`dk cajks ks actirhchs imitrh-
zcdks, si`dk ua pkshthvk (k qui lidiu im´ imitrk`s)
ítrk`s) i kutrk
k`di7 ìecthvk (k qui rilijiu imítrk`s).
imítrk`s).
Lkak ixiapmks pr´ prćcthlks
th lks di
d i im
imitr
itrhzcl
hzcl² c̋ck
˝ k pkr ctrhtk, pk-
q 7 lcrec imítrhlc
imítrhlc dk lkrpk - u`hdcdi7 Lkumkaj ku L diaks lhtcr ks sieuh`tis lcsks7 uac lcìtc di pmćsthlk pmćsthlk
imitrhzc-si ck sir ctrhtcdc lka sidc i ctrch pidclh`bks di
` 7 dhniri`l²c i`tri k ` uairk
ú´ airk di prḱtk`s
pr´ktk`s i imítrk`s
imítrk`s
pcpíhs?
pcp íhs? ua pi`ti si imitrhzc ck sir ctrhtcdk `ks lcjimks
i 7 Lcrec
Lcrec iimmíitrhlc
´ trhlc Imiai`tcr di uac pisskc qui ctrch istis lcjimks ku ua ffimiti di
ceuc?
ć´ euc? uac rkupc di `ymk` imitrhzc-si ck ctrhtcr-si lka
`kssk lkrpk?
lkrpk ? ua vi´
viĳ́lumk
ĳlumk ia akvh akvhai`tk
ai`tk si imi imitrhzc
trhzc pimk
Ixiapmk
Ixiapm k 3.3 7 Ya lirtk lkrpk pkssuh 366 prktk`s
ḱ´ tk`s i ctrhtk lka k cr? ua tujk di V^L ctrhtcdk lka m˝ mc̋c si lcr-
26 im´
imitrk`s.
ítrk`s. Ditirahì
Ditirahì k vcm
vcmkr
kr dc quc`thdcdi
quc`thdcdi dc lcrec riec i ctrch pidclh`bks di hskpkr.
ZKDZHEK \ KYWC I C M^CLHZ TC^CZI\ > ˎ

L YZ\K DI I MITZKAILC@HLC /HN\
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H́ TYMK 3 . V ZH@L ´HVHK\ ´ THLC
Ć
lkrpk ìecthvk sirć

sirć trc`snirhdk pcrc k ìutrk ctćtíi qui
klkrrc k iquhm´
iquhmĳ́ĳjrhk
jrhk imitrkst
imitrkstć́cthlk.
thlk. Cssh
Cssha,
a, k lkrpk ìu-
ìu-
trk ffilc imitrhzcdk ìecthvcai`ti.
Nheurc 3.97 Imitrhzcl c̋˝ k pkr Ctrhtk

Imitrhzc l²ck
Imitrhlhdcdi Ist´
Istcthlc
ćthlc Nheurc 3.>7 Imitrhzc c̋˝ k pkr lk`tctk
Imitrhzcll² ck
Lkrpks pkdia cluaumcr lcrec im´ imitrhlc

ítrhlc cp´
cpksḱs tiria sk-
nrhdk cmeua prklissk di imitrhzcl² ck, c̋˝ k, auhtk lkaua `ks @k prklissk
pr klissk ddii imit
imitrhzcl
rhzcl² c̋ck
˝ k pkr lk`tctk, c quc`thdcdi
lcsks di imitrhzcl
imitrhz cl²c̋ck
˝ k pkr ctrhtk, prh`lhpcmai`ti `ks dhcs di lcrec
lcrec tktcm
tktcm (lk`sh
(lk`shdirdirc`d
c`dkk tkdtkdks
ks ks lkr
lkrpks
pks i`
i`vk
vkmvh
mvhdks
dks))
ia qui c uahdcdi dk cr ist´ ist cć jchxc
jchxc.. K lk`tc lk`tctktk dis-
dis- c`tis dk lk`tctk ií´ heucm c quc`thdcdi dc lcrec dipkhs dk
sis lkrpks imitrhlcai`ti lcrriecdks lka kutrks lkrpks lk`tctk.
pkdi klcshk`cr ua prklissk lbcacdk di dislcrec imi-
trkstćthlc.
trkst´ cthlc.
^klˎi gćgć divi tir pirlijhdk issi inihtk, pkr ixiapmk, 3.9.< ˝ Imitrkst´
H`dul²ck Imitrkstcthlc
ćthlc
ck mhecr ua cpcrimbkcpcrim bk di T^7 ks pimks dk siu jrcl²k ffilca
irhl² cdks si vkl iˎ isthvir prḱxhak pr´kxhak dc timc. Tcajía, Tcajía, vklˎi Cprkxhac`dk-si ua lkrpk imitrhzcdk pkshthv
pkshthvcai`ti
cai`ti (h`-
divi tir `ktcdk cmeu`s istcmks i ct´ ctií nc
nc´ĳslcs
ĳ́slcs (`k islurk) dutkr) di ua lk`dutkr ìutrk hskmcdk (h`duzhdk), sius
ck disphr
disphr uac jmusc,jmusc, cp´ cpḱs ks us´
usć-m
c-mcc pkr cme cmeuaua tiapk.
tiapk. Istis
Istis im
imítrk`s
ítrk`s mhvris sir˝
sirck
c̋k ctrc´
ctrcĳdks
ĳ́dks pcrc c ixtriahdcdi achs
ni`ˎk kai`ks
ai`ks s˝ sc̋k
ck dislcrecs imitrkstćthlcs
imitrkstćthlcs i, pkdia tkr`cr- pr´
prkxhac
ḱxhac dk lkrpk pkshthvk.
si ixtrixtriaca
iacai`tii`ti pirheksks
pirheksks ia cajhi`tis cajhi`tis h`dus h`dustrhchs
trhchs,, Dissc nkrac k lkrpk ìutrk ffilc pkmcrhzcdk, ku sigc,
ia ćcrics
´ rics k`di si uthmhzca actirhchs h`﬊ca´ h`﬊caćvihscvihs i ia lka ua ixlissk di imítrk`s
imítrk`s ia uac ixtriahdcdi (pkmk
jc`lcdcs
jc`l cdcs di p prkd
rkdulul²ck c̋˝ k di pmclcs di lhrluhtks imitrˎ kˎ `hlks
imitrk`hlks ìecthvk) i ncmtc di imítrk`s
imítrk`s `c kutrc (pkmk pkshthvk).
k`di sc̋k s˝ck uscdks lkapkì`tis umtrc-si`sĳ́vihs umtrc-si`s´ĳvihs lkak ks Ctirrc`dk k pkmk pkshthvk dissi lkrpk, imi hr cć´ ctrchr
lhrluhtks h`tiercdks. C dislcrec imitrkst´ imitrkstcthlcćthlc pkdi lcu- im´
imítr
itrk`s
k`s dc Tirrc,
irrc, ct´
ctíi qui c ixtriahdcdi ffiqui `kvc-
scr tc`tk
t c`tk c distruh c̋˝ k tktcm di ua lkapkì`ti, lkak dc-
dis truhll²ck ai`ti ìutrc.
`hffilć-mk
`hffil´ c-mk pcrlhcmai`ti, dhahùh`dk k siu tiapk di vhdc Disnczi`dk k ctirrcai`tk i cncstc`dk k lkrpk lka
ú´ thm.
uthm. lcrec pkshthvc, k lkrpk, h`hlhcmai`ti ìutrk, ffilc imitrh-
Ixhsti uac sírhi sírhi di dhspkshthvks qui pkdia sir uth- zcdk ìecthvcai`ti.
mhzcdks lkak prktil² ck c̋˝ k lk`trc dislcrecs imitrkstćthlcs.
imitrkstćthlcs.
Lkak ixiapmks,ixiapmks, pkdiakspkdiaks lhtcr c pumsihrc pumsihrc di ctirrc-
ctirrc-
ai`tk cgustćvim
cgustćvim i c lcmlc`bihrc, uthmhzcdks ia jc`lcdcs
pcr
pcrcc c p prk
rktiltil² c̋ck
˝ k di lhrluhtks imitr
imitrˎk`hlks.
kˎ `hlks.
Cutka´kvihs,
Cutka ḱvihs, lcah`b˝
lcah`bkis k̋is i cvh˝
cvhkis
k̋is pkdia cdquhrhr lcr-
ecs istćthlcs
istćthlcs ia lk`siquˎi`lhc i `lhc dk ctrhtk di suc istru-
turc
turc lkalka k cr cr.. SuSuc` c`dk
dk ua vi´ viĳlumk
ĳ́lumk istístcć lk`duzh`dk
ua mĳ́quhdk
m´ĳquhdk h`﬊ca´
h`﬊ca cvimćvim lkak c ecskmh`c ku quc`dk ua
cvh
cvh˝ck
c̋k ist´
istćc ricjcstili`dk di lkajust lkajust´ĳvim,
ĳ́vim, bcvir´
bcvircć c prk-
jcjhmhdcdi di h`lˎ iˎ `dhk ku ixpmks˝
h`li`dhk ixpmksck, c̋k, si c lcrec istíst cthlc
ćthlc
si dislcrriecr
dislcrriecr skj c nkrac di ncĳ́slc nc´ĳslc.. Vcrc ivht ivhtcr
cr qui
hstk clk`til² c, ks vi vi´ĳlumks
ĳ́lumks qui trc`spkrtca lkajust´ lkajustĳvim
ĳ́vim
dhspk̋ia
dhsp˝ kia di uac lkrri`ti ku di uac thrc haprie`cdc
di aitcm, mhecdc cf lcrrklirhc i qui si crrcstc pimk skmk
pcrc dislcrriecr,
dislcrriecr, lk`thùcai`ti, c lcrec cluaumcdc. Ks
cvh
cvh˝kis,
k̋is, c`tis di siria ricjcstilhdks,
ricjcstilhdks, s˝ sck
c̋k mhecdks
mhecdks ck skmk Nheurc 3.57 Imitrhzcl² c̋ck
˝k p pkr
kr HH`dul
`dul² c̋ck
˝ k Imitrkst´
Imitrkstćthlc
cthlc
pkr aihk di ua dhspkshthvk ispilhcm qui prkphlhc istc
dislcrec. Ya ni`ˎ kˎ ai`k siaimbc`ti hr´
ni`kai`k hrcć klkrrir si k lkrpk h`h-
lhcmai`ti
lhcma i`ti imitrh
imitrhzcdk
zcdk (h`dut
(h`dutkr)kr) isth
isthvir
vir lcrri
lcrriecdk
ecdk lka
3.9.
3.9.:
: Lk`t
Lk`tct
ctk
k lcrec im´
imíitrhlc
trhlc ìecthvc. Vkr Vkrí́ia,
a, ìssi lcsk k inihtk sir ćc´
lk`trćrhk,
lk`tr´
crhk, lcrriec`dk k lkrpk h`hlhcmai`ti ìutrk (h`du-
\i ua lkrpk imitrhzcdk ìecthvcai`ti ií´ lkmklcdk ia zhdk) lka lcrec im´ imíitrhlc
trhlc pkshthvc, pkhs ks im imítrk`s
ítrk`s hr˝
hrck
c̋k
lk`tct
lk`tctk
k lka kutrk ìutrk,
ìutrk, k ix
ixlis
lissk
sk di imimítrk`s
ítrk`s dk ﬊uhr dk aisak pcrc c Tirrc.
ZKDZHEK \ KYWC I C M^CLHZ TC^CZI\ 5 ˎ

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3.9.4 ˝ Imitrkace`´
H`dul²ck Imitrkaceìthlc
íthlc C lcrec S ií´ lbcacdc di lcrec lrhcdkrc dk lcapk i c
lcrec im´
imitrhlc
ítrhlc (+)q uthmhzcdc pcrc k i`schk íí di`kah`cdc
Sucsi tkdc c iìrehc im´ ítrhlc uthmhzcdc ctucmai`ti, ií´ krh-
im itrhlc di lcrec di prkvc.
eh`cdc `ks eircdkris rktcthvks dcs ush`cs di nkrl²c. ²c. K @kracmai`ti, c lcrec di prkvc (+)q pkssuh ua vc-
eircdkr pkdi sir clhk`cdk pkr turjh`cs bhdr cumhlcs,ć´ umhlcs, pkr mkr h`ffi`htcai
h` ffi`htcai`ti `ti piqui`k,
piq ui`k, iia c̋˝ k c lcrec (+)S lrh-
a rimcl² ck
turjh`cs i´
ikmhlcs,
ḱmhlcs, pkr turjh`cs c vcpkr ku pkr ua ak- cdkrc dk lcapk. Cssha, k lcapk imítrhlk imítrhlk `k pk`tk c`c-
tkr di lkajustc̋k
lkajust˝ck h`tir`c.
h`tir`c. Sucmquir
Sucmquir qui sigc k aítkdk aítkdk mhscdk sknri uac h`﬊uˎ iˎ `lhc dispriz´
h`﬊ui`lhc disprizĳvim c̋˝ k dc
ĳ́vim ia nu`l² ck
í´ trhlc qui imi
uscdk pcrc clhk`cr k eircdkr, c iìrehc im itrhlc h`trkdu
h`t rkdull²ck
c̋˝ k distc lcrec di prkvc.
prkduz íi´ risumtc`ti dc cl² c̋ck ˝ k i`tri lk`dutkris i lcapk
ace`íthlk.
ace` íthlk.
Ya dks a´ aíitkdks
tkdks pim pimksks quchs
quchs k ace aceìt
ìthsa
hsak k prkprk--
duz imi
imitrhl
trhlhdc
hdcdi
di íi´ pimk
pimk akvh akvhai ai`t `tk
k di ua hac̋ha˝c `c `css
prkxha
prk xhahdchdcdis
dis di ua lk`dutkrlk`dutkr ffixk. Mhe Mhec`d
c`dk-s
k-sii ua
aidhdk
aid hdkrr si`s´
si`sĳ́v
ĳvimim `cs ix ixtritriahd
ahdcdi cdiss dk lk`lk`dut
dutkr kr i
akvhai`tc`dk-si ua ´ĳ́a ĳa˝c̋c `cs prkxhahdcdis, k pk`tihrk
dk aidhdkr sknri uac di﬊ix˝ di﬊ixck, c̋ k, qui s´ sk
ḱ klkrri quc`dk
k hac̋
ha˝c isthv
isthvir
ir ia akvhai
akvhai`tk. `tk. C di﬊ix˝ di﬊ixc̋kck dk pk`tihrk Nheurcc 3.87 Lcapk Im´
Nheur Imítrhlk
itrhlk `k pk`tk V
h`dhlc
h`dh lc c prkd
prkdul c̋˝ k di imitrhlhdcdi `k lk`dutkr.
ul²ck
Suc`dk k akvhai`tk lissc, aisak qui ixhstc ua \i c lcrec imímitrhlc
ítrhlc (+)q nkr rithrcdc dk pk`tk V, lk`-
erc`di lcapk ace`´ aceìthlkíthlk di`trk dc jkjh`c, `˝ `ck
c̋k ií´ ei- thùcrć ixhsth`dk lcapk imítrhlk
thùcrć imítrhlk ìsti pk`tk, pkhs lk`-
rcdc ì`buac imitrhlhdcdi. Vkrtc`tk c lcusc dissc imi imi-- nkrai nkh ixpmhlcdk c`tirhkrai`ti, k lcapk im itrhlk í´ trhlk ia
trhlhdcdi `k lk`dutkr íi´ c vcrhcl vc rhcl² ck
c̋˝ k dk lcapk aceì́thlk
ace`íthlk quistc̋k
quist˝ ck (qui cei) íi´ prkduzhdk pkr (+)S.
di`trk dc jkjh`c i `˝ `ck
c̋k c ixhstˎ iˎ `lhc dk lcapk ace`´
ixhsti`lhc aceìthlkíthlk K Lcapk Im´ Imíitrhlk
trhlk dhahùh cf aidhdc qui k pk`tk di
di`trk dc aisac. c`´
c`cmhsi
ćmhsi (V) si cncstc dc lcrec eircdkrc dk Lcapk.
Nheurc 3.367 Lcapk Imítrhlk

Imítrhlk dhahùh lka c dhstˎc`lhc
c`lhc
3.>.3
3.>.3 H`ti`shdcd
H`ti`shdcdii dk Lcapk
Lcapk Im
Imítrhlk
ítrhlk
C nkrl²²cc qui cei skjri ua lkrpk lcrriec
lcrriecdk,
dk, lkmkl
lkmklcdk
cdk
ùa pk`tk ditirah`cdk di ua lcapk imítrhlk, imítrhlk, íi´ dhritc-
ai`ti prkpkrlhk`cm ck vcmkr dc lcrec im´ imitrhlc
ítrhlc lkmklcdc
Nheurc 3.27 Imitrhzcl ˝k pkr H`
Imitrhzc l²c̋ck H`dul c̋˝ k Imitrkace`´
dul² ck Imitrkaceìthlc
íthlc ia V.
Cssha, pcrc ua lirtk pk`tk di ua lcapk im itrhlk í´ trhlk c
ri
rimcmcll²ck
c̋˝ k i`tri
i`tr i c nkrl²c
²c im
imí́itrhlc
trhlc i k vcmkr dc lcrec di prkvc
ií´ ua vcmkr lk`stc`ti. Istc lk`stc`ti lcrcltirhzc quc`th-
tcthvcai`ti k lcapk imítrhlk imítrhlk `cquimi pk`tk i íi´ lbcacdc
3.> Lcap
apk í´ trhlk
k Imitrhlk di h`ti`shdcdi di lcapk imítrhlk imítrhlk ( I ) .
Yac lcrec lrhc ck siu ridkr ua Lcapk Imítrhlk Imítrhlk (I) qui
hr´
hrcć ctucr ia kutrcs lcrecs qui isthviria ia siu i`tkr`k. N
Suc`dk uac lcrec im´ ítrhlc di prkvc íí lkmklcdc ùac
imitrhlc I1 (3.:)
q
riehc̋k
rieh˝ ck k`di ixhsti ua lcapk imítrhlk, imítrhlk, imc sknrir´
sknrirćc c cl² ck
c̋˝ k
di uac
u ac nkrl í´ trhlc, c qucm ti`dir´
n krl² c im itrhlc, ti`dircć c akvhai`t´
akvhai`tc-mc.ć-mc. I 7 Lcapk Imítitrh
´ rhllk - u`hdc
`hdcdi
di77 @/L (@i
(@iw-
@k isquiac cjchxk tiaks uac lcrec imítrhl imítrhlcc (+)S. tk`/Lkumkaj)
Disigc
Dis igc`dk
`dk-si
-si c`cmhs
c`cmhscr cr k lcapklcapk im´ imítr
itrhlk
hlk `k pk`tk
pk`tk V, N 7 Nkrl²c
²c qui cei skjri c lcrec di prkvc - u`hdcdi7
lkmklc-si c´ cĳ,
ĳ́, uac lcrec (+)q. @ (@iwtk`)
Mkek, si c lcrec di prkvc (+)q lkmklcdc ia V ffilcr
sujaithdcc c uac nkrl
sujaithd n krl²²cc im
imítrhlc,
ítrhlc, pkdiaks cffiracr qui `k c̋˝ k dk Lcapk Im´
q 7 Lcrec qui sknri c cl² ck Imitrhlk,
ítrhlk, lcrec
rinirhdk pk`tk ixhsti ua lcapk im´ imitrhlk.
ítrhlk. di prkvc - u`hdcdi7 L (Lkumkaj)

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3.>.: ˝ i \i`thdk dk Lcapk Im itrhlk

Dhril²ck í´ trhlk tis dc h`tircl² c̋ck
˝ k dks lcapks im´
imítrhlks
itrhlks prkduzhdks pimcs
aisacs. Isscs nkrl²cs ²cs ctuca ia cajcs cs lcrecs i pks-
K lcapk im´ ítrhlk ií´ uac erc`dizc vitkrhcm, hstk i,
imitrhlk í´ , imi
suia k aisak a´ akdumk
ḱdumk (h`ti`s
(h`ti`shdcdi)
hdcdi) i aisa
aisacc dhril ˝ k,
dhr il² c̋ck,
pkssuh ua aḱdumka´kdumk ku h`ti`shdcdi, uac dhril²ck c̋˝ k i ua
pkría
pkr´
ia si`thdks kpkstks.
si`thdk. Vcrc riprisi`tcr c dhril²ck c̋˝ k i k si`t
si`thd
hdk
k dk Lcap
Lcapk k
C h`ti`shdcdi
h`ti `shdcdi dc nkrlnkr l²c
²c íi´ dhritcai`ti prkpkrlhk`cm ck
Im´
Imítrhl
itrhlkk s ck
c̋˝ k uthmhzcdcs
uth mhzcdcs mh`bcs di nkrlnkr l²²c.
c.
prkdutk dcs lcrecs i h`virscai`ti prkpkrlhk`cm ck quc-
K si`thdk dk vitkr lcapk im´ imitrhlk
ítrhlk dipi`di dk sh`cm
drcdk dc dhstˎ cˎ `lhc i`tri imcs. Isscs prkprhidcdis risum-
dhstc`lhc
dc lcrec qui krheh`c k lcapk.
tca `c iiqucl
qucl² c̋ck
˝ k 3.<.
\i c lcrec lrhcdkrc S dk lcapk ií´ pkshthvc, k Lcapk
Im´
Imítrhlk
itrhlk íi´ dhvirei`ti, hstk i,
í,
´ cs mh`bcs d dii nkrl²c scia dc
lcrec.
\i c lcr
lcrecec lrhcdkrc
lrhcdkrc S dk lcapk ií´ ìecthvc, k Lcapk
ítrhlk íi lk`virei`ti, hstk í,
Im´
Imitrhlk ´ í, cs mh`bcs di nkr
nkrll²²cc i`trca O6 Õ q3 Õ q:
N1 (3.<)
`c lcrec. d:
N 7 Nkrl²c - u`hdcdi7 @ (@iwtk`)
q3 ? q: 7 Lcrecs im´
imitrhlcs
ítrhlcs - u`hdcdi7 L (Lkumkaj)
d 7 Dhst cˎ `lhc i`tri cs lcrecs - u`hdcdi7 a (aitrks)

Dhstˎc`lhc
ć´ luk
O6 7 Lk`stc`ti di Vrkpkrlhk`cmhdcdi dk ^ cluk
8 : :
O6 1 8 Õ 36 @ .a /L
Nheurc 3.337 Mh`bcs di Lcapk Im´

Imitrhlk
ítrhlk
@c ffieurc Zinirˎ iˎ `lhcslkapkrtcai`tk pkdi sir kjsir-

Ziniri`lhcslkapkrtcai`tk
vcdk k lkapkrtcai`tk dcs mh`bcs di nkrl²²cc ia quctrk
dhn
dhniri`
iri`tis
tis shtucl
sht ucl²kis.
k̋˝ is.
Nheurc 3.3<7 Mih di Lkumkaj
Zhehdiz Dhim´
Dhimitrhlc
ítrhlc
Suc`dk ua lcapk imítrhlk imítrhlk íi´ cpmhlcdk c ua hskmc`ti,
uac nkrl²c im imí́itrhlc
trhlc ctucrć
ctucrć skjri sius imítrk`s,
imítrk`s, ti`di`dk
c crrc`l´
crrc`lc-mks
ć-mks di sius rispilthvks ctkaks. ć´ tkaks. Hstk klkrrir
klkrrirćc´
quc`dk c h`ti`shdcdi dk lcapk imítrhlk imítrhlk cthèhr ua vcmkr
Nheurc 3.3:7
3. 3:7 Lkapkrtca
Lkapkrtcai`tk
i`tk dcs mh`bcs
mh`b cs nkrl²²cc imivcdk,
imivc dk, k qucm, klcshk`
klcshk`cr crć́c uac nkrl²²cc di vcmkr suffilhi`ti
pcrc crrc`lcr
crrc`lcr cmeu`cmeu`ss im itrk`s
í´ trk`s dks ćtkaks.
ctkaks.
´ Hssk ncz lka
qui k actirhcm hskmc`ti pcssi c tir ua `´ ùairk
úairk imivcdk
di imítrk`s
imítrk`s mhvris, trc`snkrac`dk-si, pkrtc`tk, ùa jka
3.
3.5
5 Mi
Mihh di Lk
Lkum
umka
kaj
j lk`dutkr di imitrhlhdcdi.
´ TZHLC Í
”Z HEHDIW D HI MITZHLC
Í ´ K A CH
I CH KZ
KZ ^C M
MKKZ DI
K ni`ˎ
ni`k
kai`k
ˎ ai` k dc ctrcl
ctrc l²ck
c̋˝ k (ku ripums˝
ripumsck) c̋k) qui klkrri i`tri ´ TZHLK SYI VKDI \IZ CVMHLCDK IA YA
L CAVK I M ITZHLK
Í
lcrcecs im´
imitrhlcs
ítrhlcs si d´
dćc d divh
ivhdk
dk c cl c̋˝ k di
c l²ck d i nnkrl
krl²cs dilkrri`-
d ilkrri`- LK@DYTKZ‑.
H\KMC@TI \IA SYI IMI \I TKZ@I LK@DYTKZ

/H N\ YM
L CV ´HTYMK
Ć
Tcjimc 3.37
3.37 Aúmthpmks
Aúmthpmks i sujaúmthpmks
sujaúmthpmks dcs u`hdcdis mi-
echs di aidhdc
Vriffixk
Vriffixk \ĳ́aj
\´ĳajkmk
kmk Nc
Nctkr
tkr aumthp
aumthpmhl
mhlcdk
cdkrr
Tirc T 363:
Ehec E 368
Aiec A 36>
quhmk o 36<
biltk b 36:
dilc dc 363
dilh d 36√3
li`th l 36√:
ahmh a 36√<
ahlrk ¹ 36√>
`c`k ` 36√8
phlk p 36√3:
Vkdir dcs Vk`tcs

Nheurc 3.347 Vcrc-rchks thpk Nrcòmh`
Ya ni`ˎ ni`kai`kkˎ ai`k h`tirissc`ti rimclhk`cdk lka k lk`lihtk
di rhehdiz dhimítrhlcdhimítrhlc ií´ k pkdir dcs pk`tcs.
C qucquc`th `thdcd
dcdii di lcr lcrec
ec ix ixhst
hsti`t
i`tii pkr u`hdcd
u`hdcdii di tcdk ffi`cm di iquhm´
iquhmĳjrhk
ĳ́jrhk imitrkst´
imitrkstcthlk,
ćthlk, hstk i,í´ , sucs lcrecs
cric
ć´ ric (di`shdcdi) ùa lk`dutkr dipi`di di suc nkrac imítrhlcs
imítrhlcs ia ixlissk ffilca ia ripkusk.
eikaítrhlc
eika´ itrhlc i ií´ achkr `cs riehk̋is rieh˝kis achs cncstcdcs dk li`- \i cs lcrecs istc̋k
ist˝ck ia ripkusk,
r ipkusk, c nkrl²c risumtc`
risumtc`ti ti qui
trk. ctuc skjri imis ií´ ùmc. ùmc. \i c nkrl²c ²c ií´ ùmc, k lcapk
Cssha, ia uac isnirc isnir c imitrhzcdc,
imitrh zcdc, c lk`li`tr
lk`li`trcl c̋˝ k dcs
cl²ck imítrhl
imítrhlkk tcajía
tcajía sirćsirć ùmk.
lcrecs íi´ c aisac ia tkdks ks pk`tks di suc supirnĳ́lhi, supirn´ĳlhi, ”K LCAVK IMITZHLK ´ TZHLK @K H@TIZHKZ DI YA LK@-
Í
acs ia ua lk`dutkr lugc supirn´ĳlhi ĳ́lhi cprisi`tc nkractk DYTKZ IA ISYHM´HJZHK H́ JZHK IMITZK\TCTHLK ´ THLK I
Ć ´ \IAVZI
Í
vcrhćvim
vcrh´ cvim c di`shdcdi di lcrecs ií´ auhtk achkr `cs riehk̋is rieh˝kis @YMK‑.
pk`thceudcs. Ia imitrhlhdcdi, jmh`dcr she`hffilc hskmcr ua lkrpk di
\i nkr nkr cuai cuai`t `tcd
cdcc c lc lcrerecc im
imítrhlc
í trhlc `k lk`dut
lk`dutkr kr h`﬊uˎi`lhcs
i`lhcs imítrhl
imítrhlcs
cs (vir ffieurc
ffieurc 3.39). Cssh Cssha, a, si qui-
aitćmhlk,
ait´ cmhlk, c h`ti`shdcdi dk lcapk imítrhlk imítrhlk ia tkr`k dimi riaks prktieir
prktieir ua cpcri cpcrimbk
mbk lk`trc issc isscss h`﬊uˎ iˎ `lhcs
h`﬊ui`lhcs
tcajía
tcaj ía hr´ hrćc cuai`tcr. I ´
Í nćclhm
´ lhm pirlijiraks qui `c rieh rieh˝ckc̋k (lcapk I3), lkmklcaks skjri imi uac lcpc ku uac ridi
achs pk`thceudc k vcmkr dc rhehdiz dhimítrhlc dhimítrhlc dk cr sir´
sirćc aitćmhlc.
ait ćmhlc. Lkak `k h`tirhkr dc lcpc ku dc ridi k lcapk
umtrcpcsscdk c`tis qui hstk klkrrc `cs diachs riehk̋is. rieh˝kis. imítrhlk
imítrhlk ií´ ùmk, k cpcrimbk `c̋k `˝ck sir´
sirćc cnitcdk pkr ì`bua
K pk pkdi dirr dc dcss pkpk`t `tcs
cs i`lki`lk`t `trc
rc ua uacc ha
hapk
pkrt rtc`
c`ti
ti inihtk im´
imitrhlk
ítrhlk ixtirhkr. Hstk si divi ck nctk qui k dismk-
cpm
cpmhl hlcl
cl² c̋ck
˝ k `c lk`strul² c̋ck ˝ k dks pcrc-rchks thpk Nrcòmh`. lcai`tk di lcrecs `c lcpc eirc ua kutrk lcapk im´ imitrhlk
ítrhlk
Isti dhspkshth
dhspkshthvk
vk lk`s
lk`shsti
hsti issi
issi`lhcm ai`ti ùac pk`tc (I:) qui lc`limc k lcapk imítrhlk
`lhcmai`ti imítrhlk `k mklcm k`di istć
istć k
ćmhlc, qui divi sir lkmklcdc `k pk`tk achs imivcdk kjgitk c sir prktiehdk.
aitćmhlc,
ait
dk mklcm c sir prktiehdk.
prktiehdk. K pcrc-rchks
pcrc-rchks ií´ mhecdk c Tirrc
pkr aihk
aihk di ua jka lk`dutk lk`dutkrr. Suc`dk
Suc`dk uac ùvia ùvia
im´
imítrhlc
itrhlc pcssc skjri k mklcm, k lcapk imítrhlk imítrhlk istcji-
milhdk i`tri c ùvia i c Tirrc tkr`c-si auhtk h`ti`sk.
I`tc̋k,
I`t˝ ck, k cr si hk`hzc, tkr`c`dk-si
tkr`c`dk-si lk`dutkr,
lk`dutkr, nczi`dk
lka qui c dislcrec imítrhlc
imítrhlc (rchk) si prklissi ctrcvís
ctrcvís
dc pk`tc dk pcrc-rchks, i cssha cs lcrecs im´ imitrhlcs
ítrhlcs pk-
dia sir trc`snirhdcs pcrc c Tirrc ku pcrc cs ùvi`s sia
lcuscr dc`ks. Nheurc 3.397 Jmh`dceia Imitrkstćthlc
Imitrkstćthlc
Ixhsti achkr prkjcjhmhdcdi dk rchk lchr `k pcrc-rchks
dk qui ia i a kutrk mklcm dc vhzh`bc`l
vhzh`bc` l²c. Yac cpmhlcl² c̋ck ˝ k pr´
prćthlc
cthlc disti ni`ˎk kai`k
ai`k lk`shsti `k
usk di sclks di jmh`dceia lk`trc imitrhlhdcdi istćthlc istćthlc
pcrc trc`spkrti di lkapkì`tis imitrk`hlks kˎ `hlks si`s´
si`sĳvihs.
ĳ́vihs.
Jmh`dceia Imitrkst´
Imitrkstcthlcćthlc
Ia ridis di T^ c lcjk, ixhsti uac lcpc aitćmhlc aitćmhlc ix-
Ia lkrpks lcrriecdks imitrhlcai`ti, cs lcrecs im íitrhlcs ´ trhlcs tir`c, qui tcaj´ tcajia ía tia c nu`l² c̋ck
˝ k di initucr uac jmh`-
ia ixlissk si ripimia, piracìli`dk k achs cncstcdk dceia, ku sigc, imc hskmc ks ffiks h`tir`ks di cmeuac h`-
pkss´ĳvim
pkss ĳ́vim uac dcs kutrcs. Istcs dhstrhjuia `c ﬊u
Istcs lcrecs si dhstrhjuia ﬊uˎi`lhc
iˎ `lhc im´
imíitrhlc
trhlc qui pkdirhc pirturjcr c trc`sahss
trc`sahss˝ck
c̋k di
supirn´ĳ́ĳlhi
lhi dks lkr
lkrpks
pks,, qui rcphdc
rcphdcai`
ai`titi cdquhr
cdquhria ia siu is- h` h`nk
nkraracl k̋˝ is.
cl² kis.

/H N\ YM
L CV ´HTYMK
Ć
(j) Zi
Zithrc
thrc`dk
`dk-si
-si dk mklcm
mklcm c lcrec
lcrec di prkvc
prkvc,, k
lcapk
lca pk dc isnirc
isnirc (3) dihxc di ixhs
ixhsthr
thr;; Vkr
quˎˎ;
quii;
3<. C qui dhstˎ
dhstcc`lhc
ˎ `lhc uac dc kutrc ií´ prilhsk
prilhsk dhspkr,
dhspkr,
ć´ luk, ducs lcrecs q3 1 < Õ 36√9L i q: 1
`k vcluk,
4 Õ 36√9L , pcrc qui imcs si ixirl²²ca ca autucai`ti
:
uac nkrl
nkr l² c di
d i : Õ 36 @ ;
Nheurc 3.3>7 Jmh`dceia ia Lcjk Lkcxhcm 34. Suc
Sucmm ií´ k vcmkr di ducs lcrecs heuchs qui si ripimia
lka uac nkrl² c di <, 9@ quc`dk pkstcs cf dhstˎ cˎ `lhc
dhstc`lhc
Ixirl´ĳlhks
Ixirl ĳ́lhks di 6 , 9a;
39. Ducs lcr lcrecs ìecthvcs, q3 1 4, <¹L i q: 1
ecs pk`tuchs ìecthvcs,
3. Iù`lhi c Zierc
Zierc di Du Ncy.
Ncy.
:, 6¹L, istc̋k
ist˝ck sht
shtucd
ucdcs
cs `k cr,
cr, si
sipcr
pcrcdc
cdcss pkr uac
:. Lh
Lhtiti i ixpm ixpmhq
hqui
ui ks pr
prh`
h`lh
lhpc
pchs
hs pr
prkl
klis
issk
skss di dhst ˎ `lhc r 1 <6la.
dhstˎcc`lhc
imit
im itrh
rhzc ˝ k.
zcll²c̋ck.
(c) Dis
Disi`b
i`bii ia uac ffieu ffieurc,
rc, c nkrl
nkrl²c
²c qui q3 ixirl
ixirlii
<. Lhti k prklissk di imitrhzcl²c̋ck
˝ k uscdk `c eircl
e ircl²ck
c̋˝ k di skjri q:. Sucm íi´ k vcmkr distc nkrl²c;
imitrhlhdcdi pcrc usk urjc`k. (j) Disi`bi, `c ffieurc, c nkrl²c ²c qui q: ixirli sk-
jri q3. Sucm íi´ k vcmkr distc nkrl² c;
4. Diˎ k she`hffilcdk dc ixpriss˝
ixprissck
c̋k ”lcrec im´
imitrhlc
ítrhlc imi-
ai`tcr‑. 3>. îrhffilc-si qui uac lcrec pkshth vc di 3, 9¹L, lkmk-
pkshthvc
lcdc ùa pk`tk V. ffilc sugihtc c uac nkrl²c ²c im´
imítrhlc
itrhlc
9. Ditira
Ditirah`c
h`cdk
dk lkrpk
lkrpk lk`t ´ a 26 prḱ
lk`tíia ´ tk`ss i 96
ktk` di 6, >@ . Su
Sucm
cm íi´ c h`ti`shdcdi dk lcapk im imí́itrhlk
trhlk
im´
imítrk`
itrk`s.s. Lcmlumcr
Lcmlumcr k vcmkr
vcmkr dc quc`thdcd
quc`thdcdii di lcre
lcrecc ia V;
im
imítrhlc
ítrhlc ixhsti`ti `k lkrpk.
35. @ua pk`tk dk ispc ispcll²²k
k ixhsti
ixhsti ua lcapk
lcapk im
imí́itrhlk
trhlk
>. Ck si im imit
itrh
rhzc
zcrr, ua lklkrp
rpk
k ri
rili
lijiu >6 Õ 36:6
jiu di 9 Õ 364 @ /L, bkrh bkrhzkzk`t
`tcm
cm,, pcrc
pcrc c is
isqu
quir irdc
dc..
im
imítrk`s Sucm ií´ k vcmkr dc quc`thdcdi di lcrec
í trk`s.. Sucm Lkmklc`dk-si uac lcrec q ìsti pk`tk, virhffilc-si
im´
imítrhlc
itrhlc cdquhrhdc pimk lkrpk; qui imc ti`di c si akvir pcrc c dhrihtc, sugihtc c
uac nkrl í´ trhlc di 6, :@ .
n krl² c im itrhlc
´
5. Ya ctkak
ćtkak di lkjri (:8 im´
imíitrk`s
tr k`s ia lk`dlk`dhl k̋˝ is `kr-
hl²kis
achs) nkh hk`hzcdk ck ec`bcr 5 imítrk`
imítrk`s.
s. Sucm ií´ k Sucmm íí k sh`cm dc lcrec q;
(c) Suc
vcmkr dc quc`thdcdi di lcrec im´ ítrhlc dk ć́tkak;
im itrhlc ctkak; (j) Diti
Ditirahì
rahì,, ia ahlrkLk
ahlrkLkumkaj
umkaj (¹L), k vcmkr
di q;
2. \i ia viz di ec`b `bccr 5 im
imítrk`s
í trk`s,, k ćctkak
´ tkak dk
ixirl´ĳlhk
ixirl ĳ́lhk c`tirhkr, thvissi pirdhdk 3: imímitrk`s,
ítrk`s, qucm
sirhc k `kvk vcmkr dc quc`thdcdi di lcrec imítrhlc imítrhlc Zispkstcs dks ixirl´
ixirlĳ́ĳlhks
lhks ùa
ùaírhlks
írhlks
cdquhrhdc pimk ć́tkak;
ctkak;
9. q 1 (+)42 Õ 36√38L
8. Ya lkrpk cdquhrhu
cdquhrhu uac lcre
lcrecc ìecthvc
ìecthvc di >46 Õ
√
36 38L. Di Diti
tira
rah`
h`cr
cr k `´
ùairk
úairk di im´
imitrk`s
ítrk`s ris- >. q 1 ( √)8>6L
pk`sćvihs
pk`s´
cvihs pkr istc lcrec.
5. q 1 ( √)33, : Õ 36√38L
36. Ya lkrpk cdquhr
cdquhrhu
hu uac lcrec pkshthvc
pkshthvc di 866¹L. 2. q 1 (+)38, : Õ 36√38L
K lkrpk ec`bku ku pirdiu im´
im itrk`s;
ítrk`s; Suc`tks;
8. ` 1 466 imítrk`s
imítrk`s
33. Lcmlumi k vcmkr dc nkrl²c im´ imítrhlc
itrhlc i`tri ducs piqui-
`cs isnircs (lcrecs pu`thnkrais) qui dhstca 6 , :a, 36. Virdi
Virdiu 9>:, 9 Õ 363< im
u 9>: imítrk`s
ítrk`s
istc̋k
ist˝
ck `k v´ vćluk
cluk i pkssuia quc`thdcdis di lcrecs 33. N 1 8@
q3 1 (+)9, 6 Õ 36√>L i q: 1 ( √)2 Õ 36√>L. Nc Ncll²c
ua isquiac
isquia c k`di cpcril²c ²caa cs ducs
duc s lcrecs i k vi- 3:. c)d 1 84 , 25aa? j)@˝
3:. j)@ck, c̋ k, k lcapk im´
imitrhlk
ítrhlk s´
sk
ḱ di-
tkr nkr
nkrll²c im itrhlc
í´ trhlc qui ctuc ia lcdc uac. pi`di di q3 i dc dhstˎcc`lhc
`lhc cf aisac
3:. Virtk di uac piqui`c isni isnirc

rc (3) imitrhzcd
imitrhzcdcc pkshth- 3<. d 1 6, :<:a
vcai`ti lka uac quc`thdcdi di lcrec (+) :, 6¹L, 34. q 1 8, 2>¹L
ií´ pkstc uac kutrc isnirc (:) lkak lcrec di prkvc.
@ 39. c) N 1 6, 2>@ ? j) N 1 6, 2>@
39.
C nnkrl
krl² c iimmitrhlc
í´ trhlc di h`tircl² ck
c̋˝ k i`tri imcs vcmi 6, 4 .
(c) \cji`d
\cji`dk k qui c quc
quc`th
`thdcddcdii di lcre
lcrecc `c is- 3>. I 1 6, 4 Õ 36> @ /L
nirc (:) íi´ (+)6, :¹L, ditirahì k vcmkr dc 35. c) @ie
@iecthvc? j)q 1 4¹L
cthvc?
cˎ `lhc i`tri cs isnircs.
dhstˎc`lhc
dhst

/H N\ YM
L CV ´HTYMK
Ć
ZKDZHEK \ KYWC I C M^CLHZ TC^CZI\ 3: ˎ

/H N\ YM
Lcp´ĳtumk
Lcp ĳ́tumk :
Vrh`l´ĳphks
Vrh`l ĳ́phks dc Imitrkdh`cahlc
cˎ ahlc
:.3 Dhniri`l² c di Vkti`lhcm

Vkti`lhcm Yacc erc`
Ya erc`di
dizc zc au
auht
htkk hapk
hapkrt
rtc`
c`ti
ti `k is istu
tudk
dk dks
dks
ni`ˎkai`ks
kai`ks im itrhlks
í´ trhlks istć
istć rimclhk`cdc lka isti trcjcmbk.
\cji-si qui klkrri ua akvhai`tk di imítrk`s imítrk`s ctrcv´
ctrcvís
is Istc erc`dizc íi´ di`kah
di`kah`cdc
`cdc ”dhn
”dhniri`l
iri`l²c
²c di pkti`
pkti`lhcm
lhcm ku
di ua lk`dutkr quc`dk k aisak nkr sujaithdk c ua ti`s˝ck‑
ti`s c̋k‑ i`tri ks pk`tks c i j, (^cj) i pkdi sir diffi`hdc
lcapk im´ imitrhlk
í trhlk.. Hssk
Hssk klk
klkrri
rri pkrq
pkrqui
ui issis
issis im imítrk`s
ítrk`s ffi- lkak7
lca sugihtks
sug ihtks c nkrl²cs imimítrhlcs,
ítrhlcs, ks quchs divirc̋k
divir˝ck pirshsthr
C D HNIZI@L
² C DI V KTI@LHCM I@TZI DKH\ VK@-
si i`tri cs ixtriahdcdis dk lk`dutkr nkr ac`thdc uac
TK\ LKZZI\VK@DI CK TZCJCMBK ZICMHWCDK VIMK
dhniri`ll²²cc di pkti`lhcm.
dhniri` pkti`lhcm . ´ TZHLK CK AKÎZ YAC LCZEC DI 3L
LCAVK IMITZHLK
Í 3L DI
YA VK@TK VCZC K KYTZK .
:.3.3
:.3.3 Dhniri
Dhniri`l
`l²c
²c di Vkti`
Vkti`lhc
lhcmm i`tri
i`tri dkhs Ia bkai`ceia ck n´ĳ́ĳshlk
dkhs sc`drk shlk i prknisskr htcmhc`k Cmis-
pk`tks E. ^kmtc (3549-32:5), qui nkh k h`vi`tkr dc phmbc
im´
imítrhlc,
itrhlc, c u`hdcdi di aidhdc di dhniri`l²c
²c di pkti`lhc íi´
\upk`bcaks ua lk`gu`tk di lkrpks imitrhzcdks ist´ istcć lrh- k vkmt (v).
c`dk
c`dk ua lcapk
lcapk im imí́itrhlk
trhlk vi
virth
rthlcm
lcm pcrc
pcrc jch
jchxk, ´ luk ku
xk, `k vćcluk
di`trk
di`trk di ua lk`dutkr.
lk`dutkr. Lk`shdiri
Lk`shdiriaks
aks dkhs pk`tks c i C erc`dizc Dhniri`l² c di Vkti`lhcm
Vkti`l hcm im
imítrhlk
ítrhlk tcajía
tcajía íi´
j ìsti lcapk imímitrhlk
ítrhlk di clkrdk
clkrdk lka c ffieurcffieurc :.3. \i lbcacdc di Ti`s˝
Ti`sck
c̋k Im´
Imitrhlc,
ítrhlc, Nkrl²c
²c Imitrkak
Imitrkaktrhz
trhz i cch`dc
h`dc
k lcapk imítrhlk
imítrhlk dismklcr uac lcrec di prkvc (+)q dk vkmtceia.
pk`tk c pcrc k pk`tk j, bcvir´ bcvircć c ricmhzcl c̋˝ k di ua trc-
ricm hzcl² ck
jcmbk Ucj skjri c lcrec pkrqui, durc`ti tkdk k trcgitk,
k lcapk im´
imitrhlk
ítrhlk ist´
istcć cpmhlc`dk uac nkrl²c Ni skjri c
lcrec. Lk`v´
Lk`viaía miajrcr qui trcjcmbk íí diffi`hdk lkak k H`t
H`tirp
irprit
ritcl ˝ n´
cl² ck nĳ́sh
ĳshlclc
prkdutk dc nkrl²²cc cpmhlcdc ia ua kjgitk lka uac lirtc
acssc pimk dismklcai`tk ricmhzcdk.
Virliji-si, pimk qui nkh ixpkstk, qui c dhniri`l²c di pk-
ti`lhcm ií´ achkr k`di k lcapk im´
ítrhlk ií´ achs h`ti`sk
imitrhlk
pkhs sc̋k
s˝ck eircdcs
eircdc
trc`spkrtcdcs i slk`siqui`tiai`ti
nkrl²cs
²c s achkri
achkriss skjri cs
c s lcrecs
ií´ ricmhzcdk uac siria
si ria
achkr
trcjcmbk.
Cssha c dhniri`l²c
²c di pkti`lhcm i`tri dkhs pk`tks di
ua lcapk imítrhlk
imítrhlk ixhsti aisak qui ì`buac lcrec
sigc trc`spkrtcdc i`tri ks aisaks.
@c pr´
prcthlc,
ćthlc, ia viz di pi`scr qui k lcapk im´ ítrhlk íi´
imitrhlk
c nk`ti dk akvhai`tk dcs lcrecs, íi´ aimbkr lk`shdircr
Nheurc :.37 Zicmhzcl² ck
c̋˝ k di trcjcmbk imítrhlk
imítrhlk c dhniri`l²c
²c di pkti`lhcm (ku ti`s˝
ti`sck)
c̋ k) lkak c lcusc dk
akvhai`tk dcs aisacs.
Ia kutrcs pcmcvrcs, Ucj riprisi`tc uac lirtc quc`th- Vcrc nclhmhtcr k i`ti`dhai`tk dk lk`lihtk di dhniri`l²c ²c
dcdi di ”iìrehc‑ qui c nkrl²c ²c ixtir`c Ni trc`sniri pcrc di pkti`l
pkti`lhcm
hcm im´
imítr
itrhlk
hlk,, ncriak
ncriakss uac c`cmke c`cmkehc hc lka c
c lcrec (+)q ia siu dismklcai
dismklcai`tk`tk di c pcrc j. \i nkr dhn
dhniri
iri`l`l²c
²c di pkt
pkti`l
i`lhcm
hcm ercvhtcl
ercvhtclhk` hk`cm.
cm. @k shs shstia
tiacc
trc`spkrtcdc uac lcrec lka k dkjrk dk vcmkr c`tirhkr bhdrćumhlk
bhdr ć umhlk dc ffieu
ffieurc ć´ euc di dismklc dc lchxc
rc :.:, c ceuc
bcvirćc k dkjrk dc nkrl²²cc ceh`dk
bcvir´ ceh`dk skjri c lcrec,lcrec, mkek k d‘ćeuc
d‘ćeuc C pcrc c lchxc J pkr lcusc l cusc dc dhni
dhniri`l
ri`l²²cc d
dii cmturc
trcjcmbk ricmhzcdk sir´
sirćc k dkjrk. @c virdcdi, pcrc qucm- ∎b. Lcdc pk`tk dk ispcl²k ²k pkssuh ua pkti`lhcm ercvhtc-
quirr vc
qui vcmkr
mkr di lcr
lcrec
ec trc
trc`sp
`spkrt
krtcdc
cdc i`t
i`tri
ri ist
istis is aisaks
aisaks dkhs
dkhs lhk`cm qui íi´ prkpkrlhk`cm cf suc cmturc. Vkrtc`tk k ﬊uxk
pk`tks, tiriaks siapri c aisac rimcl r imcl²ck
c̋˝ k i`tri k trcjc- di ćeuc
ćeuc ixhsti divhdk cf dhnir
dhniri`l
i`l²c ²c di pkti`
pkti`lhcm
lhcm erercvhtclh-
cvhtclh-
mbk ricmhzcdk i c lcrec trc`spkrtcdc. k`cm ixhsti`ti i`tri cs ducs lchxcs.
3<
L CV ´HTYMK
H́ TYMK : . V ZH@L´HVHK\ ˎ
H́ VHK\ DC I MITZKDH@CAHLC
akdk qui k akvhai`tk di lcrecs `k h`stc`ti t3 pkssuh

ua si`thdk lk`tr´
lk`trćcrhk
rhk ck akvhai`tk di lcrecs `k h`stc`-
tis t<.
Nheurc :.:7 C`cmkehc i`tri Imitrhlhdcdi i Bhdrćumhlc

Bhdrćumhlc
:.3.:
:.3.: Th
Thpk
pkss di ti`s ˝
ti`sck
˝ lk`t´
Ti`sck lk `tĳ́ùc
ĳùc (LL ku
k u DL)
C ti`sc̋k
ti`s˝ck ku ddp lk`tĳ́ùc
lk`t´ĳùc krheh`c ua akvhai`tk u`hdh-
rilhk`cm di lcrecs imítrhl
imítrhlcs,
cs, hstk íi,
´ , c aisac quc`thdcdi
di lcrec si akvhai`tc siapri lka k aisak si`thdk.
Nheurc :.47 Ti`sc̋k
Ti`s˝ck Cmtir`cdc
Isti thpk di ddp íi´ nkrìlhdk pkr phmbcs ku jctirhcs, pkr-
tc`tk k ffik mhecdk ck pkmk pkshthvk íí di`kah`cdk di ”ffik
pkshthvk‑, i`quc`tk qui k ffik mhecdk ck pkmk ìecthvk dc C ddp cmtir`cdc riprisi`tcdc `k aisak er´ erćcffilk
ffilk íi´
nk`ti ií́ di`kah`cdk di ”ffik ìecthvk‑. lbcacdc di si`khdcm,
lbcacdc si`khdcm, si`dk
si`dk qui i`
i`tri
tri ks h`stc
h`stc`tis
`tis t6
t6 i t4
@ua erćffilk
erćffilk dk lkapkrtcai
lkapkrtcai`tk `tk dc ddp ia nu`l² ck
c̋˝ k ixhsti ua lhlmk lkapmitk, ck mkèk dk qucm c erc`dizc
dk tiapk (ffieurc :.<), kjt´

kjtia-si
ía-si uac mh`bc ritc, h`dhim
im´
itrhlc
ítrhlc
@ks cthèi dcs
tirah`chs tkdks ks vcmkris
tkacdcs h`stc`tˎ
h`stc`t
di `ksscs ccìks
ˎ ìkstiaks
lcscs, pkss
pkss´ĳ́ĳvihs.
vihs.
uac
lc`dk qui pcrc h`stc`tis dhniri`tis di tiapk, lkrris-
pk`di siapri ua u`hlk
ú`hlk
´ vcmkr di ddp. Vkr lkapcrcl² ckc̋˝ k ddp cmtir`cdc di nriquˎ iˎ `lhc heucm c >6Bz. ( 3 Birtz 1 3
nriqui`lhc
lka c lkrri`ti lk`t´
lk`tĳùc,
ĳ́ùc, usc-si lbca´
lbcac-mc
ć-mc di ti`s˝
ti`sck
c̋k LL lhlmk pkr sieu`dk).
ku ti`sc̋k
ti`s˝ck DL.
:.3.<
:.3.< Vkti`
Vkti`lhc
lhcmm Im´
Imitrhlk
ítrhlk di ua Vk`tk
´ lkaua k l´
I
Í lćcmlumk
mlumk dc ddp i`tri dkhs pk`tks di ua
lcapk imítrhlk.
imítrhlk. I`tritc`tk, lkstuac-si iapriecr,
iapriecr, lka
nriquˎi`lhc,
i`lhc, k lk`lihtk di ”pkti`lhcm di ua pk`tk‑. Acs
k pkti`lhcm ùa pk`tk `cdc achs ií´ dk qui c ddp i`tri
isti pk`tk i ua kutrk tkacdk lkak rinirˎii`lhc.`lhc. I`t˝
I`tc̋k,
ck,
pcrc lcmlumcraks k pkti`lhcm ùa pk`tk ”c‑, diviaks
h`hlhcmai`ti islkmbir, crjhtrcrhcai`ti, ua kutrk pk`tk
”V‑, di`kah`cdk ”pkti`lhcm di rinirˎ
riniri`lhc‑,
iˎ `lhc‑, ck qucm si
ctrhjuh
ctrhj uh ua
sieuhdc, pkti`
pkti`lhcm
c ddp i`trilhcm ”c‑
ùmki (^p
”V‑, 1kjtiaks
6). Lcml
Lcmlumc`d
kumc`dk-si,
k-si, ia
”pkti`lhcm di
c (^
( ^c) ia rimcl c̋˝ k c V‑.
ri mcl² ck
Ks pkti`lhchs im´ imitrhlks
ítrhlks `k lcapk im´ imíitrhlk
trhlk `ks pirah-
Nheurc :.<7 Ti`sc̋k
Ti`s˝ck Lk`t´
Lk `tĳ́ù
ĳùcc tia privir k si`thdk ia qui ti`dia c akvir-si cs lcr-
ecs imítrhlcs
imítrhlcs cjc`dk`cdcs ìssi lcapk. Lk`shdiriaks,
pkr ixiapmk, ua lcsk ia qui si tia ducs pmclcs imitrh-
zcdcs lkak `c ffieurc :.9, i`tri cs quchs ixhsti uac ddp,
Ti`sck ˝ cmtir`cdc (LC ku CL)
^cj ku ^c-^j lugk vcmkr ií´ di <66^. \i islkmbiraks c
C ddp cmtir`cdc, lk`nkrai k pr kprhk ḱ´ prhk `kai sueiri, krh- pmclc ”j‑ lkak pkti`lhcm di rinirˎi`lhc i`lhc tiriaks ^j 1 6
eh`c ua akvhai`tk di lcrecs qui vcrhc, ia quc`thdcdi i, i`t˝ i`tck,
c̋k, vhr´
vhrćc ^c 1 <66^, hstk i, í´ , k pkti`lhcm di ”c‑ íí di
i ia si`thdk.
si`thdk. @cs tk tkacd
acdcscs im´
imitrhlcs
ítrhlcs rishdi`lhchs, qui <66^ ia rimcl
rim cl
² ˝
c̋
ck k c ”j‑ (k pkti`lhcm di ”c‑ ist cć´ <66^
c̋˝ k cmhai`tcdcs pkr cmtir`cdkris, ixhstia ti`skis
sck k̋˝ is cmtir- clha
clhacc ia rimclr imcl² c̋ck
˝ k c ”j‑).
`cdc
`cdcs. s. Ya dks dks ffiks
ffiks ií´ k ”ffik ncsi‑ i k kutrk ií´ k ”ffik Tcajía
Tcaj´ ia íi´ lkrritk cffiracr qui k pkti`lhcm di ”j‑ íí di
ìutrk‑. -<66^
-<66 ^ ia rimclrim cl² c̋ck
˝ k c ”c‑ (^jc), pkhs ^j-^c 1 6-<66 1
Kerćffil
Ker´ cffilk k dc ffieurc
ffieurc :.4 rip
ripris
risi`t
i`tcc c vc
vcrhc
rhcll²c̋ck
˝ k dist ddp -<66^.
distcc ddp
ia nu nu`l
`l² c̋ck
˝ k dk tiapk.
tiapk. @ktc-s
@ktc-sii qui, pcr pcrcc h`stc
h`stc`ti `tiss dh- Vkrtc`tk k pkti`lhcm ùa pk`tk `˝ ` c̋ck
k tia ua vcmkr
niri`tis di tiapk, lkrrispk`dia vcmkris dhniri`tis di ú u`hlk,
´ `hlk, acs sha isti vcmkr dipi`di dk pkti`lhcm di ri-
ddp.. Vkr ixiapm
ddp ixiapmk,k, `ks h`stc`
h`stc`tis
tis t3 i t< ixhs ixhstia tia ddp nirˎ
nirii`lhc.
ˎ `lhc. Ia eircm lk`shdirc-si c Tirrc lkak imiai`tk
di aisak vcmkr, pkr´ pkria
ía lka pkmcrhdcdis h`virthdcs, di di rinirˎ iˎ `lhc, ck qucm ctrhjuh-si k vcmkr zirk (^t 1 6).
riniri`lhc,

/H N\ YM
L CV ´HTYMK
H́ TYMK : . V ZH@L ´HVHK\ ˎ
:.:.:
:.:.: \i`thd
\i`thdk
k dc
dc Lkrr
Lkrri`t
i`tii Imí´ trhlc
Imitrhlc
kˎ `hlk
\i`thdk Imitrk`hlk
´ lk`shdircdk k si`thdk ricm dc lkrri`ti im´
I
Í imitrhlc,
ítrhlc, pkhs
lkrrispk`di ck si`thdk dk akvhai`tk dks imítrk`s,
imítrk`s, ku
sigc, c lkrri`ti lhrlumc dk pkti`lhcm ai`kr (-) pcrc k
pkti`lhcm achkr (+) `k lk`suahdkr.
Nheurc :.97 Vkti`lhcm di ua pk`tk
”Y A C L CZ EC ´ TZHLC VK\HTH^
EC I MITZHLC
Í VK\HTH^CC TI@D
TI@DI I C \I
DI\MKLCZ DI VK@TK\ K@DI K VKTI@LHCM
VKTI@LHCM I ´
Í ACHKZ
VCZC VK@TK\ K@DI IMI I ´
Í AI@KZ . Y AC LCZEC
@IECTH^
@IEC TH^CC TI@DIZĆ ´ C \ I A K^
C K^ I
IZ
Z I A \ I@I@ T
THH D
DK
K
´ ZHK ‑.
LK@TZ CZHK
Ć
:.
:.:
: Lk
Lkrr
rri`
i`ti
ti Im´
Imitrhlc
ítrhlc
Lkak nkh vhstk ia Imitrkstćth
Imitrkstćthlc,
lc, quc`dk
quc`dk uac lcr
lcrec
ec
ítrhlc ií´ lkmklcdc ùac rieh˝
im´
imitrhlc riehck
c̋k k`di ctuc ua lcapk
im´
imítrhlk,
cl ²itrhlk,
ck ti`dirć
ti`dir´
c̋˝ k di uac nkrlc²²ccc si
nk rl di akvhai`tcr,
krheia
krh eia im itrhlc. pkhs istcrć
í´ trhlc. istcrć sugihtc cf Nheurc :.>7 \i`thdk Imitr
Imitrk`hlk
kˎ `hlk
Ia act actirh
irhchs
chs lk`dut
lk`dutkrikriss ait
aitć́cmhlmhlks ks (ffi(ffiks
ks di lklk-
jri)
jri),, ks imítrk`
imítrk`ss pirtipirti`li`t
`li`tis is cf lc lcac acdc dc di vcmˎi`lhc
i`lhc
ú´ mthac lcacdc) s˝
(umthac sckc̋k nrclcai`ti ctrc´ ctrcĳdks
ĳ́dks pimks rispilth-
\i`thdk Lk`vi`lhk`cm
Lk`vi`lhk`cm
vks ù́lmiks,
`úlmiks, di nkrac qui sc̋k s˝ck lk`shdircdks ”im´ ”imítrk`s
itrk`s mh-
vris‑. @c cusˎ iˎ `lhc di ua lcapk im´
cusi`lhc imitrhlk,
ítrhlk, istis im´ imitrk`s
ítrk`s Vkr lk`vi`l
lk`vi` l² c̋ck,
˝ k, íi´ k dismklcai`tk dcs lcrecs pkshthvcs,
akvia-s
akv ia-sii diskrdi`c
diskrdi`cdcai dcai`ti,
`ti, mkek k dismklcai dismklcai`tk `tk íi´ ku sigc, c lkrri`ti lhrlumc dk pkti`lhcm achkr (+) pcrc
prcthlcai
prcth lcai`ti`ti ùmk. C prisi`l prisi`l²²cc di ua lcapk lcapk im imítrhlk
ítrhlk k pkti`lhcm
pkti`lhcm ai`kr (-). Isti si`t si`thdk
hdk nkh cdktcdk bć
bć achs
cmtirc c trcgit´
trcgitkrhc
ḱrhc distis im´ imitrk`s,
ítrk`s, cprisi`tc`dk ua dis- di ua sílumk,
sílumk, c`tis qui k imítrkìmítrk` nkssi dislkjirtk, i
mklcai`tk achkr ia si`thdk kpkstk ck lcapk, divhdk fc lk`thùc ffiraiai`ti istcjimilhdk `c mhtircturc di Imi-
nkr
nkrll²c ix ixirlh
irlhdc.
dc. trhlhdcdi.
trhlhdcdi. @c v virdcd
irdcdi, i, `˝
`c̋k
ck ncz dhniri`l²c ²c cmeuac lk`-
K lk`lihtk di lkrri`ti imítrhlc imítrhlc ùa lk`dutkr pkdi shdircr lcrecs pkshthvcs bhpkt´ bhpktithlcs
íthlcs akvi`dk-si ia ua
i`t
i`t˝ck c̋k sir i`ti`dhdk lkak si`dk k akvhai`tk krdi`cdk si`thdk, ku lcrecs ìecthvcs richs akvi`dk-si ia si`-
di sucs lcrecs imítrhlcs, imítrhlcs, divhdk cf cl² ck c̋˝ k di ua lcapk thdk
thdk kpkst
kpkstk.k. @k `kss `ksskk istud
istudk k sir´
sirćc cdktcdk k si`thdk
im´
imítrhlk
itrhlk istcjimilhdk ia siu h`tirhkr pimc cpmhlcl²ck c̋˝ k di lk`vi`lhk`cm dc lkrri`ti pkr imi sir achs lkapct´ lkapctĳvim
ĳ́vim
uac ddp i`tri sucs ixtriahdcdis. lka c jhjmhke
jhjmhkercfficrcffic dhspk`´
dhspk`ĳ́vim.
ĳvim.
:.:.3
:.:.3 H`ti`shdcd
H`ti`shdcdii dc Lkrri`ti
Lkrri`ti Im
Imítrhlc
ítrhlc
Di`kah`c-si h`ti`shdcdi dc lkrri`ti imítrhlc
imítrhlc (H) ctrcvís
ctrcvís
di ua lk`dutkr, c rimcl²ck
c̋˝ k i`tri c quc`thdcdi di lcrec
(q) qui pcssc pkr uac ssil c̋˝ k dk aisak i k h`tirvcmk di
il²ck
tiapk lk`shdircdk (t).
q
H1 (:.3)
t
H 7 H`ti`s
H`ti`shdc
hdcdi
di dc lkrr
lkrri`t
i`tii imítr
imítrhlc
hlc - u`hdcd
u`hdcdi7
i7 C
if ri)
(Capfiri)
(Cap
q 7ua
lcr
lcrec
ec im´
imítrhlc
itrhlc
lk`dutkr qui pcs
pcssc
- u`hdcdi7 scLpimc sil² ck
(Lkumkaj) c̋˝ k trc`svirscm di
t 7 H`tirv
H`tirvcmk
cmk di tiapk lk`shdi
lk`shdircdk
rcdk - u`hdcdi7
u`hdcdi7 s (si- Nheurc :.57 \i`thdk Lk`vi`lhk`cm
eu`dk)

/H N\ YM
L CV ´HTYMK
:.:.<
:.:.< Th
Thpk
pkss di
di Lkrri`
Lkrri`ti
ti Im´
Imitrhlc
ítrhlc Ia cmeu`s
cmeu`s lcslcsks ks k Ini
Inihtk htk Gkumi
Gkumi íi´ h`disig´
h`disigćvim
cvim pkr-
qui, cm´
cmíia
a di riprisi`tcr pirdc di iìrehc im imí́itrhlc,
trhlc, lcusc
Lkrri`ti Lk`t´
Lk`tĳ́ùc
ĳùc (LL ku
k u DL)
tcajía
tcaj ía dc`ks `ks eircdkris, aktkris, trc`snkracdkris
\i uac mˎcˎ apcdc nkr cmhai`tcdc pkr uac ddp lk`t´
mcapcdc lk`t ĳùc,
ĳ́ùc, i mh`bcs di trc`sahssc̋k.
trc`sahss˝ck.
pkr ixiapmk di uac phmbc, imc sirć sirć pirlkrrhdc pkr uac @kutr
@k utrcscs shtucl k̋˝ is imi ií´ jcstc`ti uthm
sht ucl² kis ´ lkak `ks lbuvih-
úthm
lkrri`ti lk`t´
lk`tĳùc,
ĳ́ùc, c qucm ií´ u`hdhrilhk`cm, ti`dk siapri rks, istuncs, nirrks di pcsscr rkupc, silcdkris di lcjimk,
k aisak si`thdk i aisak a´ akdumk
ḱdumk ia tkdks ks h`stc`tis nkr`ks imímitrhlks,
ítrhlks, skmdc im´ imitrhlc,
ítrhlc, itl.
di tiapk, lk`nkrai c ffieurc :.2.
Nheurc :.367 Ysks dk Inihtk Gkumi
Dhai`shk`cai`tk di lk`dutkris
Ya dks lrht´
lrhtirhks
írhks achs uscdks pcrc dhai`shk`cai`tk
di lk`dutkris ií´ c aćxhac
aćxhac lkrri`ti cdahss´
cdahssĳ́vim
ĳvim pkr ua
Nheurc :.27 Lkrri`ti Lk`t´
Lk`tĳùc
ĳ́ùc
lk`dutkr, qui ií´ mhahtcdc pimc a´ aćcxhac
xhac tiapircturc qui
k ais
aisak ak pkdi supk supkrtc
rtcrr. Suc`dk
Suc`dk ua lk`dutkr
lk`dutkr íi´ pir-
lkrrhdk pkr lkrri`ti im´ imíitrhlc,
trhlc, k lcmkr eircdk prkvprkvklcklc
Lkrri`ti Cmtir`cdc (LC ku CL) im
imivc
ivcll²ck
c̋˝ k di tiapircturc `k lk`dutkr.
\i uac mˎcˎ apcdc nkr cmhai`tcdc pkr uac ddp cmtir`cdc,
mcapcdc C sieuhr, ist´ istćc h`dhlcdc uac tcjimc lka c lcpclhdcdi
pkr ixiapmk di uac tkacdc rishdi`lhcm, imc sirć
sirć pir- di lk`d
lk`dul ul² c̋ck
˝ k di lkrri`ti, di ffiks lk`dutkris di lkjri,
lkrrhdc pkr uac lkrri`ti cmtir`cdc, c qucm audc, pi- ia nu`l² ck c̋˝ k dc ćric
cric
´ di sucs sil² kis
k̋˝ is trc`s
trc`svirs
virschs.
chs. Isti
rhkdhlcai`ti, suc h`ti`shdcdi i siu si`thdk, lk`nkrai ixiapmk sirvi pcrc lcjks lka dkhs lk`dutkris hskmcdks
er
erćffilk
ćffilk :.8. lka V^L, cf tiapircturc cajhi`ti di <6kL lkmklcdks
ia imitrkdutk lhrlumcr iajuthdk ia pcridi di cmvi`crhc.
Vcrc kutrcs shtucl² k̋ kis
˝ is divia sir lk`sumtcdks acùchs di
h`
h`st
stcm
cmcl
cl² kis
k̋˝ is imímitrhlcs.
ítrhlcs.
\i c̋˝ k(aa: )
\ill² ck( Lkrr
Lkrri`
i`ti
ti (C)
(C)
3,9 35,9
:,9 :4
4 <:
> 43
36 95
3> 5>
:9 363
<9 3:9
96 393
56 38:
Nheurc :.87 Lkrri`ti Cmtir`cdc
t6 c t : 1 siahlhlmk pkshthvk? t : c t 4 1 siahlhlmk ìec-

Kjsirvc`dk c tcjimc clhac i lk`shdirc`dk uac lkr-
thvk? t6 c t4 1 3 lhlmk
ri`ti di H132C, divir´
divirĳcaks
ĳ́caks islkmbir ua ffik lugc ćcric
´ ric
:
nkssi di :, 9aa .
:.:.4
:.:.4 Inihtk
Inihtkss dc
dc Lkrri`
Lkrri`ti
ti Im
Imítrhlc
ítrhlc
Inihtk T´
Tirahlk
írahlk (Inihtk Gkumi) Nusĳvihs
Nus´ĳ́vihs
Lkak lk`siquˎi`lhci`lhc dcs lkmhsk̋is
lkmhs˝kis i`tri ks imítrk`s
imítrk`s mhvris Suc`dk ua lhrluhtk íi´ pirlkrrhdk pkr lkrri`ti im´
imítrhlc,
itrhlc,
i ks ctkaks
ć´ tkaks dks lk`dutkris, c pcssceia di lkrri`ti prkvk
prkvklclc cquilh
cquilhai`
ai`tk
tk dks lk`d
lk`dutk
utkris
ris.. Suc`dk
Suc`dk istc
im´
imitrhlc
ítrhlc imivc c tiapircturc dissis lk`dutkris. lkrri`
lkrri`titi si tkr`c
tkr`c ixcei
ixceircd
rcdcc prilhs
prilhscak
cakss prkti
prktieir
eir cs
ZKDZHEK \ KYWC I C M^CLHZ TC^CZI\ 3> ˎ

/H N\ YM
L CV ´HTYMK
h`st cmcl² k̋
h`stcmcl kis
˝ is lk`trc k pkss´
pkssĳ́vim
ĳvim skjricquilhai`tk
skjricqu ilhai`tk.. Z Zilkr-
ilkr- Is
Issi
siss lćt
lćthkhk`s
`s i cc`hk`s
ˎ `hk`s prkvˎiiaa dc hk`hzcl² c̋ck ˝ k dcs
dcs
riaks i`t˝
i`tck c̋k cks ”nus´
”nusĳvihs‑,
ĳ́vihs‑, dhspkshthvks di jchxc tia- akmílumcs
akm ílumcs dk e´ ećcs.
s. Isscs
Isscs akm´
akmilumcs,
ílumcs, pkr´
pkríia,
a, ` `˝c̋ckk si hk-
pircturc di nus˝ c̋k (lbuajk7 <:5kL? istc`bk7 <:<kL), ks
nusck `hzca skzh`bcs, lkak `k lcsk dks lk`dutkris m´ m ĳquhdks.
ĳ́quhdks.
quchs pkdia ”quihacr‑, h`tirrkapi`dk c pcssceia dc C hk`hzcl
hk`h zcl² ck
c̋˝ k lkai
lkaill²c,
²c, ia eircm
eircm,, lka k akvh
akvhai`tkai`tk di
lkrri`ti im´ imíitrhlc
trhlc.. @k lkrpk
lkrpk dks nus´
nusĳvihs
ĳ́vihs ist´
istcć islrhtk k im
imítrk`s
ítrk`s mhvris qui si lbklca lka cs akm ilumcs í´ lumcs dk e´ ećcss
vcmkr di lkrri`ti qui imi supkrtc. i, crrc`lca imítrk`s
imítrk`s dimcs, hk`hzc`dk-cs. Ks ´ĳk`s ĳ́k`s nkr-
acdks, pkr suc viz i`lk`trca `kvcs akm´ akmilumcs,
ílumcs, qui s˝ sck
c̋k
hk`hzcdcs pimk lbkqui i`tri imcs. Istis `kvks ´ĳ́k`s ĳk`s pcr-
Inihtk Ace`´
Aceìthlk
íthlk thlhpca dk akvhai`tk di lcrecs, i cssha pkr dhc`ti.
\i lkmklcraks uac jússkmc jússkmc prḱxh
pr´kxhac
ac c ua lk` lk`dut dutkr
kr
pirlkrrhdk pkr lkrri`ti im´ imitrhlc,
ítrhlc, `ktcriaks qui klkrri
ua disvhk
disvhk `c suc ceumbc,ceumbc, iv ivhdi hdi`lh
`lhc`d
c`dk
k qui ix ixhsthstii c cˎ apcdc Nmukrisli`ti
Mcapcdc
prisi`l²c di uau a lcapk
lcap k ace` í´ thlk ia tkr`k dk lk`dutkr.
ace ìthlk lk`dutkr. Yac mˎcapcdc
capcdc ﬊ukrisli`ti lk`sthtuh-si di ua tujk di
Isti íi´ ua dks inihtks achs hapkrtc`tis dc lkrri`ti, vhdrk lugk lkaprhai`tk ií´ ditirah`cdk pimc pktˎ pkti`lhc
iˎ `lhc dc
uac viz qui si lk`sthtuh `c jcsi dk prh`l´ prh`l ĳphk
ĳ́phk di nu`lh- aisac i, ia lcdc ixtriahdcdi, pkssuh ua ffimcai`tk
k`cai`tk dks imitrk´
i mitrkĳ́a
ĳa˝cs,
c̋s, h`struai`t
h` struai`tk k di aidhl² ck,
c̋˝ k, ak- di tuèstˎii`hk,
`hk, ia nkrac di isphrcm i rilkjirtks lka
tkris, trc`snkracdkris, itl. uac lcacdc di kxhdks ḱ´ xhdks iahsskris di im´ imíitrk
trk`s
`s.. K h` h`--
tirhkr dk tujk di vhdrk íi´ rivisthdk lka uac lcacdc
di pk ḱ´ ﬊ukrisli`ti, lugc `cturizc h`﬊ui`lhc k ispiltrk
dk ﬊uxk muah`ksk
muah`ksk prkduz
prkduzhdk.hdk. Tcaj´
cajía
ia `k h`tirhkr dc
mcapcdc
cˎ apcdc ixhsti ua e´ ećcss rcrk (cre
(creˎk
k`hk)
ˎ `hk) i lirtc quc`thdcdi
di airl´
airlurhk
úrhk qui, `k akai`tk dc pcrthdc, sir´ sircć vcpkrh-
zcdk. Yac dcs prh`lhpchs vc`tcei`s qui c mˎccapcdc apcdc ﬊u-
krisli`ti cprisi`tc íi,
´ , cm
cmí́ia
a di pkdir sir ncjrhlcdc ia
vćrhcs
vćrhcs tk`cmhdcdis di lkr, c di pkssuhr ua cmtk ri`dh-
ai`tk muah`ksk pimks wctts lk`suahdks pcrc k siu nu`-
lhk`cai`tk.
Nheurc :.337 Inihtk Ace`´
Aceìthlk
íthlk
Lcapch`bc ku Lhecrrc
Cpiscrr dc hùair´
Cpisc hùairćv
cvimim quc`th
quc`thdcd
dcdii di ix
ixiap
iapmks
mks sirć
sirć dcdc
dcdc
ct ˝ k c uac dcs cpmhlcl²kis
ctii`l² c̋ck k̋˝ is achs shapmis dk lcapk
aceì́thlk
ace`´ ithlk prkduzhdk pimc lkrri`ti imítr imítrhlc
hlc77 c lhecrrc
lhecrrc
im´
imitrhlc. lhecrrc ií´ lkapkstc di ua `´
ítrhlc. C lhecrrc ùlmik
úlmik di nirrk,
ia tkr`k dk qucm bć bć uac jkjh`c, i uac mˎcah`c cah`c di nirrk
﬊ix´ĳvim.
﬊ix ĳ́vim. Suc`dk prisshk`caks k jkt˝ jktck
c̋k clhk`cdkr pcssc
uac lkrri`ti cmtir`cdc `c jkjh`c dc lcapch`bc lrh- Nheurc :.3:7 Mˎccapcdc
apcdc Nmukrisli`ti
c`dk ua lcapk aceì́thlk ace`íthlk `k
`k `
`úlmik
úlmik qui ctrch c mˎcah`c.
cah`c.
Suc`dk c lkrri`ti cmtir`cdc pcssc pkr zirk c mˎ cˎ ah`c íi´
mcah`c
skmtc i, mkek ia sieuhdc, ctrcĳ́dc ctrc´ĳdc `kvcai`
`kvcai`titi lcusc`dk
c vhjr
vh jrcl c̋˝ k dc mˎ
cl² ck cˎ ah`c di nirrk eirc`dk k ru´
mcah`c ruĳdk
ĳ́dk lcrcl- Inihtk Nhshkm´
Nhshkmkehlk
ḱehlk
tir´
tir ĳsth
ĳ́s thlk.
lk.
Suc`dk uac lkrri`ti im´ imitrhlc
ítrhlc ctrcvissc ua krec`hsak
vh
vhvk
vk,, cmía
cmía dks dks inih
inihtk
tkss tírahl
tírahlk k i qu´quĳ́ahlk
ĳahlk,, klkrri
klkrria a
Inihtk Muah`ksk
tcajía
tcaj ía inihtks skjri ìrvks i a uslumks. ú´ slumks. Yac lkrri`ti
Isti inihtk jcsihc-si `k nctk di ecsis hk`hzcdks iahth- dc krdia di 36aC, ctrcvissc`dk k krec`hsak di uac
ria muz quc`dk ctrcvisscdks pkr uac lkrri`ti im itrhlc. í´ trhlc. pisskc, prkvklc uac si`scl² ck c̋˝ k di dislk`nkrtk, si`dk
Lkak
Lka k ixixiap
iapmk, mk, tiaks
tiaks cs m capcdcs
cˎ apcdcs ﬊ukrisli`
﬊ukrisli`tis, tis, cs qui, clhac dissi vcmkr, c lkrri`ti klcshk`c uac pirdc
mccapcdcs
ˎ apcdcs di vcpkr di airl ú urhk
´ rhk (uscdcs `c hmuah`cl² ck c̋˝ k dk lk`trkmi skjri ks aúslumks,
aúslumks, prkvklc`dk lk`trcl² k̋ kis
˝ is
di qucdrcs ispkrthvcs), cs mˎcapcdcs capcdcs di vcpkr di sḱdhk s´kdhk lk`bilhdcs lkak ”lbkquis‑.
(pcrcc hmuah
(pcr hmuah`cl `cl² ck
c̋˝ k di túìhs
túìhs i istrcdcs), itl. K sklkrrk
sklkrrk c uac vĳ́thac v´ĳthac di lbkqu lbkquii lkai
lkaill²²cc pimk
@ks lk`dutkris
lk`dutkris ecsksks, ecsksks, lcapks
lcapks im imítrhlks
ítrhlks h`ti`sks lkrti dc ddp lcuscdkrc
lcuscdkrc dk aisak. Hstk div divii sir nihtk
pkdirc̋k
pkdir˝ ck prkvklcr k dismklcai`tk krdi`cdk di ´ĳk`s ĳ́k`s pk- h`tirrkapi`dk-si k lhrluhtk. @c hapksshjhmhdcdi dissc dissc
shthvks i ìecthvks i im´ imíitrk`s
trk`s (lkrri`ti im imítrhlc),
ítrhlc), si`dk h`tir
h`t irru
rupl
pl² ck,
c̋˝ k, sueiri-si puxcr ku iapurrcr c pisskc lka
qui ks c`hk`s
cˎ `hk`s i im´ im íitrk`s
trk`s ti`dirhca c dismklcr-si `k si`- ua actirhcm hskmc`ti lkak, pkr ixiapmk, uac lkrdc, ua
thdk lk`tr´
lk`trcrhk
ć rhk ck dk lcapk i ks l ćcthk`s ´ thk`s ti`dirhca c pidcl² k di acdihrc silc, iitl. tl. Isti prhaihrk
prhaih rk sklkrrk divi
dismklcr-si `k aisak si`thdk dk lcapk im itrhlk. í´ trhlk. sir nihtk k achs r´ rcphdk
ćphdk pkss´
pkssĳvim,
ĳ́vim, pkhs c rishstˎ iˎ `lhc dc
rishsti`lhc

/H N\ YM
L CV ´HTYMK
pimi `c riehc̋k
rieh˝ck dk lk`tctk imítrhlk
imítrhlk dhahùh, k qui prk- shstˎi`lhc.
i `lhc. Imis
Imis pkdia
pkdia sir di dkhs thp thpks7
ks7 c`cm´
c`cmḱehlks
kehlks i
vklc
vklc iimi
mivcl
vcl² ck
c̋˝ k dc h`ti`shdcdi di lkrri`ti. dhehtcs (vir ffieurc :.3<).
I`tritc`tk, divi-si tkacr k luhdcdk di ` ck c̋˝ k prkvklcr @k h`struai`tk c`cmḱehlk,
c`cm´kehlk, k risumtcdk íi´ akstrcdk pkr
lk`tctks h`divhdks lka c pisskc cnitcdc pimk lbkqui, ua pk`tihrk qui di﬊ixhk`c skjri uac islcmc ercducdc,
c̋˝ k h`sth`thvc di pux´
pkhs c ricl² ck puxc-mc
ć-mc acùcmai`ti pkdi si`dk qui c mihturc ií´ nihtc pkr aihk dc c`cmkehc i`tri k
prkvklcr achs uac v´ vĳ́thac.
ĳthac. vcmkr h`dhlcdk i k nu`dk di islcmc similhk`cdk.
\i, cp´
cpksḱs mhvrcr-si dc lkrri`ti im´ imitrhlc,
ítrhlc, c pisskc isth- @k h`struai`tk dhehtcm, k risumtcdk ií´ akstrcdk dhritc-
vir h`lk`slhi`ti i sia risphrcr, diviaks prklidir dc ai`ti `k dhspmcy, lk`nkrai k vcmkr dk nu`dk di islcmc
sieuh`ti acìhrc7 similhk`cdk.
3. virhffilcr si c mĳ́èuc
m´ĳèuc dc pisskc `c̋k
`˝ck istć
istć dkjrcdc?
:. ricmhzcr c risphrcl²ck
c̋˝ k jklc-c-jklc ku jklc-`crhz?
<. ssii c piss pisskc

kc isisth
thvi
virr si siaa jcthjcthai
ai`t`tk
k lc
lcrd
rd´ĳ́ĳclk
clk
(l
(lkrkrcl
cl² c̋ck
˝ k pcrc
pcrc di jc jcti tir)
r),, ií´ ricmhz
ricmhzcdk
cdk,, h`tirl
h`tirlc-c-
mcdk lka c risphrcl²c̋ck ˝ k crthffilhcm,
crthffilhcm, uac acssceia
lcrdĳ́clc.
lcrd´ ĳclc. C risphrcl
ri sphrcl² ck
c̋˝ k i c acssceia divia sir
nihtcs pkr pisskcs dhniri`tis.
Tkdcs cs nunu`l k̋˝ is dk lkrpk buac`k s˝

`l²kis sck
c̋k lk`trkmcdcs
imitrhlcai
imitrhlcai`ti.
`ti. Ctrcv´
Ctrcvís is di sh`chs imítrhlks
imítrhlks qui vhcgca
pim
pimk
k shstia
shstiacc ìrvk
ìrvksk,sk, k líirijrk
´ rijrk (lkaputcdk
(lkaputcdkrr li`trcm)
li`trcm) ri-
liji istcs haprissk̋is
hapriss˝kis i i`vhc h`strul
h` strul²kis
k̋˝ is pcrc k ristk dk
lkrpk. @isti prklissk tkdk ks ìurˎk`hks k`hks sc̋k

s˝ck nu`dcai`-
tchs.
C ti`sc̋k
ti`s˝ck imítr
imítrhlc
hlc dks haphapums
umsks
ks ìrvk
ìrvksks
sks ií´ dc kr-
Nheurc :.3<7 Aumt´
Aumtĳaitrk ḱ´ ehlk(dhr.)
ĳ́aitrk Dhehtcm(isq.) i C`cmkehlk(dhr.)
dia di 366a^ i ks sh`chs trc`sahthdks (l irijrk í´ rijrk ck shs-
tiac clhk`cdk)
clhk`cdk) mivca mivca ia tkr`k di 6,64s. H`lmushv H`lmushvi,i,
uthmhzca-si ixcais lm´ lmĳ`hlks
ĳ́`hlks di `cturizc im´ imíitrhlc,
trhlc, lkak
imitrklcrdhkercac i imitrki`lincmkercac, pcrc si ini- :.<.3 ˝
Ziskmul²ck
tucr h`visthecl² kisk̋˝ is aídhlc
aídhlcs.
s. Cs lkrri`tis
lkrri`tis iim´ mítrhlcs
itrhlcs qui
clkapc`bca c cthvhdcdi lirijrcm pkdia sir riehstrcdcs Zi
Zisk
skmu
mull²ck
c̋˝ k íí c ai`kr aidhdc qui k h`struai`tk í́i lcpcz
pkr cpcrimbks ispilhchs. di dhsthèuhr lka lirtizc.
îrhffilc
irhffilc-si -si qui c `kssc `kssc si`
si`shj
shjhmh dcdii cf lkrri`
hmhdcd lkrri`ti
ti \i k h`st
h`stru ruai ai`t
`tk
k nkr
nkr c`
c`cm
cm´kehlk,
ḱehlk, c suc riskmul² ck
c̋˝ k íi´ dcdc
dcdc
im´
imítr
itrhlc
hlc íi´ auhtk
auhtk cli`tucd
cli`tucdc, c, hst
hstk
k i,
í´ , lkrri`tis
lkrri`tis rimcthv
rimcthvc-
c- pimk vcmkr dc ai`kr dhvhsc̋k dhvhs˝ck dc islcmc ercducdc, lk`-
ai`ti
ai` ti piq
piqui` ui`cs
cs pkdia lcusc lcuscrr dkr i, ct ctíí aiaisasak,k, c nkrai c islcmc similhk`cdc.
akrti.. Di nctk, pcrc c achkrhc
akrti achkrhc dcs pisskcs kjsirvc- kjsirvc-sisi \i k h`struai`tk nkr dhehtcm, c suc riskmul² c̋ck ˝ k íi´ dcdc
qui7 pimc u`hdcdi dk dhehtk ai`ks she`hffilcthvk ia rimcl² ck c̋˝ k
ck pk`tk dilhacm, lk`nkrai c islcmc similhk`cdc.
• uac lkrri`ti di 3aC gć
gć íi´ pi
pirlipt´
rliptĳ́vim,
ĳvim, lcusc`dk
ua lirtk ”nkrahecai`tk‑?
• uac lkrri`ti di 36aC pkdi lcuscr dkris i ispcs-

aks auslumcris, `˝
`ck
c̋k si`dk, pkr´
pkria,
ía, nctcm?
• uac lkrri`ti di 366aC pkdi mivcr cć´ akrti, pkr-

qui ncz k lkrcl c̋˝ k jctir di acìhrc hrrieumcr i sia
l krcl² ck
lkkrdi`c
lkkr di`cll²c̋ck
˝ k ((ffijr
ffijrhmchmcll²ck
c̋˝ k lcr
lcrd´
dĳ́clc
ĳclc)?)?
• lkrri`tis achs imivcdcs prkvklca c pcrcdc lka-

c̋˝ k, dc`ks hrrivirs
pmitc dk lkrcl² ck, hrrivirs´ĳvihs
ĳ́vihs ck shstiac
shstiac
ìrvk
ìrvksk
sk i quihac
quihacdur durcs
cs h`ti`s
h`ti`scs
cs ia vhrtud
vhrtudii dk Nheurc
Nheu rc :.347
:.3 47 Z
Ziskm
iskmul
ul² c̋ck
˝ k dk h`struai`tk
inihtk tírahlk
tírahlk (gkumi) dc lkrri`ti.
:.< Aidhl² k˝ is ´ trhlcs

Imíit lka :.<
:.<.:
.: Irrk
Irrk di Vcrcm
Vcrcmcxi
cxi
Aumt´ĳaitrk
Aumt ĳ́aitrk Ya luhluhdcd
dcdkk hap
hapkrt krtc`t
c`tii c sir tkacd
tkacdk
k lka k h`stru
h`stru--
ai`tk c`cmḱehlk
c`cm´kehlk íi´ qui c mihturc dc aidhdc divi sir nihtc
K aumt
aumt´ĳaitrk
ĳ́aitrk íi´ ua h`stru
h`struai`
ai`tk
tk uthmhz
uthmhzcdk
cdk pcrc
pcrc c aidhl
aidhl²ck
c̋˝ k kmbc`dk k pk`tihrk di nri`ti, ivhtc`dk k irrk di pcrc-
di erc`dizcs im´
imitrhlcs,
ítrhlcs, tchs lkak7 ti`s˝
ti`sck,
c̋k, lkrri`ti i ri- mcxi.

/H N\ YM
L CV ´HTYMK
:.<.
:.<.<
< Tkmircˎ `lhc di Irrk
kmirc`lhc qui suc h`trkdu
h`trkdull² c̋ck
˝ k `˝
`c̋k
ck cmtirc k nu`lhk`cai`tk dk rini-
rhdk lhrluhtk.
@i`bua h`struai`tk di aidhdc ií´ pirnihtk, dc aisac
\i c ti`s˝
ti`sck
c̋k aidhdc nkr lk`t´lk`tĳùc
ĳ́ùc (LL), k pkmk pkshthvk
nkrac qui ì`bua dhspkshthvk ncjrhlcdk ií´ pirnihtk.
pirnihtk. Vkr
dk aumtĳ́aitrk
aumt´ĳaitrk ck pk`tk di achkr pkti`lhcm i k pkmk ì-
hssk, ks ncjrhlc`tis nkrìlia c acreia di irrk privhstc
ec
ecthvthvk
k ck pk`tk
pk`tk di ai` ai`krkr pkt
pkti`l
i`lhcm
hcm.. Css
Cssha aumt´ĳaitrk
ha k aumt ĳ́aitrk
pcrc k siu prkdutk, qui íi´ di`kah`cdc tkmirˎc`lhc.
c`lhc. C tk-
hr´
hrćc h`dhlcr ua vcmkr pkshthvk di ti`sc̋kti`s˝ck (vir ffieurc :.39).
mircˎ `lhc pkdi sir dcdc pirli`tucmai`ti ku ia vcmkris
mirˎc`lhc
cjskmutks.
:.<.
:.<.4
4 Ysk
Ysk dk Aumt
Aumt´ĳaitrk
ĳ́aitrk
K aumtĳ́aitrk
aumt´ĳaitrk pkssuh dkhs tirah`chs `ks quchs s˝
sc̋k
ck mhec-
dcs cs pk`tcs di prkvc (pk`tihrcs)7
• C pk`tihrc pritc divi sir lkìltcdc

lkìltcdc ck tirah`cm ì-
ecthvk dk aumt´
aumtĳaitrk,
ĳ́aitrk, hdi`thffilcdk pimc lkr pritc ku Nheurc
Nheu rc :.397
:. 397 Aidh c̋˝ k di ti`s˝
Aidhll² ck ti`sck
c̋k LL pkshthvc
pimk sh`cm di (-) ku ch`dc lkak LKAYA (LKA).
K qui h`dhlc qui isti tirah`cm íí lkaua pcrc tkdks \i c mhecl² ck
c̋˝ k dks tirah
tirah`ch
`chss dk aumaumtt´ĳaitrk
ĳ́aitrk isthvi-
isthvi-
ks thpks
th pks di aidhl²kis
k̋˝ is pkss´
pkssĳ́vih
ĳvihs.s. ria h`virthdcs
h`virthdcs,, k dhspm
dhspmcy
cy h`dhl
h`dhlcr´
crćc ua vcmkr ìecthvk
di ti`sc̋k
ti`s˝ck (`k lcsk di ua aumt´ aumtĳ́aitr
ĳaitrk k dheht
dhehtcm).
cm). Lcsk k
• C pk`tihrc viraimbc divi sir mhecdc ck tirah`cm
aumt´ĳaitrk
aumt ĳ́aitrk sigc c`cm´
c`cmkehlk,
ḱehlk, k pk`tihrk ti`tcr´
ti`tcrcć di﬊ixh-
pkshthvk dk aumt´
aumtĳaitrk,
ĳ́aitrk, hdi`thffilcdc pimc lkr vir-
k`cr `k si`thdk lk`trćrhk,
lk`trćrhk, pkdi`dk dc`hffil´
dc`hffilć-mk
c-mk (vir ffi-
aimbc ku pimk sh`cm (+). Vkdia ixhsthr achs di ua
eurc :.3>).
tirah`cm pkshthvk dipi`di`dk dk thpk di aidhl² ckc̋˝ k
c sir ricmhzc
ricmhzcdc7
dc7 lkrri`
lkrri`ti,
ti, ti`
ti`ssck
c̋˝ k ku rishstˎ
rishsti`lhc.
iˎ `lhc.
@issi lcsk, divi-si kjsirvcr
kjsir vcr ks sĳ́ajkmks
s´ĳajkmks ixhsti`-
tis gu`tk c lcdc jkrì ( C √ ^ √ ℮) qui hdi`thffilca
c u`hdcdis dcs erc`dizcs cs quchs k jkrì divi sir
uthmhzcdk.
Ks aumtĳ́aitrks
aumt´ĳaitrks pkssuia cmeu`s lk`trkmis, si`dk qui
Nhe
Nheurc
urc :.3>7
: .3>7 Aidh c̋˝ k di ti`s˝
Aidhll² ck ti`sck
c̋k LL ìecthvc
k prh`lhpcm ií´ c lbcvi rktcthvc (simitkr) ku lk`gu`tk di
tilmc pcrc c simsimil
il²ck
c̋˝ k dc erc`dizc c sir aidhdc (ti`sc̋k,
(ti`s˝ck,
\i c ti`sc̋k
ti`s˝ck aidhdc nkr cmtir`cdc (LC), ks pkmks pksh-
lkrri`ti ku rishstˎ
rishsti`lhc)
iˎ `lhc) lka ks rispilthvks vcmkris di
thvk i ìecthvk dk vkmt´
vkmtĳaitrk
ĳ́aitrk pkdia sir mhecdks ck lhr-
nu`dk di islcmc.
luhtk ia qucmquir
quc mquir pkshl² c̋ck,
˝ k, risumtc`dk ia uac aidhdc
siapri pkshthvc. (vir ffieurc :.35).
Aumtĳ́ait
Aumt´
ĳaitrkrk lka
lkakk ^kmtĳ́ait
kmt´ĳaitrk
rk
K ^kmtĳ́ai
kmt´ĳaitrk
trk íi´ k h`struai`tk uscdk pcrc aidhr ti`s˝
ti`sc̋k
ck
im´
imitrhlc
ítrhlc i`tri dkhs pk`tks.
pk`tks. Vcrc qui k aumt´
aumtĳaitrk
ĳ́aitrk nu`-
lhkì lkak vkmt´ vkm tĳ́aitrk
ĳaitrk jcstc
j cstc similhk`cr
similh k`cr uac dcs islcmcs
i slcmcs
di ti`s˝
ti`sck c̋k dk h`struai`tk.
Cs pksh k̋˝ is dk simitkr dk aumt´
pk shll²kis aumtĳaitrk,
ĳ́aitrk, pcrc aidhl² ck c̋˝ k
di ti`sc̋k,
ti`s˝ck, s˝ sc̋k
ck dhvhdhdcs pimk thpk di ti`sc̋k ti`s˝ck c sir aidhdc
(DL ku CL). Lcdc L cdc pkshl²ck c̋˝ k dk simitkr tcaj´tcajiaía h`dhlc k Nheurc :.357 Aidhl² c̋ck
˝ k di ti`s˝
ti`sc̋k
ck cmtir`cdc
vcmkr a´ acxhak
ćxhak di ti`s˝ ti`sck
c̋k qui pkdir´ pkdircć sir aidhdk `cquimc
pksh
pk shll²c̋ck
˝ k (nu`dk di islcmc).
I´
Í hapkrtc`ti qui scmhi`tcr qui si k aumt´ aumt ĳaitrk
ĳ́aitrk Aumtĳ́ait
Aumt´
ĳaitrkrk lkak Capi
Capir´
rĳ́ai
ĳaitrk
trk
nkr uthmhzcdk ia uac ti`sck ˝ achkr qui k nu`dk di
islcmc similhk`cdk, k h`struai`tk pkdir c ć´ quihacr. K Capir´ ĳ́aitrk ií´ k h`struai`tk uthmhzcdk pcrc aidhr
Capirĳaitrk
Vkrtc`tk si k vcmkr di ti`s ck c̋˝ k c sir aidhdk nkr dislk- lkrri`ti
lkrri `ti im
imítrhlc.
ítrhlc. Vcrc qui ua aumtĳ́aitr aumt´ĳaitrk k nu`lhkì
`bilhdk, divi-si
d ivi-si islkmbir c achkr islcmc isl cmc dhspk`ĳ́vim.
dhspk`´ĳvim. lkak capir´
capirĳaitrk,
ĳ́aitrk, jcstc similhk`cr uac dcs islcmcs di
K vcmkr cjskmutk dc riskmul²c̋ck ˝ k dk aumtĳ́aitrk
aumt´ĳaitrk vcrhc lkrri`ti dk h`struai`tk.
di clkrdk lka c islcmc uthmhzcdc, pkrtc`tk quc`tk achs Cssha lkak `c nu`l² ck c̋˝ k vkmt´
vkmtĳ́aitrk
ĳaitrk,, lcdc pkshl² c̋ck
˝ k dk
pr´
prḱ
kxhac
xhac dk nu`dk di islcmc isthvir c ti`s˝ ti`sc̋k
ck aidhdc, simitkr dk aumt´
aumtĳaitrk
ĳ́aitrk pcrc aidhl² ck c̋˝ k di lkrri`ti h`dhlc
achs prilhsc sir´ sirćc c ai
aidhdhll²c̋ck.
˝ k. k vcmkr aćxhak
aćxhak di lkrri`ti qui pkdir´ pkdirćc sir aidhdk `c-
Vcrc aidhr c ddp i`tri dkhs pk`tks di ua lhrluhtk, quimc
qui mc pkshl
pks hl² c̋ck
˝ k (nu`dk di islcmc).
ks tirah`chs dk aidhdkr divia sir lkìltcdks c issis I´
Í hap
hapkrt
krtc`t c`tii qui scmhi`
scmhi`tcrtcr qui si k aumt´
aumtĳ́ai
ĳaitrk
trk nkr
nkr
pk`tks. Dissi akdk, k aidhdkr ffilc ia pcrcmimk lka k uthmhzcdk ia uac lkrri`ti achkr qui k nu`dk di is-
trilbk dk lhrluhtk lkaprii`dhdk i`tri ks pk`tks, si`dk lcmc similhk`cdk, k h`struai`tk pkdir c ć´ quihacr
quihacr. K

/H N\ YM
L CV ´HTYMK
aisak pkdi klkrrir si nkr cpmhlcdc uac ddp i`tri surei ia tkr`k dk lk`dutkr pimc pcssceia dc lkrri`ti
sucs pk`tihrcs. im
imí́itrhlc.
trhlc. C prh`lhpcm vc`tceia dissi h`struai`tk íi´ qui
K vcmkr cjskmutk dc riskmul²ck c̋˝ k dk aumt´
aumtĳaitrk
ĳ́aitrk vcrhc `ck c̋˝ k íí ìliss´
ìlisscrhk
ćrhk cjrhr k lhrluhtk pcrc ricmhzcr c aidhdc,
di clkrdk lka c islcmc uthmhzcdc, pkrtc`tk quc`tk achs pirahth`dk
pirahth `dk qui si ncl² c aidhl² k̋
kis
˝ is di lkrri`ti sia h`-
pr
pr´kxhac
ḱxhac dk nu`dk di islcmc isthvir c lkrri`ti aidhdc, tirrkapir
tirrk apir k nu`lhk
nu`lhk`cai`
`cai`tk tk dks iquhpcai`t
iquhpcai`tks,ks, k qui
achs prilhsc sirć
sirć c aidhl
aidh l²c̋ck.
˝ k. ií´ auhtk lk`vi`hi`ti
lk`vi`hi`ti ia cpmhlcl² k̋ kis
˝ is h`
h`dus
dustrh
trhchs
chs.. Cmía
Cmía
Vcrc aidhr uac lkrri`ti, k lhrluhtk divi sir cjirtk `k dhssk ch`dc knirili achkr prktil² ck c̋˝ k ck kpircdkr.
pk`tk disigcdk, mhec`dk k capirĳ́aitrk
capir´ĳaitrk ia s´ sírhi,
irhi, pcrc
qui c lkrri`ti pcssi
pcssi pkr imi. C lkrri`ti qui pcss pcsscc pkr
ua dhspkshthvk pkdi sir aidhdc c`tis ku dipkhs dimi. Ixirl´ĳlhks
Ixirl ĳ́lhks
\i c lkrri`ti aidhdc nkrn kr lk`tĳ́ùc
lk`t´ĳùc (LL), k pkmk pksh-
thvk dk aumt´
aumtĳaitrk
ĳ́aitrk divi sir mhecdk ck pk`tk pimk qucm c 3. Cssh`cmi,
Cssh`cmi, di
di`trk
`trk dks pc iˎ `tisis, virdcdihrk (^) ku
pcrri`tisis,
lkrri`ti i`trc (`k si`thdk lk`vi`lhk`cm), i k pkmk ìec- (N) ncmsk. Gusthffiqui cs ncmscs.
thvk ck pk`tk qui imc sch. Cssha k aumt´ aumt ĳaitrk
ĳ́aitrk hr´
hrcć h`dhlcr ( ) C ddp, ti`s˝
ti`sck
c̋k i nkrl
nk rl²c
²c imitrka
imitrkaktrhz
ktrhz p
pkssuia
kssuia c
ua vcmkr di lkrri`ti pkshthvk (vir ffieurc :.32) aisac u`hdcdi.
( ) Vcrc qui ixhstc akvhai`tk di im itrk`s í´ trk`s ùac
mˎccapcdc
apcdc ií´ ìlissćrhc
ìlissćrhc c cpm
cpmhlcl
hlcl² c̋ck
˝ k di uac ddp
i`tri sius ixtriaks.
( ) \iapri
\iapri qui tia uac dhniridhniri`l
`l²²cc di pkti`
pkti`--
lhcm i`tri dkhs pk`tks tcaj´
tcajia
ía ixhsti lkrri`ti
im´
imítrhlc
itrhlc lhrlumc`dk di ua pk`tk ck kutrk.
( pkti`lhcmm ií´ uac erc`dizc sia-
) Dhniri`l² c di pkti`lhc
pri pkshthvc
pkshthvc..
Nheurc :.327 Aidhl² ck
c̋˝ k di lkrri`ti ll pkshthvc
( ) C ddp i`tri ua lkrpk imitrhzcdk i c Tirrc íi´
\i c mhecl
mh ecl² ck
c̋˝ k dks tirah`chs dk aumt´ aumt ĳ́ĳaitrk
aitrk isthvir h`- heucm ck vcmkr dk pkti`lhcm dk prḱprhk
pr´kprhk lkrpk.
virthdc,
virt hdc, k dhspmcy
dhspmcy h`dhlcrh`dhlcrćć uac lkrri`ti ìecthvc (`k ( ) \i dkhs lkrpks ist˝ istck
c̋k imitrhzcdks lka lcrecs
lcsk
lcs k di aumtáumtĳ́aiĳaitrk
trk dhehtc
dhehtcm).
m). \i k aumt´ aumtĳ́ai
ĳaitrk
trk nkr di aisak sh`cm, pkdiaks cffiracr qui c ddp
c`cm´kehlk,
c`cm ḱehlk, k pk`tih pk`tihrk rk ti`tcr
ti`tcrćć di﬊
di﬊ix ixhk`
hk`cr cr `k si`thd
si`thdk k i`tri imis ií´ ùmc.
lk`trćrhk,
lk`trćrhk, pkdi`dk dc`hffil´ dc`hffilć-mk.
c-mk. ( ) K si`thdk dc lkrri`ti imítrhlc
imítrhlc lkrrispk`di ck
Ia eircm ks aumt´ aumtĳaitrks
ĳ́aitrks `˝ `ck
c̋k pkssuia islcmcs issi`thdk di dismklcai`tk dks imítrk`s.
imítrk`s.
pilĳ́ffilc
pil´ĳffilcss pcrc aidhl aidh l²ckc̋˝ k di lkrri`ti LC. @issi lcsk, í́i
lk`vi`hi`ti
lk`vi `hi`ti uthmhzcr k capirĳ́aitrkcapir´ĳaitrk cmhlcti, auhtk lk- ( ) K jrhmbk di uac mˎccapcdc
apcdc h`dipi`di dk vcmkr
aua pcr pcrcc cpmhl
c pmhlcl ˝ k ia h`stcmcl
cl²c̋ck k̋˝ is im´
h`st cmcl² kis imitrhlcs
ítrhlcs rishdi`lhdc ddp.
chs i h`dustrhchs (vir ffieurc :.38). K capir´ capirĳ́aitrk
ĳaitrk cmhlcti :. @k isquiac
isquiac dc ffie ffieurc
urc :.:
:.:6,
6, ist˝
istc̋k
ck riprisi`tcdks cm-
tcajía
tcaj ía kpirc lkak aumt´ aumtĳaitrk,
ĳ́aitrk, ricmhzc`dk
ricmhzc` dk aidhl² kisk̋˝ is eu`s `´
`ĳ́ĳvihs
vihs di pkti`lhchs. Ditirahì k vcmkr7
di kutrcs erc`dizcs imítrhlcs,imítrhlcs, lkak ti`sc̋k ti`s˝ck i rishstˎi`lhc.
i`lhc.
(c) dk pkti`lhcm dk pk`tk ”c‑ ia rimcl² c̋ck
˝ k cf Tirrc?
(j) dk pkt
pkti`l
i`lhcm
hcm dk pk`
pk`tk
tk ”c‑ ia rimcl c̋˝ k ck
rimcl² ck
pk`tk ”i‑?
(l) dc dhniri`l²c
²c di pkti`lhcm i`tri ks pk`tks ”d‑
i ”j‑?
(d) dc dhniri`l²c
²c di pkti`lhcm i`tri ks pk`tks ”l‑
i ”n‑.
Nheurc :.387
:. 387 Capir´
Capirĳ́aitrk
ĳaitrk cmhlcti
cm hlcti Nheurc :.:67
K capi
capirr´ĳ́ĳait
aitrk
rk cm
cmhl
hlct
ctii nc
nczz c mi
miht
htur
urcc dc lkrri
lkrri`t
`tii
di nkrac
nkrac h`dhri
h`dhritc,tc, c pcrthr
pcrthr dk lcapk
lcapk ace` í´ thlk qui
aceìthlk
ZKDZHEK \ KYWC I C M^CLHZ TC^CZI\ :6 ˎ

/H N\ YM
L CV ´HTYMK
<. Lkapmiti cs mclu`cs c sieuhr7

sieuhr7 5. Lk`shd
Lk`shdiri iri trˎis
is pk`tks lka pkti`lhchs dhniri`tis,
”c‑, ”j‑ i ”l‑. K pkti`lhcm dk pk`tk C ií´ ^cl136v
(c) Lcrecs
Lcrecs imítrhl
imítrhlcs
cs pkshthv
pkshthvcs,
cs, cjc`d
cjc`dk`cd
k`cdcscs ia
(pkti`lhcm
(pkti`lh cm di ”c c̋˝ k c ”l‑) i dk pk`tk ”j‑
”c‑‑ ia rimcl² ck
ripkusk ùa lcapk im´ imitrhlk
ítrhlk i sugihtcs cpi`cs
ií´ ^jl1
^jl139v 39v (pkti
(pkti`lhcm
`lhcm di ”j‑ ia rimcl² c̋ck ˝ k c ”l‑).
c uac
ua c nkrl
nk rl²c im itrhlc,
í´ trhlc, dismklca-si, ispk`tcì-
Sucm k vcmkr dk pkti`lhcm ^cj (pkti`lhcm di ”c‑ ia
cai`ti, pcrc pk`tks di ............ pkti`lhcm.
rimc
ri mcll² c̋ck
˝ k c ”j‑);
(j) Lcrecs
Lcrecs im´
imitrhlcs
ítrhlcs ìecthvcs, cjc`dk`cdcs ia
ripkusk ùa lcapk imítrhlk imítrhlk i sugihtcs cpi`cs 2. Ya imítr
imítrk`
k` íi´ dismklcdk di ”j‑ pcrc ”c‑ (^c i
c uac
u ac nkr
nkrll²c iimmitrhlc,
í´ trhlc, dismklca-si, ispk`tcì- ^j sc̋ck
˝ k pkti`lhchs pkshthvks), di`trk di ua lcapk
cai`ti, pcrc pk`tks di ............ pkti`lhcm. im´
imítrhlk,
itrhlk, k qucm k pkti`lhcm achkr, ”c‑ ku ”j‑;
4. @c ffieurc :.:3, tiaks uac

uac isnirc lcrriecdc
lcrriecdc pkshth- 8. Diffi`
Diffi`cc Ti`s˝
Ti`sc̋k
ck LLk`t´
k`tĳ́ùc.
ĳùc. Dˎi ixiapmks.
vcai`ti, si`dk qui `k lcapk im itrhlk
í´ trhlk lrhcdk pkr 36. Diffi`
Diffi`cc Ti`s˝
Ti`sc̋k
ck Cmtir`
Cmtir`cdc.
cdc. Dˎ
D iˎ ixiapmks.
imc ixhstia vćrhks
vćrhks `´
`ĳ́vihs
ĳvihs di pkti`lhchs, ku sigc,
^c126^, ^j156^, ^l1>6 ^ i ^d196 ^. 33. Ixpm
Ixpmhqui
hqui ks prklidhai
prklidhai`tks
`tks c siria tkacdks
tkacdks pcrc
aidhr uac ddp lka ua aumt´
aumt ĳaitrk.
ĳ́aitrk.
(c) Sucm sir´
sirćc k si`thdk di dismklcai`tk di uac
lcrec di prkvc pkshthvc cjc`dk`cdc i`tri ”c‑ 3:. Isqu
Isquiact
iacthzihzi uac nk`ti di ti`s˝
ti`sck
c̋k lk`t´
lk`tĳùc
ĳ́ùc mhecdc
i ”j‑; c uac mˎccapcdc
apcdc i akstri lkak divi sir lkìltcdk
(j) Sucm sir´
sircć k si`thdk di dismklcai`tk di uac ua vkmt´
vkmtĳ́ĳaitrk
aitrk pcrc aidhr c ddp `c mmˎccapcdc.
ˎ apcdc.
lcrec di prkvc ìecthvc cjc`dk`cdc i`tri ”l‑ 3<. Lk`lihtui lkrri`ti im
imítrhlc.
ítrhlc.
i ”d‑;
Sucm íí c ddp ^cl;
(l) Sucm 34. Islrivc c iqucl² c̋ck
˝ k qui diffiì h`ti`shdcdi dc lkr-
ri`ti imítrhlc
imítrhlc i dhec suc u`hdcdi.
(d) Sucm
Sucm íi´ c ddp ^dc; 39. Ixpmh
Ixpmhqui
qui k si`si`thd
thdk
k imi
imitrˎ
trˎk`hlk
k`hlk i lk`vi`lhk`cm dc
(i) Sucm
Sucm íi´ c ddp ^jl;
lkrri`ti imítrhlc.
imítrhlc.
3>. Css
Cssh`c
h`cmi,
mi, di`trk
di`trk dks pcrˎii`tisis,
`tisis, virdcdih
virdcdihrk
rk ku
ncmsk i gusthffiqui cs ncmscs.
( ) @uac mˎ cˎ apcdc di mc`tir`c lhrlumc uac lkr-

mcapcdc
ri`tii lk`t´
ri`t lk `tĳ́ù
ĳùc.c.
( ) @ua lbuvihrk im´
imíitrhlk
trhlk lhrlumc uac lkrri`ti
cmtir`cdc.
( ) @c lk
lkrr
rri`
i`ti
ti cm
cmti
tir`
r`cd
cdcc ks im´
imítr
itrk`s
k`s si dis
dismkl
mklca
ca
siapri `k aisak si`thdk.
( ) K nus´ĳ́vim ií´ ua dhspkshthvk qui nkrìli lkr-
nusĳvim
ri`ti imítrhlc.
imítrhlc.
( ) K nus´
nusĳvim
ĳ́vim i k dhsgu`tkr tˎ
tiia
ˎa c aisac
aisa c nu`l² ck
c̋˝ k
Nheurc :.:37 ùa lhrluhtk im´
imitrhlk.
ítrhlk.
9. Cssh`cmi c cffiracthvc irrcdc. Gusthffiqui. ( ) C vc`tceia qui k capirćapirĳ́aitrk
ĳaitrk cmhlcti cpri-
si`tc skjri k capir´
capirĳaitrk
ĳ́aitrk lkaua íi´ qui `
`˝ck
c̋k
(c) Yac phmbc
phmbc eirc uac ddp ddp i c ac`t´
ac`tia
ía divhdk bć
bć c ìlisshdcdi di si cjrhr k lhrluhtk pcrc si
cf klkrrˎii`lhc
`lhc di ricl²kis
k̋˝ is qu´
quĳ́ahlcs
ĳahlcs h`tir`cs.
h`tir`c s. initucr c aidhl² c̋ck.
˝ k.
(j) \i ducs jcrrcs lka imitrhzcl²k̋
kis
˝ is dhniri`tis nk-
35. Islriv
Islrivcc inihtk dc lkrri`ti im
imí́itrhlc
trhlc cssklhcdk c lcdc
ria lkmklcdcs ia lk`tctk, c ddp i`tri imcs
lcsk cjchxk.
ti`dirćc c cùmcr-si.
ti`dir´
(l
(l)) Dkh
Dkhss lkrp lkrpks ks hd
hdˎiˎ `t
`thl
hlks
ks,, lka
lka c ais
aisac (c) nirrk í´ trhlk
nirrk iimmitrhlk
imitrhzc
imit rhzcll²ck,c̋˝ k, pkssuia k aisak pkti`lhcm, ia (j) mˎccapcdc
apcdc ﬊ukrisli`ti clisc
rimc
ri mcll²ck
c̋˝ k c ua ditirah`cdk riniri`lhcm. (l) pisskc ””tkac`dk
tkac`dk ua lbkqui‑
(d) C ddp i`tri ua lkr
lkrpk
pk imitrh
imitrhzcd
zcdk
k pkshth
pkshthvc
vc--
(d) imitrk´ĳ́ĳa˝
imitrk acc̋ si`dk clhk`cdk
ai`ti i ua lkrpk ìutrk ií´ ùmc.
(i) lbuv
lbuvihrk
ihrk im
imítrhlk
ítrhlk
>. Dk
Dkhs
hs pk
pk`t
`tks
ks ”c
”c‑‑ i ”j‑
”j‑ di ua lc lcap
apkk imítrhlk
imítrhlk
pkssuia pkti`lhcm pkshthvks di, rispilthvcai`ti, (n) akt
aktkr
kr im´
imítrhlk
itrhlk
3.666^ i >66^. Yac lcrec imítrhlc
imítrhlc ìecthvc, cjc`- 32. Ya lcapk imítrhlk
imítrhlk I, cpk`tc`dk pcrc c isquirdc, í́i
dk`cdc i`tri istis pk`tks, ti`dir´
ti`dir cć c si dismklcr, cpmhlcdk ia ua ffik lk`dutkr, lkak akstrc c ffieurc
ispk`tcìcai`ti, pcrc ”c‑ ku pcrc ”j‑; Gusthffiqui. :.::.

/H N\ YM
L CV ´HTYMK
(c
(c)) Sucm
Sucm sir´
sirćc k si
si`t
`thd
hdk
k di akvh
akvhai
ai`t
`tk
k dk
dkss (j) K ù́a
`úair irk k di im´
imítr
itrk`s
k`s qui pcs
pcssku
sku ctr
ctrcv´
cvís
is
im
imítrk`s
ítrk`s `k ffik; dist
di stcc sil
s il² ck.
c̋˝ k.
(j) Sucm íi´ c di`kah`cl
di`kah`c l²ck
c̋˝ k disti si`thdk dc lkr- :9. Sucm k h`struai`t
h`struai`tk
k uthmhzcdk pcrc aidhr lkrri`ti
ri`ti; im
imítrhlc
ítrhlc i lkak imi divi sir mhecdk ck lhrluhtk;
Sucmm íi´ k si`th
(l) Suc si`thdk
dk lk`vi`l
lk`vi`lhk`cm
hk`cm dc lkrri`ti
lkrri`ti
:>. Ixpm
Ixpmhqui
hqui ks prklidhai
prklidhai`tks
`tks c siria
siria tkacdks pcrc
ìsti ffik;
aidhr uac lkrri`ti imítrhlc
imítrhlc lka ua aumtĳ́aitrk.
aumt´ĳaitrk.
:5. Isqu
Isquiacth
iacthzi
zi uac nk`ti di ti`sc̋k
ti`s˝ck lk`t´
lk`tĳ́ùc
ĳùc mhecdc
c uac mˎ cˎ apcdc i akstri lkak divi sir lkìl-
mcapcdc
tcdk ua vkmt´vkmtĳ́aitrk
ĳaitrk pcrc aidhr c lkrri`ti im´
im íitrhlc
trhlc
cˎ apcdc.
`c m capcdc.
Nheurc :.::7
Zispkstcs dks ixirl´
ixirlĳlhks
ĳ́lhks ùa´
ùairhlks
írhlks
38.
38. @k
@kss vćrhks
vćrhks lhrluhtks imítrhlks
imítrhlks ixhsti`tis, pkdiaks 4. (c)”c‑ pcrc ”j‑? (j)”d‑ pcrc ”l‑? (l):6^? (d)-<6^?
(d)-<6^?
tir thpks dhniri`tis
dhniri`tis di lkrri`ti,
lkrri`ti, ku sigc7 lkrri`ti
lkrri`ti (i)36^?
lk`t´ĳùc
lk`t ĳ́ùc purc nkrì
nkrìlhdc
lhdc pkr uac phmbc?
phmbc? lkrri`ti
lkrri`ti >. pcrc
pcrc ”c
”c‑‑
cmtir`cdc nkrìlhdc pimks cmtir`cdkris dcs erc`dis
ush`cs eircdkrcs i tcaj´tcajia ía lkrri`ti rithffilcdc (lhr- 5. -9v?
-9v?
luhtk rithffilcdkr trc`snkrac LC ia LL). Hacehì,
pkr ixiapmk
ixiapmk,, trˎ ˎ s lhrluh
triis lhrluhtks
tks dhniri
dhniri`ti
`tis7
s7 lhr
lhrluh
luhtk
tk pkti`lhcm ”c‑ íí achkr?
2. k pkti`lhcm
di cmhai`tcl
cmhai`t cl²ck
c̋˝ k dcs mˎcapcdcs
capcdcs di uac h`stcmcl² ck c̋˝ k :6. 4aC
4aC??
im
imítrhlc
ítrhlc rishdi`lhcm,
rishdi`lhcm, lhrluhtk
lhrluhtk di nkrìlhai`t
nkrìlhai`tk k di
iìrehc imítrhlc
imítrhlc pcrc ua rćdhk
rćdhk pkrtćthm
pkrtćthm i lhrluhtk di :3. k nnus
us´ĳvim
ĳ́vim hr´
hrcć quhacr?
ua lcrriecdkr
lcrriecdkr di jctirhc.
jctirhc. Hdi`thffiqui
Hdi`thffiqui qucm
qucm k thpk
di lkrri`ti cssklhcdc c lcdc lhrluhtk lk`suahdkr ::. <>L
<>L??
lhtcdk clhac. :<. (c) <:L
<:L?? (j) <,: C
:6. Yac lcrec di 3:66aL dismklku-si ctrcv
ctrcvís
ís di ua :4. (c) :
:4L (j) 3, 9 Õ 3632 im´
4L (j) imítrk`s
itrk`s
lk`dutkr durc`ti 9 ahùtks. Ditirahì k vcmkr dc
h`ti`shdcdi dc lkrri`ti imítrhlc.
imítrhlc.
:3. ^caks
caks supkr
supkr qui si uthmhz
uthmhzii ua nus´
nusĳvim
ĳ́vim di <aC
pcrc prktieir k lhrluhtk lhtcdk `k ixirlĳ́lhk
ixirl´ĳlhk c`ti-
rhkr. Dhec si imi hr´
hrcć quihacr ku `˝
`ck,
c̋k, gusthffilc`dk.
::. Lirtk lk`dutkr ií´ pirlkrrhdk pkr uac lkrri`ti di

lk`dutkr
36aC.Sucm sirć
sirć c lcrec trc`spkrtcdc ctrcvís
ctrcvís dk
lk`dutkr durc`ti uac bkrc;
:<. \upk`
\upk`bc bc qui nkssi pkss´
pkssĳvim
ĳ́vim lk`tcr k `´ ù́airk
uairk di
im´
imítrk`s
itrk`s qui pcssca ctrcvís
ctrcvís di uac sil² ck c̋˝ k di ua
lk`dut
lk` dutkr
kr,, `k qucm
qucm si ististcji
cjimil
miliu
iu uac lkrri` lkrri`ti
ti
im´
imítrhlc.
itrhlc. \i durc`ti ua h`tirvcmk di tiapk t 1 36s
pcssca : Õ 36:6 imimítrk`s
ítr k`s ìst
ìstcc ssil c̋˝ k, ditirahì7
il²ck,
(c) C quc`thdc
quc`thdcdi
di di lcrec q, ia lkumkajs, qui
lkrrispk`di c isti ù́airk
`úairk di imítrk`s.
imítrk`s.
(j) C h`ti`shdcdi
h`ti`shdcdi dc lkrri`ti (ia capfiri) iri) qui
pcssc c̋˝ k trc`svirscm dk lk`dutkr.
pcs sc `c sil² ck
:4. C h`ti`shd
h`ti`shdcdi
cdi dc lkrri`ti qui nkh istcjimilhdc
istcjimilhdc ia
ua ffik aitćmhlk
aitćmhlk vcmi 466 aC. \upk`dk qui istc
lkrri`ti
lumi7 nkh ac`thdc, `k ffik, durc`ti 3 ahùtk, lcm-
(c
(c)) C quc`
quc`ththdc
dcdi
di tk
tktc
tcmm di lclcre
recc qui
qui pcss
pcssku
ku
ctrcvís
ctrcv ˝ k dk ffik.
ís di uac sil² c̋ck
ZKDZHEK \ KYWC I C M^CLHZ TC^CZI\ :: ˎ

/H N\ YM
Lcp´ĳtumk
Lcp ĳ́tumk <
Zishstii`lhc
ˎ `lhc Im
Imítrhlc
ítrhlc i Mih di Kba
<.3 Zi
Zisshstiˎ `lhc Im´
hsti`lhc Imitrhlc
ítrhlc • uac ddp ^CJ: prkvklcvc uac lkrri`ti H: ?
C iìrehc imítrhlc
imítrhlc qui lbiec ia `ksscs rishdˎi`lhcs i`lhcs íi´ • uac ddp ^CJ< prkvklcvc uac lkrri`ti H< itl.
trc`spkrtcdc pkr ffiks lk`sthtu´

lk`sthtuĳdks
ĳ́dks di actirhchs jk`s lk`-
dutkris i aisak cssha, klkrri uac lirtc pirdc di iìr- C tcjimc <.3 riprisi`tc shajkmhlcai`ti ua dks risum-
ehc.
ehc. Istc
Istc pirpirdc
dc klkrri
klkrri di
divhdk cf rishst
vhdk rishstˎi`lhc ffiks,, k`di tcdks kjthdks pimcs ixpirhˎ
iˎ `lhc dks ffiks ixpirhi`lhcs
iˎ `lhcs di Kba.
ixhsti ua cquilhai`tk i pkr hstk ìa tkdc c iìrehc ei-
rcdc íí uthmhzcdc pimks lk`suahdkris.
Tcjimc <.37
Cs lcrecs imítrhlcs
imítrhlcs qui lk`sthtuia c lkrri`ti ck pcs- ^cj (^) 9 36 39 :6
scr
scria
ia pkr ua lk`dut lk`dutkr
kr ric
ricmhz
mhzca
ca ”lkmhs
”lkmhs˝kis‑
k̋ is‑ lk
lkaa ks H (C) 6,: 6,4 6,> 6,2
ćctkaks
´ tkaks
kp
kpkskshl ˝ kku
hl² c̋ck akm´
akmílu
knir
kniril ilumcs
ilhd
hdc mcsmkdk
c pimk
pi ffikaisak.
ais ak.
cf pcssce
pcssceiaHstk
Hstdi
ia k klcsh
klcshk`c
k`c
lkrri`
lkrri`ti. uac
ti. Ivh-
di`tiai`ti c lkrri`ti `k lk`dutkr sirć sirć achkr ku ai`kr,
Ythmhzc`dk ks dcdks dc tcjimc, kjtía-si
kjtía-si k er´
erćffilk
cffilk dc
dipi`di`dk
dipi`di`d k distc kpkshl² ck.c̋˝ k. C kpkshl² ckc̋˝ k qui ua lk`-
ffieurc <.3.
dutkr knirili cf pcssceia di lkrri`ti ctrcvís ctrcvís dimi, ri-
prisi`tc uac erc`dizc di`kah`cdc ”rishstˎi`lhc i`lhc imítrhlc
imítrhlc
(Z)‑.
”Z I\H\TIˎ @L @L HHC ´ TZHLC Í
C I MITZHLC
Í I´ C A I D H DC DC
KVK\HL ˝
² C̋K f
CK C VC\\C
C\\CEIA EIA DC LKZZI@T LKZZI@TI ´ TZHLC ,
I IMITZHLC
Í
KY \IG\IGC C, ZIVZI\I@T
ZIVZI\I@TC C C DHNHLYMDCD
DHNHLYMDCDI I DC\ LCZ-
E C\
C\ \ I A K^
K^ HA
HA I@
I@ T
TC
CZZI
I A @ K H @T
@T I
IZZ HHK
KZ DI YA
LK@DYTKZ‑.
K nctk dc tiapircturc di ua lk`dutkr sknrir uac
im
imiv
ivcl c̋˝ k quc`dk uac lkrri`ti im´
cl² ck ítrhlc lhrlumc pkr imi íi´
imitrhlc
c ivhdˎi`lhc
i`lh c dc kpkshl
kpk shl² ck
c̋˝ k i`nri`tcdc pimk akvhai`tk dks
im´
imitrk`s.
ítrk`s. Nheurc <.37
@ks aitchs, k`di ixhstia v´ vcrhks
ćrhks im´
imitrk`s
ítrk`s mhvris, istis
i`trca ia akvhai`tk quc`dk íí cpmhlcdc uac ddp. Dh- Kba virhffilku i`t˝
i`tckc̋k qui, pcrc auhtks actirhchs, prh`-
ziaks qui ks aitchs, di ua akdk eircm, sc̋k s˝ck jk`s lk`- lhpcmai`ti
lhpcmai`t i ks aitchs,
ai tchs, c rimcl² c̋ck
˝ k i`tri c ddp i c lkrri`ti
dutkris, pkhs knirilia piqui`c rishstˎ rishsti`lhc. I`quc`tk ac`th`bc-si lk`stc`ti.
iˎ `lhc. I`quc`tk
hssk, k lcrjk`k pkr ixiapmk, pkssuh ai`ks imítrk`s imítrk`s mh-
vris,
vri s, pkrtc`
pkrtc`tk
tk c pcssce
pcssceia ia di lkr lkrri`
ri`ti
ti si tkrtkr`c
`c achs
achs
^cj3 ^cj: ^cj< ^cj4
dhnĳ́lhm,
dhn´
ĳlhm, mkek c rishst i`lhc
iˎ `lhc ií´ achkr. 1 1 1 1 lk`stc`ti
H3 H: H< H4
<.3.
<.3.3
3 Mih
Mih di Kba
Kba Issi vcmkr lk`stc`ti ií´ c Zishstˎ iˎ `lhc Im´
Zishsti`lhc Imitrhlc
ítrhlc dk acti-
rhcm, pkrtc`tk, c mih di kba pkdi sir ixprissc actiacth-
K lhi`thstc
lhi`thstc cmia˝
cmiac̋ck
k Eikre
Eikre \ha\hak`
k` Kba (35(3528-
28-329
3294),
4), lcai`ti ctrcv´
ctrcvisís dc
d c sie
sieuh`t
uh`tii iqucl
iq ucl² c̋ck7
˝ k7
`k sílumk
sílumk HRR, ricmhzku, pimc prhaihrc viz, v´ vćrhcs
crhcs ix-
pirhˎi`lhcs,
pirhiˎ `lhcs, aidh`dk ti`skis
k̋˝ is i cs lkrri`tis lkrrispk`-
cˎ `lhcs dh-
di`tis ia dhvirsks lk`dutkris nihtks di sujst c`lhcs
niri`tis. ^
^crhc`dk k vcmkr dc ddp cpmhlcdc c lcdc lk`dutkr, vi- Z1 (<.3)
rhffilku qui c lkrri`ti qui pcsscvc pkr imi tcaj´ tcajia í a si H
akdhffilcvc. Cssha7 Z 7 ZiZishs
shstˎ
tˎi`lhc
i`lhc Imítrhlc
Imítrhlc - u`hdcdi7 ℮ (kba)
• uac ddp ^CJ3 prkvklcvc uac lkrri`ti H 3 ? ^ 7 Ti`s

Ti`s˝ck
c̋k - u`hdcdi7 ^ (^kmt)
:<
L CV ´HTYMK ˎ @LHC I M ITZHLC
H́ TYMK < . Z I\H\TI@LHC
I ´ TZHLC I M IH DI K BA
Í
H 7 H`ti`s
H`ti`shdc
hdcdi
di dc lkrri`ti
lkrri`ti imítr
imítrhlc
hlc - u`hdcd
u`hdcdi7
i7 C
(Capfiiri)
(Cap f ri)
Iù`lhcdk dc Mih di Kba7

”VCZ C YA EZC@D
EZC@DI ´ AIZK DI LK@DYTKZI\
I @YAIZK
Ý LK@DYTKZI\,
AC@THDK
AC@ THDK\\ C YAC AI\ AI\AC
AC TIAV
TIAVIZC TYZC, K ^C-
IZCTYZC
ˎ
MKZ DC ZI\H\TI@LHC ´
Í TZHLC VIZAC@ILI LK@\-
I @LHC IMITZHLC
˝
TC@TI, @ CK
C̋ K DIVI@DI@DK DK ^CMKZ DC DDV CVMH-
LCDC CK LK@DYTKZ.‑
ˎ bahlks
Achtirhchs kbahlks
k
c̋˝ k ks lk`dutkris qui kjidilia fc Mih di Kba, ku sigc,
\ck Nheurc <.<7
ks vcmkris di sucs rishstˎii`lhcs `lhcs sir˝
sirc̋k
ck siapri ks aisaks,
h`dipi`di`tis dks vcmkris di ddp cpmhlcdcs.
Yac rishstˎ iˎ `lhc mhìcr (rishstˎ
rishsti`lhc iˎ `lhc kbahlc)
(rishsti`lhc kˎ bahlc) ií´ cquimc K ^DZ tia lkak prh`lhpcm lcrcltir´ lcrcltirĳ́ĳsthlc
sth lc c ”rid
” ridul c̋˝ k
ul² ck
qui cprisi`tc uac lcrcltirĳ́sthlc
lcrcltir´ĳsthlc vkmt/capfiri iri riprisi`- `k vcmkr di suc rishstˎi`lhc i`lhc imítrhlc,
imítrhlc, quc`dk sujaithdks
tcdc pkr uac mh`bc ritc, lkak ixiapmhffilcdk pimcs mh- c uac ti`s˝
ti`sck c̋k im´
imitrhlc
ítrhlc lrisli`ti‑.
`bcs 3 i : dc ffieurc <.:. Issi lkapkrtcai`tk
lkapkrtcai`tk ií´ h`tirissc
h`tirissc`ti `ti prh`lhpcmai
prh`lhpcmai`ti `ti
Ia uac rishstˎ
rishsti`lhciˎ `lhc mhìcr, lcdc u`hdcdi di vcrhcl vcrh cl²ckc̋˝ k lkak rilursk pcrc prktieir lhrluhtks lka imiai`tks si-
di ti`sc̋k
ti`s˝ck prkvklc uac u`hdcdi u`hd cdi di vcrhcl
vcr hcl²ck c̋˝ k di lkrri`ti. ahlk`dutkris, qui sc̋k s˝ck auh
auhtk
tk si`s´
si` sĳ́vihs
ĳvihs c skjrilcrecs di
Hstk she`hffilc qui dkjrc`dk c ti`s ck c̋˝ k dkjrcr´
dkjrcrĳcaks, ĳ́caks, pkr ti`s˝c̋ck.
ti`s k.
ixiapmk, c lkrri`ti? trhpmhlc`dk c ti`s ck c̋˝ k trhpmhlcr´
trhpmhlcrĳcaks
ĳ́caks Kutrc
Kut rc cpmhlcl
cpm hlcl² c̋ck
˝ k di vcrhstkris klkrri `ks pcrc-rchks di
c lkrri`ti? dhvhdh`dk c ti`sc̋k ti`s˝ck pkr dkhs dhvhdhr´ dhvhdhrĳ́caks
ĳcaks c mh`bc qui s˝ sck
c̋k uscdks `c trc`sahss˝
trc`sahssck c̋k i dhst
dhstrhju
rhjuhl c̋˝ k di
hl² ck
lkrri`ti pkr dkhs. iìrehc imítrhlc.
imítrhlc. Durc`ti ua surtk di ti`sc̋k ti`s˝ck di krheia
Vkr diffi`hl
diffi `hl² ck,
c̋˝ k, scjiaks qui c rczc̋k rcz˝ck i`tri c ti`sc̋k ti`s˝ck i ctaksnirhlc,
í´ rhlc, pkr ixiapmk, c ti`s˝ ti`s c̋ck
k dc mh`bc, ck lrislir,
c lkrri`ti ií´ heucm cf rishstˎ iˎ `lhc i qui issc ií´ lk`stc`ti
rishsti`lhc ncz dhahùhr jruslcai`ti c rishstˎii`lhc `lhc h`tir`c dk pcrc-
pcrc tkdc nchxc di vcmkris, suffilhi`ti pcrc cs cpmhlcl²kis k̋˝ is rchk dislcrriec`dk k ixlissk di lcrecs pcrc c tirrc i
prćthlcs,
prćthlcs, di acìhrc qui pkdiaks lk`shdir´ lk`shdirć-mks c-mks lkak prktiei`dk ks cpcrimbks i iquhpcai`tks pr kxhaks. ḱ´ xhaks.
si`dk mhìcris.
Ixiapmk7 Lk`dutkris aitćmhlks aitćmhlks ia eircm
Nheurc <.47 ^crhstkr
Nheurc <.:7
<.3.: Nctkris qui ditir
ira
ah`
h`c
ca c ri-
iˎ `lhc
shsti`lhc
˝ kbahlks
Achtirhchs `ck kˎ bahlks C rishstˎ
rishsti`lhc
iˎ `lhc im´
imitrhlc
ítrhlc di ua lk`dutkr dipi`di, jcshlc-
ai`ti, di quctrk nctkris7 k siu lkaprhai`tk, c ćric ćric di
\c̋k
\˝ck cquimis actirhchs qui `˝ `c̋k
ck kjidilia cf Mih di Kba,
suc sil² ck
c̋˝ k trc`svirscm, k actirhcm di qui imi íi´ nihtk i dc
ku sigc, k vcmkr di sucs rishstˎ iˎ `lhcs vcrhc lk`nkrai c
rishsti`lhcs
tiapircturc.
ddp cpmhlcdc.
Yac rishstˎ iˎ `lhc `˝
rishsti`lhc `ck-mhìcr
c̋k-mhìcr (rishstˎ iˎ `lhc `˝
(rishsti`lhc `c̋ck-ˎ kˎ bahlc)
k-kbahlc)
íi´ cquimc qui cprisi`tc uac lcrcltirĳ́sthlc
lcrcltir´ĳsthlc vkmt/capfiiri ri Lkaprhai`tk di ua lk`dutkr (m)
lurvcdc, lkak akstrcdk pimcs lurvcs 3 i : `c ffieurc <.<.
Ia lk`dutkris nihtks dk aisak actirhcm i lka aisac
Ia uac rishstˎi`lhci`lhc `c̋k
`˝ck mhìcr uac aisac vcrhcl²ck c̋˝ k
cric
ć´ ric di sil² c̋ck
˝ k trc`svirscm, ac`thdks c aisac tiapirc-
`c ti`sc̋k
ti`s˝ck prkduz dhniri`tis vcrhcl² kis k̋˝ is `c lkrri`ti
lkrri`ti.. Ia
turc,
turc, c risrishst iˎ `lhc im´
hstˎi`lhc ítrhlc ií´ dhritcai`ti prkpkrlhk`cm
imitrhlc
kutrcs pcmcvrcs, c rcz˝ rczck
c̋k ti`s˝
ti`sck/lkrri`ti
c̋k/lkrri`ti `˝ c̋k ií´ lk`stc`ti,
`ck
ck lkaprhai`tk (m), ku sigc, sirć sirć virhffilcdc achkr ri-
ku sigc, issc rishstˎi`lhci`lhc pkdi tir vćrhks
vćrhks vcmkris dhniri`-
tis. shstˎi`lhc
shstiˎ `lhc `k lk`dutkr di achkr lkaprhai`tk.
Ya ixiapmk di rishstkr `c̋k `˝ck kbahlk
kˎ bahlk ií´ k vcrhstkr, qui
Zγm
tcajía
tcaj ía íi´ lk`bilhdk lkak ^DZ, cjrivhcturc dk tirak
^kmtcei Dipi`di`t Zishstkrs. si`dk γ ss´ĳajkmk
ĳ́ajkmk di prkpkrlhk`cmhdcdi

/H N\ YM
Í
´ ri c di \il² ck
Cric
Ć ˝ Trc`svirscm (C)
Tcjimc <.:7
Ia lk lk`d
`dut
utkr kris
is niht
nihtks
ks dk aisa aisakk acacti tirh
rhcm
cm i lk lkaa k Actirhcm Zishsthvhdcdi (℮.a)
aisak lkaprhai`tk, ac`thdks c uac aisac tiapirc- Vrctc 3, > Õ 36√2
turc, c rishstˎi`lhc
i`lhc imítrhlc
imítrhlc ií´ h`virscai`ti prkpkrlhk`cm cf Lkjri 3, 5 Õ 36√2
´ri c dc sil² ck
ćcric c̋˝ k trc`svirscm, ku sigc, sir´sir cć virhffilcdc achkr Kurk :, 4 Õ 36√2
rishstˎi`lhc
i`lhc `k lk`dutkr di ai`kr cric ćric
´ di sil² ck
c̋˝ k trc`s- Cmua´ĳ́ĳ`
Cmua `hk :, > Õ 36√2
virscm. Tuèstˎiˎ `hk
Tuèst 9, 9 Õ 36√2
3 Wh`lk > Õ 36√2
Zγ Nirrk 36 Õ 36√2
C
Istc`bk 3: Õ 36√2
Cssha si`
Cssha si`dk,
dk, pkdiak
pkdiakss cffir
cffiracr
acr qui, pcrc
pcrc ua ffik
lk`dutkr di ua dcdk actirhcm i c uac lirtc tiapirc- Lbuajk :: Õ 36√2
turc, suc rishstˎi`lhc
i `lhc imítrhlc
imítrhlc sirć
sirć prkpkrlhk`cm ck siu Airlúr
Airl úrhk 84 Õ 36√2
lkaprhai`tk i h`virscai`ti prkpkrlhk`cm cf cric ć´ ric di suc @hquimh`c 46 Õ 36√2 c 44 Õ 36√2
c̋˝ k trc`svirscm.
sil² ck Acèc`h`c 4: Õ 36√2
Lk`stc`tc` 96 Õ 36√2
´ ric dks lk`dutkris
Cric
Ć @hlrkak 366 Õ 36√2
Cmeuacs vizis lk`biliaks k rchk ku dhˎccaitrk
aitrk dks Ercffiti 46 Õ 36√2 c 59 Õ 36√2
ffiks i ìlis
ìlisshtca
shtcaks
ks lcmlumcr cs sucs ćcrics.
´ rics. Vcrc
Vcrc tcm,
tcm, \kmu
\k mull² ki
k̋˝ is Imitrkm´ĳ́ĳtthlcs 36√: c 36
uthmhzcaks uac dcs nḱraumcs
n´kraumcs cjchxk7
d φ Õ d: Tiapircturc
C 1 φ Õ r: r1 C1
: 4 C rishsthvhdcdi di ua actirhcm pkdi sknrir vcrhcl² k̋ kis
˝ is
´ ric dk lk`dutkr
C 7 ćcric lk`nkrai
lk`nk rai c tiapirctur
tiapircturc. c. Vkdi-si
Vkdi-si cdahthr lkak mhìc-
ris cs vcrhcl
vcrh cl² k̋
kis
˝ is di rishsthvhdcdi, pcrc vcmkris ct ctíí lirlc
r 7 rchk dk lk`dutkr
lk`dutkr k
di 366 L, pkr´
pkria ía ìa tkdks ks actirhchs si lkapkrtca
d 7 dhˎcaitrk
caitrk dk lk`dutkr di aisac acìhrc.
C`cmhsc`dk c istruturc h`tir`c dks s kmhdks, ḱ´ mhdks, íí pkss´
pkssĳvimĳ́vim
Zishsthvhdcdi (σ) i`ti`dir pkr qui c rishstˎi`lhc
i`lhc imítrhlc
imítrhlc distis lkrpks vc-
rhc lka c tiapircturc.
tiapircturc. \kj k pk`tk di vhstc dc N N´ĳshlc
ĳ́shlc
Zishsthvhdcdi íi´ c lk`stc`ti di prkpkrlhk`cmhdcdi qui
Zishsthvhdcdi Akdir`c, c rishstˎi`lhc i`lhc imítrhlc
imítrhlc di ua s´ sḱmhdk
kmhdk dipi`di
dipi`di ixlmushvcai`ti dk actirhcm qui ií´ lk`sthtu´
lk`sthtuĳdk
ĳ́dk k jcshlcai
jcsh lcai`ti
`ti di dkhs nctkr
nctkris7
is7 dk ` úuairk
´ airk di im imí́itrk`s
trk`s mh-
lk`dutkr i dc tiapircturc ia qui imi si i`lk`trc. Issc vris ixhsti`tis ia suc istruturc i dc akjhmhdcdi distis
lk`stc`ti ií´ h`dhlcdc pimc mitrc eriec σ (Z k).
kˎ ). im´
imítrk`s
itrk`s ck si dismklcria ctrcvís
ctrcvís di suc ridi lrhstcmh`c.
Vimk ixpkstk c`tirhkrai`ti pkdiaks islrivir qui7
• Lcsk 37 Actirhchs lka lkiffilhi`ti di tiapircturc
pkshthvk. Istis actirhchs s˝
sck
c̋k lk`bilhdks pimc shemc
VTL (Vkshthvi Tiapircturi Lkinffilhi`t).
Z 1 σÕm (<.:) Ks aitchs i cmeu`s kutrks actirhchs sknria ua
C
clr´
clrislhak
íslhak dc rishsthvhdcdi quc`dk c tiapircturc
Z 7 Zishs
Zishstˎ
tˎi`lhc
i`lhc Imítrhlc
Imítrhlc - u`hdcdi7 ℮ (kba) lrisli.
lris li. Iss
Issii ni`ˎk
kai`k
ai`k íi´ jcstc`ti she`hffilcthvk `k
iˎ `hk (uscdk ia ffimcai`tk di mˎ
tuestˎi`hk
tuest cˎ apcdcs h`lc`-
mcapcdcs
m 7 lkaprhai`t
lkaprhai`tk
k dk lk`dutkr
lk`dutkr - u`hdcdi7
u`hdcdi7 a (aitrks)
(aitrks)
disli`tis), pkr ixiapmk.
´ ric dc sil
C 7 Cric
Ć s il²ck
c̋˝ k trc`svirscm dk lk`dutkr - u`hdcdi7
• Lcsk :7 Actirhchs lka lkiffilhi`ti di tiapircturc
a:
ìect
ìecthv
hvk. c̋˝ k lk`bilhdks lkak @TL (@iecthvi
k. \ck
σ 7 Zishsthvhdcdi dk actirhcm - u`hdcdi7 ℮ .a Tiapircturi Lkinffilhi`t).
Ia cmeu`s actirhchs, lkak c ercffitc i auhtks si-
Vim
Vimcc rrimcl c̋˝ k Z 1 σ .m /C pkdiaks vir qui, tkac`dk-
imcl² ck
ahlk`dutkris, k ni`ˎ kˎ ai`k klkrrhdk ií´ dhniri`ti dk
ni`kai`k
si v´
v ćcrhks
rhks ffiks di aisak lkaprhai`tk i di aisac ćric, ćric,
lhtcdk `k prhaihrk lcsk, ku sigc, quc`dk cquilh-
pkría
pkría nihtks di actirhchs dhniri`tis, bcvir´ bcvirćc ai`kr ri-
dks, istis
ist is actirhchs
act irhchs sknria uac ridul c̋˝ k dc rishsth-
ri dul² ck
shstˎii`lhc
`lhc `cquimi qui pkssuhr ai`kr rishsthvhdcdi. Vkr-
vhdcdi.
tc`tk, quc`tk ai`kr nkr c rishsthvhdcdi di ua actirhcm,
ai`krr sir´
ai`k sircć c kpkshl
kpks hl²ck
c̋˝ k qui isti actirhcm knirilirć
knirilirć c pcs- • Lcsk <7 K tirlihrk lcsk cekrc ií´ c lkajh l kajh`cl `cl² c̋ck
˝ k dks
sceia di lkrri`ti ctrcv´ ctrcvis ís dimi. dkhs lcsks c`tirhkris, hstk í, í, c rishsthvhdcdi dk lk`-
@c tcjimc <.:, istc̋k ist˝ck h`dhlcdks ks vcmkris di rishsthvh- dutkr `c̋k
`˝ck vcrhc lka c tiapitiapirctur
rcturc.
c. Ya dks jk`s
dcdi di cmeu`s actirhchs, pcrc tiapircturcs ia tkr`k di ixiapmks íi´ k lk`stc`tc`. \i c rishsthvhdcdi ` ck c̋˝ k vc-
:6kL. iˎ `lhc im´
rhc c rishstˎ
rishsti`lhc imitrhlc
ítrhlc tcaj´
tcajia c̋˝ k vcrhc.
ía ` ck

/H N\ YM
Í
C ixprissc̋k
ixpriss˝ck pcrc lcmlumcr c rishsthvhdcdi ia nu`l²ck
c̋˝ k
dc tiapircturc íí dcdc pkr7
σ 1 σ6 (3 + γ Õ ∎t ) (<.<)
σ 7 rishsthvh
rishsthvhdcdi
dcdi dk actirhcm `c tiapirctu
tiapircturc
rc t - u`h-
dcdi ℮.a <.97 \´ĳajkmks
Nheurc <.97 ĳ́ajkmks di Zishstkris
σ6 7 rishsthvhdcdi dk actirhcm ia uac tiapircturc di

iˎ `lhc t6 - u`hdcdi ℮.a
rinirˎi`lhc
rinir <.:.3 ˝ di Zishstkris
Ispilhffilcl²ck
Ks rishstkris tˎia i a trˎisis hapkrtc`tis ispilhffilcl² kis7
k̋˝ is7 ri-
∎t 7 vcrh
vcrhcl c̋˝ k dc tiapircturc (∎t 1 t √ t6 ) - u`hdcdi7
cl²ck
k shstˎi`lhc
shstiˎ `lhc (℮), tkmir tkmirˎcc`lhc
ˎ `lhc (%) i pkt
pktˎi`lhc
iˎ `lhc (Uctts - U ).
L
Vimk ixcai vhsucm dk rishstkr íí pkss´ pkssĳvim
ĳ́vim dislkjrhr istcs
ispilhffil
ispi lhffilcl
cl² kis.
k̋˝ is.
γ 7 lkiffilhi`ti di tiapircturc dk actirhcm - u`hdcdi7
k √3
L
iˎ `lhc
Zishsti`lhc
c̋˝ k `kracmai`ti h`s-

@ks rishstkris di ffik ks vcmkris ist ck
Ixiapmk <.37
Ixiapmk iˎ `lhc im´
<.3 7 Lcmlumi k vcmkr dc rishst i`lhc imitrhlc
ítrhlc di lrhtks `k lkrpk dk lkapkì`ti? `ks di lcrvc̋k,
lcrv˝ck, k vcmkr íi´
ua ffik di lkjri di 46 a di lkaprhai`tk i 6, :9aa: di ḱ´ dhek di lkris.
hdi`thffilcdk pkr ua lkdhek
cric
ć´r ic di sil² ck
c̋˝ k trc`svirscm.
cˎ `lhc
Tkmirc`lhc
Z 1;
m 1 46a C rishstˎi`lhc
i`lhc rcrcai`ti íi´ ua vcmkr ixctk h`dhlcdk `k ri-
C 1 6, :9aa: shstkr.. \irhc ixtriacai`ti dhn´ĳlhm
shstkr ĳ́lhm i lcrk ncjrhlcr rishstk-
σ 1 3, 5 Õ 36√2 ℮.a (ctrcv
(ctrcvís
ís dc tcjimc <.:) ris ixctcai`ti lka k vcmkr acrlcdk. Vkr issc rczc̋k, rcz˝ck, ks
rishstkris
rishstkr is pkssuia
pk ssuia uac ispilhffilc
ispilhffilcll² ck
c̋˝ k di tkmirˎ
tkmircc`lhc.
ˎ `lhc. Vkr
Vcrc scthsnczir cs u`hdcdis di clkrdk lka k \H, c ć́ric
cric ixiapmk, ua rishstkr di 366℮ pkdi tir uac tkmirˎcc`lhc `lhc
:
divi sir lk`virthdc pcrc a . Hssk pkdi sir niht
nihtk
k di ducs di 36%. Vkrtc`tk, k vcmkr ricm dk rishstkr pkdi sir qucm-
nkracs7 quir ua i`tri 86℮ i 336℮.
Tkmirˎc`lhcs
c`lhcs di 9%, 36% i :6% sc̋k s˝ck lkau`s pcrc ri-
3. ctrcv
ctrcvís
ís c tcjimc di lk`virs˝
lk`virsc̋ck7
k7 shstkris di lcrv˝
lcrvc̋ck.
k. Zishstkris
Zishstkris di prilhs
prilhsc̋ck
˝ k (achs lcrks)
iˎ a tkmirˎ
tia cˎ `lhc di :%, 3% ku ch`dc ai`kr.
tkmirc`lhc
a: da : la: aa:
6, 66 66 66 :9 Vkti`lhc
iˎ `lhc
C ispilhffi
isp ilhffilcl
lcl² c̋ck
˝ k di pktˎii`lhc`lhc si riniri ck vcmkr a´ aćxhak
cxhak
di pktˎ iˎ `lhc (aidhdc ia wctt) ku lcmkr qui k rishs-
pkti`lhc
:. ctrcv´
ctrcvís
is dk aumthpmhlcdkr7 tkr pkd
pkdii dhsshp
dhsshpcr cr sia quihacquihacr-s
r-sii ku cmt cmtirc
ircrr siu vc-
vc-
6, :9aa: 1 6, :9(36√< a): 1 6, :9 Õ 36√> a: mkr
mkr.. Suc`t
Suc`tk k achkr k tcac`bk tcac`bk n´ĳshlk
ĳ́shlk dk rishstkr, achkr
pktˎii`lhc
`lhc imi pkdi dhsshpc
dhsshpcr. r. Ks rishstk
rishstkris ris di lcrvc̋k,
lcrv˝ck, ia
riskmvi`dk c iqucl² c̋ck
˝ k tiaks7 eircm, pkssuia jchxcs ispilhffilcl ispilhffilc l² kis
k̋˝ is di pktˎ
pktii`lhc?
ˎ `lhc? ss˝ck
c̋k
lkau`s ispilhffilcl
ispilhffilc l² kisk̋˝ is di :, 9U , :U , 3U , 3 /:U , 3/4U
σ Õm 3, 5 Õ 36√2 Õ 46 i 3 /2U .
Z1 1 1 :, 5:℮ Ks rishstkris di ffik pkdia supkrtcr pkt i`lhcs iˎ `lhcs auhtk
C 6, :>Õ√>
achkris, lkak pkr ixiapmk, 9U , 5U , 36U , :9U , 96U ,
itl.
<.
<.:
: Zi
Zish
shst
stkr
kris
is Ia eircm, c pktˎ iˎ `lhc dk rishstkr ist´
pkti`lhc istcć cssklhcdk ck siu
tcac`bk.
Zishstkr ií´ ua lkapkì`ti n´ĳshlk
ĳ́shlk qui pkssuh c prkprh-
idcdi di`kah`cdc
di`kah`cdc di rishstˎ
rishstˎi`lhc
i`lhc imítrhlc
imítrhlc i qui si dis-
<.:.: ḱ´ dhek di Lkris
Lkdhek
th`c c mhahtcr c lkrri`ti ia lirtcs pcrtis di ua lhrluhtk
im´
imítrhlk.
itrhlk. @k lkrpk dks rishstkris di lcrv˝ lcrvc̋ck c̋˝ k haprissks c`´
k sck cìhs
íhs
Lk`shdirc-si ua lkapkì`ti lkak rishstkr quc`dk lkmkrhdks
lkmkrhd ks qui kjidilia
kjid ilia c uac lk lkdhffilcl
dhffilcl² c̋ck
˝ k (tcjimc <.<).
imi trc`snkrac c iìrehc imím itrhlc
ítrhlc lk`suahdc
lk`suahdc h`tiercm-
h`tiercm- K lkdhek
ḱ´ dhek di lkris
lkris íi´ lk`
lk`sth
sthtu
tu´ĳdk,
ĳ́dk, `kracmai`ti,
`kracmai`ti, di quctrk
ai`ti ia lcmkr. c`´
cìhs
íhs lkmkrhdks, si`dk qui ks trˎ iˎ s prhaihrks h`dhlca k
tris
ZKDZHEK \ KYWC I C M^CLHZ TC^CZI\ :> ˎ

/H N\ YM
Í
vcmkr dc rishstˎii`lhc`lhc dk rishstkr, i`quc`tk qui k qucrtk 9% di 4566 íi´ heucm c :<9.
cìm h`dhlc c tkmirˎ
tkmirc`lhc
cˎ `lhc dk aisak. Ixhstia rishstkris lka lh`lk cì́hs c`íhs lkmkrhdks, si`dk
C krdia dks cì́hs, c`íhs, tia lkak rinirˎi`lhc
i`lhc k cìm 3, k ú´ `hlc dhniri`l
qui c u`hlc ḱ´ dhek lhtcdk c`tirhkrai`ti íi´
dhniri` l² c dk lkdhek
achs pr´prkxhak
ḱxhak di ua dks tirah`chs dk rishstkr, si`dk qui, k tirlihrk cìm riprisi`tc k < k cmecrhsak. K qucrtk
isti cìm
cìm k prhaihrk,
prhaihrk, lk`nkra
lk`nkraii c ffieurc <.>. Lcdc lkr i k ú
umthak
´ mthak riprisi`tca, rispilthvcai`ti, k aumthpmhlc-
lkrrispk`di c ua vcmkr qui dipi`di dk cìm ia qui dkr i c tkmirˎcc`lhc.
`lhc. Istis rishstkris s˝ sc̋k
ck di achkr prilhsc̋k
prilhs˝ck
istć,
ist´
c, sieu`dk c tcjimc <.<. @c cusˎi`lhc i`lhc dk qucrtk cìm, (:% i 3%).
c tkmirˎc`lhc
c`lhc ií´ di :6%. \upk`dk qui tiaks ua rishstkr lugcs lkris, `c krdia
sigca mcrc`gc,
mcrc`g c, cacrimk, lh`zc,
lh `zc, pritk i acrrk
acrrka,
a, tir´
tirĳ́caks,
ĳcaks,
i`t
i`t˝ck,
c̋k, ua rishstkr di <42 ℮ (3%).
í´ rhi lkairlhcm di rishstkris

\irhi
Ks rishstkris sc̋k
s˝ck ncjrhlcdks di clkrdk lka c pkrli`-
tceia di tkmirˎcˎ `lhc, di tcm akdk qui sius vcmkris lu-
tkmirc`lhc,
jrca tkdks ks vcmkris privhstks pimc pkrli`tceia, sia
ìlisshd
ìlisshdcdi
cdi di si ncziria vcmk vcmkris
ris h`dhvhduchs.
h`dhvhduchs. Lkak
ixiapmk, lhtcaks c tcjimc <.4 cjchxk, k`di akstrcaks
ks vcmkris ixhsti`tis `c sírhi
sírhi I :4 .
Nheurc <.>7 Hdi`thffilcl c̋˝ k dks c`´
Hdi`thffi lcl²ck cì́ihs
hs
Tcjimc <.47 \´
\irhi
írhi lkairlhcm di rishstkris I:4 - 9% - u`h-
dcdi ia ℮
Tcjimc <.<7 Lḱdhek

L´kdhek di lkris di Zishstkris 3.6 36 366 3.6O 36O 366O 3.6A 36A
lkr 3c nchxc :c nchxc <c nchxc 4c nchxc 3.3 33 336 3.3O 33O 336O 3.3A 33A
3.: 3: 3:6 3.:O 3:O 3:6O 3.:A 3:A
pritk “ 6 3
Õ “
3 3.< 3< 3<6 3.<O 3<O 3<6O 3.<A 3<A
acrrka 3 3 Õ36 3%
: 3.9 39 396 3.9O 39O 396O 3.9A 39A
viraimbk : : Õ36 :%
< 3.> 3> 3>6 3.>O 3>O 3>6O 3.>A 3>A
mcrc`gc < < Õ36 “
4 3.2 32 326 3.2O 32O 326O 3.2A 32A
cacrimk 4 4 Õ36 “
9
:.6 :6 :66 :.6O :6O :66O :.6A :6A
virdi 9 9 Õ36 “
>
:.: :: ::6 :.:O ::O ::6O :.:A ::A
czum > > Õ36 “
5
:.4 :4 :46 :.4O :4O :46O :.4A
vhkmitc 5 5 Õ36 “ :.5 :5 :56 :.5O :5O :56O :.5A
lh`zc 2 2 “ “ <.6 <6 <66 <.6O <6O <66O <.6A
jrc`lk 8 8 “ “ <.< << <<6 <.<O <<O <<6O <.<A
√:
prctc “ “ Õ36 36% <.> <> <>6 <.>O <>O <>6O <.>A
√3
kurk “ “ Õ36 9% <.8 <8 <86 <.8O <8O <86O <.8A
4.< 4< 4<6 4.<O 4<O 4<6O 4.<A
4.5 45 456 4.5O 45O 456O 4.5A
9.3 93 936 9.3O 93O 936O 9.3A
Ixiapmk
Ixiapm k <.: 7 Lk`shdiri ua rishstkr lugcs lkris, `c 9.> 9> 9>6 9.>O 9>O 9>6O 9.>A
krdia,, sigca
krdia sigca77 CACZIMK, ^HKMITC, ÎZAIMBK i >.: >: >:6 >.:O >:O >:6O >.:A
KYZK. Su Sucm
cm k vcmk
vcmkrr dc rish
rishstˎ
stˎi`lhc i tkmirˎc`lhc
c `lhc dk >.2 >2 >26 >.2O >2O >26O >.2A
rishstkr; 5.9 59 596 5.9O 59O 596O 5.9A
Ks dkh
dkhss prhaih
prhaihrks
rks c`
c`íhs
í hs nkrìl
nkrìlia
ia ks dkhs
dkhs prh
prhaih
aihrks
rks 2.: 2: 2:6 2.:O 2:O 2:6O 2.:A
cmecrhsaks qui nkraca c rishstˎi`lhc
i`lhc dk lkapkì`ti7 8.3 83 836 8.3O 83O 836O 8.3A
CACZIMK 1 4? ^HKMITC 1 5 ⇚ Vrhai Vrhaihrks hrks dkhs

cmecrhsaks 1 45
K tirlihrk cìm
cìm `ks d cć´ k nctkr
nct kr di aumthpmhlcl
aumthpm hlcl² c̋ck7
˝ k7
ÎZAIMBK h`dhlc qui si diviaks aumthpmhlcr k vcmkr <.:.<
<.:.< Thpks
Thpks di Zishst
Zishstkr
kris
is
pkr 36:
Suc`tk ck actirhcm
Gu`tc`dk, tiaks7 45 Õ 36: 1 4566℮ ku 4, 5o℮, ku ch`dc
4o5, qui íí k vcmkr dk rishstkr. • ˝ 7 Ks rishstkris
lcrvck rishstkris di lcrv c̋˝ k, lcrjk`k ku erc-
lcrvck,
Lkak k qucrtk cìm ií´ k kurk, c tkmirˎc`lhc c`lhc dk rishstkr ffiti lkak tcajía
tcajía sc̋k
s˝ck lk`bilhdks, sc̋k s˝ck nclhmai`ti
sir´
sirćc di 9%. Hstk
Hstk she`hffilc
she`hffilc qui k rishstk
rishstkrr pkdi tir ua hdi`thffilcdks, pkhs ia siu lkrpk s˝ s c̋ck k ph`tcdcs nch-
vcmkr i`tri 44>9 (4566-:<9 ) i 48<9 (4566+:<9), pkhs xcs lkmkrhdcs qui kjidilia c ua l kdhek ḱ´ dhek di lkris.

/H N\ YM
Í
@ua tujk di pkrlimc`c ií´ dipkshtcdc uac ffi`c lc- cgustćvim, di`kah`cdk ”rikstctk‑. Lka k ri-
cgustćvim,
acdc di ercffiti lugc ispissurc i mcreurc (imc nkrac kstctk íi´ pkss
pkss´ĳ́ĳvim
vim vcrhcr c rishst
rishstˎi`lhc
iˎ `lhc di ua
ua isphrcm) ditirah`c c rishstˎiˎ `lhc qui k rishstkr
rishsti`lhc lhrluhtk i, cssha, tkr`c-si pkss´pkssĳvim
ĳ́vim cuai`tcr
tirć.
tir´
c. ku dhahùhr c lkrri`ti ìsti lhrluhtk.
C ercffiti cprisi`tc uac rishsthvhdcdi lk`shdir´
lk`shdircvim,
ćvim,
di akdk qui pkdiaks kjtir lka lirtc nclhmhdcdi
iˎ `lhcs ùac nchxc auhtk erc`di di vcmkris.
rishstˎi`lhcs
rishst
Vkdiaks i`lk`trcr rishstkris lka vcmkris qui pk-
dia vcrhcr di 36℮, ku ai`ks, c achs di :6 A ℮.
\kjri c lcpc di ercffiti ixhsti uac th`tc prktitkrc
qui hapidi qui imiai`tks ixtir`ks pkssca h`﬊uhr
iˎ `lhc.
`c rishstˎ
rishsti`lhc.
• ffik7 \i i`rkmcrak
i`rkmcrakss uac pidcl²²k
k di ffik lk`dutkr
lk`dutkr
ùa lkrpk `˝
`ck
c̋k lk`dutkr, tiriaks ua lkapkì`ti Nheurc <.27 Zikstctk
lka uac rishstˎi`lhc
i`lhc ditirah`cdc.
K ffik eircmai`ti uscdk ií´ uac mhec di `´ `ĳquim
ĳ́quim i
lrkak lbcacdc `hlrkak, qui tia c rishsthvhdcdi
auhtk achkr
achkr dk qui c dk lkjri
lkjri.. K lkrpk qui sirvi
di supkrti ií´ `kracmai`ti ua tujk di lirˎcahlc. cahlc.
Dipkhs, s˝ sck
c̋k clrisli`tcdks tirah`chs lk`dutkris i
tkdk rishstkr íí lkjirtk lka uac lcacdc prktitkrc.
C nchxc di vcmkris di rishstˎi`lhc
i`lhc pkdi vcrhcr di ai-
ć´ rhks ahmbcris di kbas. C t il`hlc
`ks di 3℮ c v crhks í´ l`hlc di Nheurc <.87 Zikstctk tkrkhdcm
ffik ií´ tcajía
tcajía uthmhzcdc pcrc prkduzhr rishstkris di
vcmkr prilhsk. Tchs rishstkris di prilhs˝
prilhsck
c̋k s ckc̋˝ k auhtk “ di lcrv˝
lcrvc̋ckk (trh
(trhapkt)7
apkt)7 \ck c̋˝ k rishstkris qui pks-
riquhshtcdks ia lhrluhtks aidhdkris. suia ua lurskr, i isti pkdi sir akvhdk pkr
aihk di ua jktc̋k
jkt˝ck pm´
pmćsthlk,
csthlk, ku ch`dc pkr aihk
di uac lbcvilbcvi di ni` ni`dc dc h`trkd
h`trkduzh
uzhdc
dc ùa
ùacc
cjirturc qui tia c ffi`cmhdcdi di cgustcr c ri-
shstiˎ `lhc disigcdc
shstˎi`lhc disigcdc.. @ks trha trhapkt
pkt k tir
tirah`
ah`cm
cm
li`trcm lkrrispk`di ck lurskr. Issi lurskr si
akvhai`tc skjri uac trhmbc di ercffiti. Lk`-
nkrai c pkshl² ck c̋˝ k dimi pkdiaks tir uac ri-
shstˎi`lhc
i`lhc dhniri`ti i`tri imi i ua dks ixtri-
aks.
C trhmbc di ercffiti cprisi`tc uac lirtc ri-
shstˎi`lhc
shstiˎ `lhc ffixc di pk`tc c pk`tc, qui dc k vc-
Nheurc <.57 Zishstkris7 di ffik (isq.) i di lcrvc̋k

lcrv˝ck (dhr.) mkr `kah`cm
tcdk, sucdkrishs
cgustcdk,
cgus trhapkt.
rishstˎ Eircmai`ti,
tˎi`lhc
i`lhc divirć uac viz
divirć piracìlir
ffixc.
Suc`tk ck nu`lhk`cai`tk
• ffixks7 \c̋k
\˝ck rishstkris qui cprisi`tca ua vcmkr ffixk
iˎ `lhc.
di rishstˎ
rishsti`lhc.
• ćvihs7 \c̋k
cgustcvihs
cgust´ \˝ck rishs
rishstkris
tkris lugc rishstˎi`lhc
i`lhc imítrhlc
imítrhlc
pkdi
pkdi sir
sir cg
cgus
ustc
tcdc
dc di`t
di`trk
rk dc ncnchx
hxcc `kah
`kah`c
`cmm dk
aisak.
aisa k. Yac viz cgustcdk,
cgustcdk, suc rishstˎi`lhc
i`lhc divirć
divirć
piracìlir ffixc.
“ di ffik (rikstctk)7 Issi rishstkr pkssuh ua lk`-

tctk
tct k llugc
ugc pkshl c̋˝ k pkdi sir cmtircdc, pkhs ií´ ffi-
pksh l²ck Nheurc <.367 Trhapkt
xcdk lka ua pcrcnusk pirahth`dk k cgusti dk
vcmkr dc rishstˎ
rishsti`lhc
iˎ `lhc disigcdc.
C dipi
dipi`dˎ
`dˎi`lh
i `lhcc dc ri rish
shstˎ
stˎi`l
`lhc
hc di ua ffik • vcrhcvihs
vcrh´ kˎ aitrks)7 \˝
ćvihs (pkti`lhkaitrks) \c̋k
ck rishstkris lka
lka siu lkaprhai`tk
lkaprha i`tk risumtc
ri sumtc ùac
ù ac cpmhlcl
cpmh lcl²ck
c̋˝ k tr
trˎis
iˎ s tirah`chs, lugc rishstˎ
rishstii`lhc
ˎ`lh c dipi`d
di pi`dii dc cl² c̋ck
˝ k ix-
ha
hapkpkrtrtc`
c`ti
ti ia ua ri rish
shst
stkr
kr di ri
rish
shstiˎ `lhc
stˎi`lhc tir`c.

/H N\ YM
Í
Tia-si ua imiai`tk di ercffiti (ku i`rkmcai`tk Imis dhniria dks @TL ia dkhs cspiltks nu`-
di ffik) qui,qui, cprisi
cprisi`tc
`tc lir
lirtc
tc ris
rishst
hstˎi`lh
iˎ `lhcc di ixix-- dcai`tchs
dcai `tchs77 k lkiffi lkiffilhi`t
lhi`tii di tiapi
tiapircturc
rcturc di
tria
triak k c ixixtr
tria
iak, qui dcć´ k vcmkr dk lkapk-
k, i qui ua VTL ií´ pkshthvk cpi`cs di`trk di lirtcs
ì`ti, skjri k qucm lkrri ua lurskr clhk`cdk pkr nchxcs di tiapircturc, nkrc dissc mhahtcl² c̋ck ˝k k
ua ihxk. Ehrc`dk
Ehrc`dk isti lurskr,
lurskr, pkdiaks
pkdiaks vcrhcr
vcrhcr c lkiffilhi`ti íí ìecthvk ku ùmk i k vcmkr cjsk-
rishstˎi`lhc
i `lhc i`tri zirk i k vcmkr aćxhaćxhak.
ak. Ks p pk-
k- mutk dk lkiffilhi`ti tírahlk tírahlk dks VTL `kracm-
ti`lh kˎ aitrks s˝
ti`lhˎkaitrks sck
c̋k uscdks quc`dk prilhscaks cmtircr ai`ti íí jia achkr qui k dks @TL.
k vcmkr dc rishstˎi`lhc
i`lhc c qucmquir akai`tk di ac- ´
ìhrc clissĳ́vim.
cliss´ĳvim. Ixhstia pkti`lh
pkti`lhˎkaitrks
kˎ aitrks ah`hcturc,
ah`hcturc, di `kt´
I `kt
kpir cvim
ć vcl
kpircl im,,˝ kch
² c̋ckch`d
`dc
t´ c qui
tírahlc
irahlc quiimis
di`t
di`trk
rk di cprisi`tcr
pkdia su
succ nchx
nchxcc
pcrc cpcrimbks di piqui`k pkrti (r´ (rcdhks
ćdhks pkrt´
pkrtctihs,
ćtihs, vcrhc
vcr hcll² ck
c̋˝ k `c rishrishstˎ
stˎii`lhc
`lhc ck `ĳ́vi
`´ĳvimm di vćrhcs
vćrhcs
itl.)
itl.) i tctcaj´
ajía
ia pkti`lhˎkaitrks
kaitrks achkris qui pks- pktˎiˎ `lhcs di diz.
pkti`lhcs
suia uac trhmbc di ffik di `hlrkak i`rkmcdk ia Ks VTL s˝ sck
c̋k iapriecdks lkak mhahtcdkris di
isphrcm, pirahth`dk cssha trcjcmbcr lka lkrri`tis lkrri`ti, si`skris di tiapircturc i prktitk-
achkris. ris lk`trc skjricquilhai`tk ia iquhpcai`-
tks tchs lkak aktkris imítrhlks.
imítrhlks. Tcajía
Tcajía i`-
lk`trca
lk`t rca cpmhlcl
cpmh lcl² ck
c̋˝ k lkak tirakstctks.
<.< Aumt´ĳ́ĳaitrk
aitrk lkak Kba
Kba´ĳaitrk
ĳ́aitrk
K h`struai`tk uthmhzcdk pcrc aidhr Zishstˎi`lhc i`lhc Im´ Imíitrhlc
trhlc
Nheurcc <.337 Vkti`lhˎ
Nheur Vkti`lhˎkaitrk
kaitrk ií´ k kba´
kbaĳaitrk,
ĳ́aitrk, pkr
pkría
í a k aumtáumtĳaitrk,
ĳ́aitrk, cm cmía
í a di aidhr
ti`sc̋k
ti`s˝ ck i lkrri`ti im´ imítrhlc,
itrhlc, tcajía
tcajía pkdi kpircr lkak
kba´ĳ́ĳaitrk.
kba aitrk.
Vc
Vcrc rc aidh
aidhrr c rirish shst iˎ `lhc
sti`lh c imimí́itrh
trhlc
lc di uac uac ri ri--
˝ mhìcris
Zishstkris `ck
shsti`lhc
iˎ `lhc ffixc ku vcrh´
vcrhcvim,
ćvim, ku aisak di ua lk`gu`tk
• Muahstkr (MDZ - mhebt dipi`di`t rishstkr)7 Ks ridi rishstkris h`tirmhecdks, ií´ prilhsk qui imis `ck ˝ isti-
shstkris MDZ, tcajía
tcajía lbcacdks di nktkrishstkris gca sujaithdks c qucmquir ti`sck, ˝ hstk i, í´ , k lhrluhtk
tia siu lkapkrtcai`tk lk`dhlhk`cdk pimc muz h`- divii istcr kjrhectkrhc
div kjrhectkrhcai`tiai`ti disiìreh
disiìrehzcdk. zcdk. Lcsk
lhdi`t
lhdi`tii skjri
skjri imis. Cprisi
Cprisi`tc
`tca a uac rishstˎ
rishstˎi`lhc
i`lhc lk`trćrhk,
lk`tr ćrhk, hssk pkdirhc clcrritcr ua irrk di aidhdc ku
imi
imivcd
vcdcc `k islurk
islurk i, quc`d
quc`dkk ixpkstks
ixpkstks cf mu muz,
z, tia
tia suc
suc ct´
ctíi dc`hffilcr k h`struai`tk. K hdicm ií´ dislkìltcr k dhs-
lk`duthvhdcdi cuai`tcdc, hstk i, í´ , knirilia jchxc pkshthvk dk lhrluhtk pcrc ricmhzcr c aidhdc.
rishstˎi`lhc
i`lhc imítrhlc
imítrhlc skj hmuah`c
hmuah`cll²c̋ck.
˝ k. Vcrc ricmhzcr c̋˝ k, ks tirah`chs dk aumt´
ricmhzc r c aidhl² ck, aumt ĳaitrk
ĳ́aitrk
divia sir mhecdks ia pcrcmimk lka k dhspkshthvk ku lhr-
• Tirahstkr7 Ks tirahstkris sc̋k s˝ck rishstkris `c̋k
`˝ck mhì- luhtk c sir aidhdk, sia si qucmquir priklupcl² ck c̋˝ k ia
cris ia qui c suc rishst i`lhc iˎ `lhc vcrhc lka c vcrhcl c̋˝ k
vcr hcl²ck rim ˝
imccl² ck f
c̋k c pkmcr
pkmcrhdcdi
hdcdi dks tirah`chs dk aumt aumt´ĳaitrk,
ĳ́aitrk, lk`-
dc tiapircturc. Ia auhtks lhrluhtks imitrˎk`hlks k`hlks di nkrai c ffieurc <.3:.
nu`lhk`cai`tk lr´ ĳ́thlk ií´ ixhehdk ua lk`trkmi cpu-
lrĳthlk
rcdk di pcrˎcaitrks
caitrks lkak c tiapircturc. Vcrc hssk
íi´ ìliss
ìlissćrhk
ćrhk ditiltcr cs vcrhcl²kis k̋˝ is t´
tirahlcs
írahlcs k qui
pkdi sir nihtk pimks tirahstkris
tirahstkris.. Issis Issis rishstkris
rishstkris
sc̋k
s˝ck lmcsshffilcdks lk`nkrai k siu lkapkrtcai`tk7
“ @TL7 Ks tirahstkris
tirahstkris @TL
@TL sc̋ks˝ck rishstkris di
lkiffilhi`ti t´
tirahlk
írahlk cmtcai`ti ìecthvk, k qui
she`hffilc qui suc rishstˎi`lhc
i`lhc dhahùh quc`dk
cuai`tc c tiapircturc . \˝ \c̋ck
k nihtks c pcrthr di
Nheurc <.3:7 Mhecl² c̋ck
˝k d dk
k kb
kba´
aĳ́ait
ĳaitrkrk
ḱ
kxhdks
´ xhdks ait´
aitćmhlks
cmhlks di imiai`tks lkak k nirrk,
lrkak, acèc`ˎiis,s, lkjcmtk i `ĳ́quim.
`´ĳquim.
Vcrc qui `˝ `c̋ck
kkklkrrca
lkrrca irrks di aidhl² c̋ck,˝ k, ù`lc sieuri
Di`tri cs cpmhlcl² kis k̋˝ is pr´
prcthlcs
ć thlcs dks @TL lhks tirah`chs dk kba´ kbaĳaitrk
ĳ́aitrk sieurc`dk lka cs a˝ a cks
c̋ks ia
tcaks suc uthmhz
uthmhzcl
cl²ck
c̋˝ k lkak imiai`tk jćshlk jćshlk cajks ks tirah`chs, pkhs c rishstˎi`lhc i`lhc dk lkrpk pkdi
dks tiraˎ
tirakaitrks
kˎ aitrks imitrˎ
imitrk`hlks,
kˎ `hl ks, `c istcjh
is tcjhmhz
mhzcl
cl²ck
c̋˝ k h`tirnirhr
h`tir nirhr `c aidhdc. Iss Issii prkjmiac ií´ achs ixprisshvk
dk nu`lhk`cai`tk di ditirah`cdks lhrluhtks `cs aidh
aidhll² k̋
kis
˝ is di rishstˎi`lhcs
i`lhcs imivcdcs, `c nchxc dks o ℮.
si`sĳ́vihs
si`s´
ĳvihs c tiapirc
tiapircturc, turc, itl. @k aumtĳ́aitrk
aumt´ĳaitrk dhehtcm k prklidhai`
prklidhai`tk tk íi´ ach
achss shapmi
shapmis. s.
“ VTL7 \˝\ck
c̋k tirahstkris qui pkssuia ua lki- Cp ḱs c islkmbc dk nu`dk di islcmc cdiqucdk, c mihturc í́i
Cp´ks
ffilhi`ti tírahlk
tírahlk di rishstˎi`lhc
i`lhc cmtcai`ti pk- nihtc dhritcai`ti `k dhspmcy dk cpcrimbk. Divi-si cpi-
shthvk, k qui she`hffilc qui suc rishst ii`lhc
ˎ `lhc cu- `cs luhdcr pcrc `˝ `ck
c̋k uthmhzcr ua nu`dk di islcmc auhtk
ai`tc quc`dk cuai`tc c tiapircturc. achkr dk qui c rishstˎ iˎ `lhc c sir aid
rishsti`lhc aidhdc,
hdc, ppkhs c̋˝ k
khs c riskmul² ck

/H N\ YM
Í
dc islcmc clcrritcrć
clcrritcrć ia ua irrk pirli`tucm auhtk imi- di pkti`lhcm, kjtiriaks, ia lkrrispk`dˎii`lhc,
`lhc, uac
vcdk. K hdicm ií´ similhk`cr c islcmc lka k nu`dk di is- lkrri`ti im´
imitrhlc
ítrhlc di h`ti`shdcdi heucm c7
lcmc achs pr´ prkxhak
ḱxhak pkss´
pkssĳvim
ĳ́vim dk vcmkr c sir aidhdk.
@k aumt´
aum tĳ́aitrk
ĳaitrk c`cmkehlk,
ḱ´ ehlk, c islcmc ercducdc íi´ h`vir- (c) trˎiiss vizis k vcmkr c`tirhkr.
thdc i `˝
`c̋ck
k mhìcr, qui pkdi sir kjsirvcdk `c ffieurc <.3<. (j) ua sixtk dk vcmkr cc`tirhkr.
`tirhkr.
@c ixtriahdcdi isquirdc dc islcmc ií´ h`dhlcdc uac ri- (l) `kvi vi
vizis
zis k vcmkr c`ti
c`tirhkr.
rhkr.
`lhc h`ffi`htc (Z 1 ∐), qui lkrrispk`di cks tirah`chs
shstˎii`lhc
(d) ua tirl²k
²k dk vcmkr c`tirhkr.
dk kba´ ĳ́aitrk ia cjirtk i k pk`tihrk ia ripkusk. G cć´ `c
kbaĳaitrk
ixtriahdcdi dc dhrihtc, c rishstˎi`lhc i`lhc ií´ ùmc (Z 1 6), k (i) ua `k`k dk vcmk
vcmkrr c`tirhkr
c`tirhkr..
qui lkrrispk`di cks tirah`chs ia lurtk (uac pk`tihrc
:. Di clkrdk lka ks isquiacs dc ffieurc <.34, hdi`th-
i`lkstcdc `c kutrc) i k pk`tihrk tktcmai`ti di﬊ixhk-
ffiqui ks h`struai`tks 3, : i <.
`cdk.
Nheurc <.3<7 Islcmc dk kba´

kbaĳ́aitrk
ĳaitrk c`cm kehlk
ḱ´ ehlk Nheurc <.347
<. Iù`lhi, lka sucs

sucs pcmcvrcs, c Mih
Mih di Kba.
Vrklidhai `tk di aidhl² ck
Vrklidhai`tk ˝ lka kba´
kbaĳaitrk
ĳ́aitrk
4. K vcmk
vcmkrr dc rish
rishstˎ
stˎii`lhc
`lhc imítr
imítrhlc
hlc di ua lk`
lk`dut
dutkr
kr
ḱ´ ehlk7
c`cmkehlk7
kˎ bahlk `˝
kbahlk `ck
c̋k vcrhc si audcaks skai`ti7
3. Islkmbi-s
Islkmbi-sii c islcmc disigcdc, qui ií´ ua aumthpmk
disigcdc, ú´ mthpmk
dks vcmkris
vcmkris dc islcmc ercducdc7
ercducdc7 R3, R36, R3O i (c) k acti
actirhcm
rhcm di qui
qui imi ií´ nihtk.
R36O? (j) c ć́ric c̋˝ k trc`svirscm.
cric di suc sil² ck
mi íí sujaithdk.
(l) c ddp c qui iimi
:. Lurtk-
Lurtk-lhr
lhrluh
luhtca
tca-si
-si ks tirah`
tirah`chs aumt´ĳaitrk,
chs dk aumt ĳ́aitrk,
prkvklc`dk c di﬊ixc̋k
di﬊ix˝ck tktcm dk pk`tihrk? (d) k ssiu
iu dhˎccaitrk.
aitrk.
(i) k siu llkaprha
kaprhai`tk.
i`tk.
<. Cgustca-s
Cgustca-sii k pkti`lhˎkaitrk
kaitrk di cgusti di zirk ctí
ctí
qui k pk`tihrk h`dhqui Z 1 6? 9. Vc
Vcrc
rc ua lirtk
lirtk lk`
lk`dut
dutkr
kr,, ac`
ac`thdthdk
k c tia
tiapir
pirctu
cturc
rc
lk`stc
lk` stc`ti
`ti,, kjthv
kjthviak
iakss k erércffilk
ć ffilk (^CJ x H) dc
4. Cjria-
Cjria-si
si ks tirah`
tirah`chs
chs i ks lkìlt
lkìltc`dc`dk
k ck imi
imi--
ffieurc <.39.
<.39. Lk`s
Lk`shdiri
hdiri,, cekrc, cs trˎiiss cffiracthvcs
ai`tk i`tc̋k
i`t˝ck aidi-si suc rishstˎi`lhc?
i`lhc?
cjchxk
cjc hxk,, lcd
lcdcc uac dcs quchs
quchs pkdi
pkdi ist
istcr
cr lirtc
lirtc ku
9. C mihturc
mihturc ií´ nihtc aumthpmhlc`dk-si k vcmkr h`dhlcdk irrcdc. Mihc-cs lka cti`l² c̋ck
˝ k i cssh`cmi c cmtir`cthvc
pimk pk`tihrk pimk aumthpmk
ú´ mthpmk dc islcmc similhk`cdc? lkrritc7
Kjsi
Kj sirvc ˝
rvcll²kis
• Vkr lcusc dc `˝
`ck-mhìcrhdcdi
c̋k-mhìcrhdcdi dc islcmc, cs mihturc
achs prilhscs `k kbaĳ́aitrk
kba´ĳaitrk s˝
sc̋k
ck nihtcs `c riehc̋k
rieh˝ck
li`trcm dc islcmc ercducdc.
• @k prklidhai`tk di cgusti di zirk, lcsk k pk`tihrk

`c̋k
`˝ck cth`gc k pk`tk zirk, she`hffilc qui c jctirhc dk
aumt´ĳaitrk
aumt ĳ́aitrk ist´
istcć nrclc i divi sir sujsthtu´
sujsthtuĳdc?.
ĳ́dc?.
Nheurc <.397
• K cgusti di zirk divi sir nihtk c lcdc audc`l²c di
islcmc.
H - C rishstˎi`lhc
i `lhc dis
dissi
si lk`dut
lk`dutkr
kr ií´ lk`
lk`stc
stc`ti
`ti i
h`dipi`di`ti dc ddp.
HH - C rishstˎi`lhc
i`lhc dissi lk`dutkr cuai`tc lka k
Ixirl´ĳ́ĳlhks
Ixirl lhks cuai`tk dc ddp.
3. \i ua
ua ris
rishstkr
hstkr k
kbahlk
ˎ bahlk nnkr
kr sujsthtu´
sujsth tuĳ́dk
ĳdk pkr kutrk
k utrk ri- HHH - C rishstˎi`lhc
i`lhc dissi lk`dutkr dhahùh lka k
shstkr,
shstkr, tcaj´
tcajiaía kbahlk,
kˎ bahlk, di rishst
rishstˎi`lhc
iˎ `lhc trˎ
tris
iˎ s vizis cuai`tk dc ddp.
achkr, i qui istigc sujaithdk cf aisac dhniri`l²c
ZKDZHEK \ KYWC I C M^CLHZ TC^CZI\ <6 ˎ

/H N\ YM
Í
(c) sḱ
s´k c cffiracthvc H istć
istć lkrritc.
(j) sḱ
s´k c cffirac
cffiracthv
thvcc HH ist´
istćc lkrritc.
(l) cs cffiracth
cffiracthvcs
vcs H i HH ist˝
istc̋k
ck lkrritcs.
(d) sḱ
s´k c cffiracthvc HHH ist´
istćc lkrritc.
(i) ì`buac dcs cffiracthvcs
cffiracthvcs istć
istć lkrritc.
>. Di clkrdk
clkrdk lka
lka k er
erćffilk
ćffilk di Z3 i Z: dc ffieurc <.3>, Nheurc <.327
dhec qucm k rishstkr tia achkr rishstˎi`lhc.
i`lhc. Gusthffi-
Gusthffi-
qui.
36. Kjsi
Kjsirvrvc`d
c`dkk c tcjimc
tcjimc dc ffieurc
ffieurc <.3
<.38,
8, dit
ditira
irahì
hì
quchs sc̋k
s˝ck ks rishstkris kbahlks
kˎ bahlks i quchs sc̋k
s˝ck ks `c̋k
`˝ck
kˎ bahlks i lk`struc ks er´
kbahlks er cffilks
ćffilks (^CJ x H) pcrc lcdc
rishstkr.
Nheurc <.3>7
5. @k er´
ercffilk
ćffilk dc ffieurc <.35, tiaks c riprisi`tcl²ck c̋˝ k
Nheurc <.387
dk lkapkrtcai
lkapkrtcai`tk `tk di dkhs lk`dutkri
lk`dutkris.s. Imis sc̋k
s˝ck
kˎ bahlks ku `˝
kbahlks kˎ bahlks; Ixhsti cmeuac
`c̋ck-ˎ
k-kbahlks; cmeu ac dhniri`l
dhniri` l²c
i`tri imis; Gusthffiqui. (nkrìl²²cc vcmkris crjhtrćrhks
crjhtrćrhks 33. Lk`l
Lk`lihtui
ihtui rishs
rishstˎ
tˎi`lhc
i`lhc imítrhlc.
imítrhlc.
pcrc c ti`s˝
ti`sck
c̋k i lkrri`ti di akdk c ricmhzcr c rini-
3:. C ri
rishs
shstˎ
tˎi`lhc
i`lhc imítrhlc
imítrhlc di ua ffik lk`dutkr aitćmhlk
aitćmhlk
rhdc c`ćmhsi)
c`ćmhsi)
di lkaprhai`tk m i cricćr
´ ic di sil² c̋ck
˝ k trc`svirscm C í́7
i7
(c) dhrit
dhritcai`
cai`ti
ti prkpkrlhk`c
prkpkrlhk`cmm c C i m.
(j) h`dip
h`dipi`di
i`di di
di C i m.
(l) dhrit
dhritcai`
cai`ti
ti prkpkrlhk`
prkpkrlhk`cc c m i h`virs
h`virscai`
cai`ti
ti
prkpkrlhk`cm c C.
(d) dhritcai`ti prkpkrlhk`cm c C i h`
h`virscai`ti
virscai`ti
prkpkrlhk`cm c m.
Nheurc <.357 3<. dhlc

@uacslbu lbuvihr
pkvihrk
pkshl k̋˝kisim´
shl² kis imvirc̋k
íitrhlk,
trhlk,
vir˝ ck i tia-si
h`vir`k.uac lbcvi qui
\cji`dk-si h`-c
qui
ti`s˝c̋ck
ti`s k cpmhlcdc ck lbuvihrk í́i lk`stc`ti, rispk`dc7
2. Suc`dk
Suc`dk ua dcdk rishst rishstkr
kr k
kbahlk
ˎ bahlk ií´ mhecdk c uac
jctirhc qui mbi cpmhqui uac ti`s ck c̋˝ k di >^, virhffilc- (c) lhrlumc achkr lkrri`ti `k ri
rishstkr
shstkr dk llbuvihrk
buvihrk
si qui imi ií´ pirlkrrhdk pkr uac lkrri`ti di :C. quc`dk c lbcvi ist´
istcć `c pks
pkshl c̋˝ k vir˝
hl² ck virck
c̋k ku h`-
vir`k;
(c) Sucm c rish
rishstiˎ `lhc im´
stˎi`lhc imitrhlc
ítrhlc disti rishstkr; (j) lka c lbcvi `c pkshl² c̋ck
˝ k h`vir`k, c rishstˎii`lhc
`lhc
(j) \i isti rishstkr
rishstkr nkr mhecdk c uac
uac phmbc, qui mbi dk lbuvihr
lbuvihrk k divi sir
sir achkr ku ai`k
ai`kr; r; I k
cpmhlc uac ti`sc̋k
ti`s˝ck di 3,9^, qucm sirć
sirć c lkr- lkaprh
lka prhai`
ai`tk
tk dk ffik qui lk`
lk`sth
sthtuh
tuh c ais
aisac
ac ri-
ri`ti qui k pirlkrri; shst iˎ `lhc;
shstˎi`lhc;
(l) Suc`dk rishstkr íí mhecdk c uac lirtc jc-

Suc`dk isti rishstkr 34. C ffieurc <.:6 aks
akstrctrc ua lcjk timi
timinnk
k`hlk
ˎ `hlk nkracdk
tir
tirhc,
hc, uac lkrri`ti
lkrri`ti di 3,9 3,9C
C pcssc
pcssc pkr imi. pkr dkhs ffiks, si`dk
si`dk qui issi lcjk tia lkaprh lkaprh--
Sucm ií´ c ti`s˝
ti`sck
c̋k qui istc jctirhc cpmhlc skjri ai`tk di 9oa. Lk`stctku-si qui, ia cmeua pk`tk
k rishstkr; ck mkèk dk lkaprhai`tk dissi lcjk, ks ffiks ffi-
zirca lk`tctk imítrhl
imítrhlk
k i`tri sh, klcs
klcshk`c`
hk`c`dk
dk ua
8. K er´
ercffilk
ćffilk dc ffieurc <.32, akstrc lkak vcrhc c lkr- lurtk-lhrluhtk. Vcrc dislkjrhr k pk`tk qui lcusc k
ri`ti imítrhlc
imítrhlc qui
qu i pcssc pkr ua
u a rishstkr,
rishstk r, ia nu`l² ck
c̋˝ k lurtk-lhrluhtk, ua tíl`hlk
tíl`hlk aidi cs rishstˎi`lhcs
i`lhcs i`-
dc ti`s˝
ti`sc̋ck k cpmhlcdc c imi. Ditirahì k vcmkr dc ri- tri cs ixtriahdcdis V i S, i`lk`trc`dk :6 ℮, i i`-
iˎ `lhc im´
shstˎi`lhc
shst imitrhlc
ítrhlc dissi rishstkr. tri cs ixtriahdcdis Z i \, i`lk`trc`dk 26 ℮. Lka

/H N\ YM
Í
jcsi ìssis dcdks, ií´ lkrritk cffiracr qui c dhstˎc`lhc

c`lhc (j) qucm
qucm c h`ti`s
h`ti`shdc
hdcdi
di di lkr
lkrri`
ri`ti
ti qui pcsscr´
pcsscrćc
dcs ixtriahdcdis VS ct´ ctíi k pk`tk qui lcusc k lurtk- pimk sieu`dk ffik;
lhrluhtk íí di7
38. @k lhrluh
lhrluhtk
tk aksakstrc
trcdk
dk `c ffieu
ffieurc
rc <.:
<.::,:, ististc`d
c`dk k mh-
(c) 3,:9o
3,:9oa
a ecdk i`tri ks pk`tks A i @ ua ffik di `´ ` ĳquim-
ĳ́quim-
(j) 4,66oa
4,66oa lrkak, c mihturc dk capir´
capirĳ́aitrk
ĳaitrk íi´ di 3,9C. Dhec
si c h`dhlcl² c̋ck
˝ k dissi capirĳ́aitrk
capir´ĳaitrk sir
sirćć achkr, ai-
(l) 3,66o
3,66oa
a `kr ku heucm c 3,9C si k ffik di `´ ` ĳquim-lrkak
ĳ́quim-lrkak nkr
(d) <,59oa
<,59oa sujsthtuĳ́dk
sujsthtu´
ĳdk pkr kutrk7
(i) :,96o
:,96oa
a
(c) di aisak acactirhc
tirhcm, ć´ri c dc sil² ck
m, di aisac cric c̋˝ k
ritc i di achkr lkaprhai`tk?
(j) di aisak actirhcm,
actirhcm, di aisak lkaprhai`tk
lkaprhai`tk
i achs erkssk qui k prhaihrk?
(l
(l)) di ai aissak lka kap
prha
rhai`tk
i`tk i di ai aisa
sak
k
Nheurc <.:67
dhˎcait
c aitrk
rk qui
qui k prha
prhaih
ihrk
rk,, acs
acs niht
nihtk
k di
cmua´ĳ`hk.
cmua ĳ́`hk.
39. @c ffieurc <.:3 tiaks ua lhrluhlhrluhtk
tk di`kah`cdk
di`kah`cdk di
”mcˎ apcdc s´
”mˎcapcdc sirhi‑,
írhi‑, qui sirvi pcrc hdi`thffilcr c lk`-
thùhdcdi di ua lkapkì`ti. Sucm c dhniri`l²²cc `k
nu`lhk`cai`tk dc mˎ cˎ apcdc, quc`dk ffiziraks c lk-
mcapcdc,
ìxc̋k
ìx˝ ck `c tkacdc,
tkacdc, lk`shdirc`
lk`shdirc`dk
dk qui k nus
nus´ĳvim
ĳ́vim dk
lhrluhtk istigc h`tihrk ku h`tirrkaphdk;
Nheurc <.::7
:6.
:6. L
Lmc
mcss
sshffi
hffiqu
quii ks rish rishst
stkr
kris
is quc`
quc`tk
tk ck acacti
tirh
rhcm
cm
i quc`
quc`tktk ck nu`l nu`lhk
hk`c
`cai
ai`t`tk
k i dhec
dhec quch
quchss cs
ispilhffil
ispi lhffilcl
cl² kis
k̋˝ is rimcthvcs c ua rishstkr.
:3. Diti
Ditirah`c
rah`crr c h`ti`
h`ti`shdc
shdcdi
di di lkrri
lkrri`ti
`ti qui lhrlu
lhrlumc
mc
Nheurc <.:37 pkr uac tkrrcdihrc imítrhlc
imítrhlc qui tia 3>℮ di ri-
iˎ `lhc im´
shstˎi`lhc
shst imitrhlc
ítrhlc i qui nu`lhk`c lka uac ti`s˝
ti`sck
c̋k
di ::6^.
3>. Ya vcmkr imiv
imivcdk
cdk di rishsthvh
rishsthvhdcdi
dcdi di ua actirhcm
actirhcm
h`dhlc qui isti actirhcm ií´ jka ku acu lk`dutkr di ::.
::. Yth
Ythmh
mhzc
zc-s ´ tkdk
-sii k aíitkd k dk vkmt vkmt´ĳ́ĳai
aitrk
trk i dk ca-
imitrhlhdc
imitrhlhdcdi;
di; Sui vcmk
vcmkrr di rishsthvhdcd
rishsthvhdcdii tirhc ua pir´ĳ́ĳaitrk
pir aitrk pcrc aidhr uac rishs rishstˎ
tˎi`lhc
i`lhc dislk`bi
dislk`bilhdc
lhdc
lk`dutkr pirnihtk; I ua hskmc`ti pirnihtk; Z. Mhec-si k capir´
capirĳaitrk
ĳ́aitrk ia s´ sirhi
í rhi lka k rishs-
tkr i mˎii-si
-si 6,<C? k vkmtĳ́aitrk,
vkmt´ĳaitrk, mhecdk ia pcrcmimk
35. Lk`sumtc`dk c tcjimc di rishs
rishsthvhdcdis
thvhdcdis dc cpks
cpksthmc,
thmc,
lka k rishstkr Z, h`dhlc 3,9^. Lcmlumi k vcmkr dc
rispk`dc7
rishstˎi`lhc
i`lhc Z. Isquiacthzi, usc`dk c shajkmkehc
(c) Lk`
Lk`shd
shdirc
irc`dk
`dk k lkjri
lkjri i k tuèstˎ
tuèstˎi`hk,
i`hk, qucm cdiqucdc, k vkmt´
vkmtĳ́atrk
ĳatrk i k capirćapirĳ́aitrk
ĳaitrk di akdk
akd k c
dimis íi´ aimbkr
aimbkr lk`dut
lk`dutkr
kr di imi
imitrh
trhlhd
lhdcdi
cdi;; aidhr lkrritcai`ti c ti`s ti`s˝c̋ckk i c lkrri
lkrri`t `tii `k rish
rishst
stkr
kr
Vkrquˎii;; Z ai`lhk`cdk.
(j) \upk`b
\upk`bcc qui k u`hlk ú`hlk
´ lrhtírhk
lrhtírhk pcrc c islkmbc :<. Vc
Vcrc
rc ua riliptkr
riliptkr di r´
rćdhk
cdhk íi´ ìliss´
ìlissćrhk
crhk lk`struhr
dk actirhcm
act irhcm c sir uscdk `c ` c lk`n
lk`nill
ill²ck
c̋˝ k dks ffiks ua rishstkr di <6℮, usc`dk-si ua ffik di lk`stc`-
di mhec
m hecll²ck
c̋˝ k nkssi k nctk di imi sir jka lk`du- tc` di :, 49aa: di si c̋˝ k. Lcmlumi k lkaprhai`tk
sill² ck.
tkr. @isti lcsk, q qucm
ucm sirhc k actirhcm
ac tirhcm dc fficl
ffi cl²ck
c̋˝ k dk ffik.
im
imítrhlc
ítrhlc ia `ksscs rishdˎ iˎ `lhcs;
rishdi`lhcs;
:4. Ya ffik di lkj
lkjri
ri di rishs iˎ `lhc heucm c 4℮ i tia
rishstti`lhc
32. Yac jjctirh
ctirhcc ac`t´
ac`tía
ia uac ti`sc̋k
ti`s˝ck lk`stc`ti ia ua lkaprhai`tk di 3:6a. Lcmlumi c cricćric
´ dk lk`dutkr
lk`dutkr..
ffik di lkjri `k qucm íí istcjimilhdc uac lkrri`ti di
:C. Isti ffik ií´ sujsthtu´
sujstht uĳ́dk
ĳdk pkr kutrk,
k utrk, tcaj
tc ajía
ía di lk- :9. Diti
Ditirahì
rahì c rrishs
ishstˎ
tˎi`lhc
i`lhc di ua ffik di nirrk qui tia
jri, di aisak lkaprhai`tk acs di dhˎ
dhcaitrk
cˎ aitrk ducs rchk di :aa i lkaprhai`tk di >:,2a.
vizis achkr qui k prhaihrk. Vireu`tc-si7
:>.
:>. Ya lklk`d
`dut
utkr
kr di prct
prctcc ti
tia
a dhˎcait
c aitrk
rk di :a
:aa a i lka-
lka-
(c) c rishst
rishsti`lhc
iˎ `lhc dk sieu`dk ffik íi´ achkr ku ai`kr prhai`tk di <34a. Lcmlumi c rishstˎ
rishstii`lhc
ˎ `lhc im
imítrhlc
ítrhlc dk
dk qui dk prhaihrk; Suc`tcs vizis; lk`dutkr.
ZKDZHEK \ KYWC I C M^CLHZ TC^CZI\ <: ˎ

/H N\ YM
Í
:5. Yac titi`s˝

`sc̋k
ck di :6^ ií´ cpmhlcdc cks tirah`chs di
ua ffik di cmua´
cmuaĳ`hkĳ́`hk di 966a di lkaprhai`tk i
:
:, >aa di cric
ć´ ric di sil² ck
c̋˝ k trc`svirsc
trc`svirscm.
m. Diti
Ditirahì
rahì
c lkrri`ti imítrhlc
imítrhlc qui pirlkrri isti ffik.
:2. Cpmh
Cpmhlc-
lc-si
si uac ti` ti`s˝
sc̋k
ck di 366^
366^ `cs
`cs ixtr
ixtria
iahd
hdcd
cdis
is di
ua ffik di :6a di lkaprhai`tk, lugc ć́r cric c̋˝ k
ic di sil² ck
trc`svirscm ií´ heucm c :aa: . \cji`dk-si qui c lkr-
ri`ti im´
imitrhlc
ítrhlc qui pirlkrri k ffik íí di 36C, lcmlumi c
rishsthvhdcdi dk actirhcm qui lk`sthtuh k lk`dutkr.

ixirlĳlhks
ĳ́lhks ùa´
ùairhlks
írhlks
(c) Z 1 <℮? (j) H 1 6,9C? (l)^cj 1 4,9^
2. (c)
8. Z 1 466℮
ˎ
36. Kbahlks7 3 i :? @˝
@ck kˎ bahlk7 <
c̋k kbahlk7
:3. H 1 3<,59C
3<,59C
::. Z 1 9℮
:<. m 1 3
345a
45a
:4. C 1 93x36√2 a:
:9. Z 1 6, 9℮
:>. Z 1 3, >℮
:5.
:5. H 1 4
4C
C
:2. σ 1 3 Õ 36√> ℮.a
ZKDZHEK \ KYWC I C M^CLHZ TC^CZI\ << ˎ

/H N\ YM
Í

/H N\ YM
Lcp´ĳtumk
Lcp ĳ́tumk 4
iˎ `lhc Im´
Vkti`lhc Imitrhlc
ítrhlc
4.3 ˝ di Vkti`lhc
@kl² kis iˎ `lhc Im´
Imitrhlc
ítrhlc
@k istudk dc dhniri`l²c ²c di pkti`lhcm, vhaks qui c iìr-
ehc istć
istć cssklhcdc c trcjcmbk, ku sigc, iìrehc ií´ c lc-
pclhdcdi qui ua shstiac pkssuh ia ricmhzcr trcjcmbk.
Suc`dk uac nkrl²²cc di qucmquir thpk prkduz akvhai`tk
dhz-si qui ist´
istcć si`dk nihtk ua ditirah`cdk trcjcmbk.
Auhtcs vizis c erc`dizc achs hapkrtc`ti ` ck c̋˝ k íí k trc-
jcmbk ricmhzcdk, qui iquhvcmi cf iìrehc dhspi`dhdc, acs
sha c rcphdiz
rc phdiz lka k shstiac ricmhzc sucs ctrhjuhl
ctrh juhl²kis.k̋˝ is.
Istc rcphdiz ia ricmhzcr ua ditirah`cdk trcjcmbk íí
k qui lbcacaks di ”VKT I@LHC ˎ
I@LHC‑. ‑. Ya shstiac ií´ tc`tk
achs pkti`ti quc`tk ai`kr ií´ k h`tirvcmk di tiapk qui
uthmhzc `c ixilul²ck c̋˝ k di uac aisac tcrinc. Dipi`di`dk
dk shstiac ia istudk, c pktˎ iˎ `lhc riliji di`kah`cl
pkti`lhc di`kah` cl²kisk̋˝ is
dhniri`tis
dhnir i`tis.. Ncmcaks,
Ncmcaks, pkr ixiapmk,
ixiapmk, di pktˎii`lhc `lhc im´
imítrhlc
itrhlc
`ks eircdkris, di pktˎ iˎ `lhc t´
pkti`lhc tirahlc
írahlc `ks cquilidkris i di Nheurc 4.37
pktˎii`lhc
`lhc ailˎc`hlc
c`hlc `cs aćquh`cs
aćquh`cs qui i`vkmvia nkrl n krl²²cs
cs
ailˎc`hlcs.
ail cˎ `hlcs.
Suc`dk ixhsti uac ddp i`tri dkhs pk`tks quchsquir
ùac jcrrceia íi´ trc`snkracdc ia iìrehc lh`´ lhì́thlc
ithlc ck
di ua lhrluhtk imítrhlk
imítrhlk i, ks dkhs pk`tks sc̋k s˝ck h`tirmhecdks
dislir pimc tujumcl² c̋ck.
˝ k. Issc iìr
iìrehc,
ehc, pkr
pkr su
succ viz, íi´ trc
trc`s-
`s-
ctrcvís
ctrcv ís di ua ffik lk`dutkr, cpcrili ua lcapk im´ imitrhlk
ítrhlk
nirhdc pcrc cs b´
bimhlis
ímhlis dc turjh`c dk eircdkr qui, ck ehrcr
`k h`tirhk
h`tirhkrr dk ffik. @issi @issi lcapk
lcapk ks imítrk`s
imítrk`s ffilca su-
sius lk`dutkris ctrcvís
ctrcvís di ua lcapk ace`´
aceì́thlk,
ithlk, prk-
gihtks c nkrl²cs
²cs qui ti`dia c dismkl´ dismklc-mks
ć-mks di uac nkrac
vklc k cpcrilhai`tk di uac lkrri`ti im´ im itrhlc.
ítrhlc. Mivcdc
Mivcdc
krdi`cdc lrhc`dk c lkrri`ti im´ imitrhlc.
ítrhlc. Ck si dismklcr, ks
pkr ffiks lk`dutkris, issc lkrri`ti pirlkrri c mˎccapcdc,apcdc,
im´
imítrk`s
qui itrk`s
istcsmhvris k̋lbklca-si
lkmhskis
lkmhs˝ is riprisi`tca lka pirdc
ks ctkaks
ćtkaks
´ di iìrehc.
dk ffik, si`dk
Mkek, si`dk qui uac iìrehc im´
imíitrhlc
trhlc ií´ trc`snkracdc ia iìr-
ehc t´
tirahlc
írahlc i ffi`cmai`ti ia iìrehc muah`ksc.
istis lbkquis
lbk quis prkvklca
pr kvklca c mmhjirclhjircl² ck
c̋˝ k di uac lirtc quc`-
thdcdi di lcmkr, lcm kr, dc`dk muecr c uac imivcl² ck c̋˝ k di tiapirc- Bkgi ia dhc dipi`diaks di v´ v crhcs
ćrhcs nkracs di iìr-
turc. Dhz-si,
Dhz-si, i`tc̋k,
i`t˝ck, qui istćistć klkrri`dk
klkr ri`dk uac dhsshpcl
dh sshpcl² ck
c̋˝ k ehc i`lk`trcdcs
i`lk`trcdcs `c `cturizc
`cturizc,, lkak c iìr iìrehc
ehc lhì́thlc
lh`íthlc
di pktˎi`lhc.
i`lhc. ´
dcs ceucs
ćeucs dks rhks, dc kjthdc `c quihac di lkajust´
lkajustĳvihs
ĳ́vihs
Suc`dk si ncmc ia lkrri`ti im´ ítrhlc, ií´ ivhdi`ti qui
imitrhlc, nkssihs
ḱ´ ssihs (lcrvc̋k,
(lcrv˝ck, pitrḱmik
pitr´kmik i e´
ećs
cs `cturc
`cturcm).
m). Div
Divhdk
hdk ck is-
ixhsti
ixhs ti nkrl²²cc prkduzh`dk
prkduzh`dk akvhai`tk
akvhai`tk i, cssha, cssha, prkdu-
prkdu- ektcai`tk distcs nk`tis di iìrehc tiai-si uac nuturc
zh`dk trcjcmbk. Diduz-si qui isti ”trcjcmbk im´ ítrhlk‑ íi´
imitrhlk‑ lrhsi iìreíthlc
iìreíthlc.. Vcrc scthsnczi
scthsnczirr cs ìliss
ìlisshdcdi
hdcdiss nutu-
ricmhzcdk pkrqui ixhsti ”iìrehc imítr imítrhlc
hlc‑‑ `c nk`ti.
nk`ti. C rcs di iìrehc íi´ vhtcm disi`vkmviraks nk`tis cmtir`cth-
quc`thdcdi di iìrehc imítrhlc imítrhlc lk`suahdc pkr ua ri- vcs, hdicmai`ti `˝ `ck-pkmui`tis
c̋k-pkmui`tis i ri`kv´
ri`kvcvihs.
ćvihs.
shstkr ií´ siapri heucm ck vcmkr dk trcjcmbk ricmhzcdk `c Cs nkracs
nkracs cmt
cmtir`
ir`cth
cthvc
vcss qui viaiˎ a si`dk
si`dk ist
istudc
udcdcs
dcs
kjt
kjti`li`l² ck
c̋˝ k distc iìrehc. cjrcèia c iìrehc dcs acrís,
acrís, c dks vi`tks (iḱmhlc),
(i´kmhlc), c
ˎ @LHC I M ITZHLC
”V KT I@LHC
I ´ TZHLC I
Í ´ C EZ C@DI W C SYI I R-
Í eiktírahlc
eikt írahlc (dk h`tirhkr dc Tirrc) i c di krheia vieitcm
VZI\\C C ZCVHDIW LKA SYI C I @IZEHC I M ITZHLC ´ TZHLC
Í (dc acdihrc i kutrcs actirhchs kreˎc`hlks)
c `hlks) i dc muz dk
´ LK@ÎZTHDC IA YAC KYTZC NKZAC DI I@IZ-
Í
I skm.
EH C.‑ C dislkjirtc i k disi`vkmvhai`tk di `kvcs nk`tis
Vkr ixiapmk, pcrc cli`dir uac mˎccapcdc, apcdc, ixhsti uac lk`sthtuia cpi`cs uac pcrti dc skmul² c̋ck
˝ k pcrc c lrhsi
´ rh i di trc`
síirhi t rc`snkr
snkracl k̋˝ is di iìrehc.
acl² kis di iìrehc.
iìrehc. Vcrc cap
capmhcr
mhcr c vhdc dcs nk`tis ixhsti`t
ixhsti`tis
is
C iìrehc pkti`lhcm di uac lirtc quc`thdcdi di ć́euc ceuc tcajía
tcaj ía prilhscaks ilk`kahzcr i riuthmhzcr c iìrehc.
<9
H́ TYMK 4 . V KT I@LHC
I ´ TZHLC
Í
4.: ˝ di Vkti`lhc
Diffi`hl² ck iˎ `lhc Im´
Imitrhlc
ítrhlc 3oU
oUb b 1 3oU Õ 3b
3oU
oUbb 1 3666U Õ <>66s
Vktˎii`lhc
`lhc im´
imítrhlc
itrhlc íi´ diffi`hdc pimk quklhi`ti i`tri c iìr- 3oU
oUbb 1 <>66666 Õ U.s
ehc im´
imitrhlc
ítrhlc lk`suahdc i k h`tirvcmk di tiapk ia qui k
cpcrimbk imítrhlk
imítrhlk piracìliu mhecdk.
oU b 1 <, > Õ 36> G
3oUb
˝ k ncl²c
@c̋ck ²c lk`nus˝
lk`nusck
c̋ k i`
i`tr
trii pktiˎ `lhcc i iiì
pkti`lh ìre
rehc
hc.. C
I pktˎii`lhc
`lhc di uac mˎcapcdc
capcdc (46U, >6U, 366U, itl) íi´ cmek
V1 (4.3) lcrcltir´ĳsthlk
lcrcltir ĳ́sthlk dimc pkr´
pkria
ía c iìrehc im´ imitrhlc
ítrhlc lk`suahdc
t
pimc mˎcapcdc
capcdc vch dipi`dir dk h`tirvcmk di tiapk ia
qui imc piracìlir
piracìlir clisc.clisc. @k lcsk, pkr ixiap ixiapmk,
mk, di
V 7 Vktˎi`lhc
i`lhc Imítrhlc
Imítrhlc - u`hdcdi7 U (Uctt)
uac iìrehc im´ imitrhlc
ítrhlc heucm c 3 oUb, pkdir´ pkdir ĳcaks
ĳ́caks cffiracr
I 7 I`
Iìr
ireh
ehcc imítrhlc
imítrhlc lk`suahdc ku trcjcmbk imítrhlk
imítrhlk qui isti `ĳ́vim
`´ĳvim di lk
lk`suak
`suak klk klkrrirrrirć́c ìlisscrhcai`ti `k
ricmhzcdk - u`hdcdi7 G (Gkumi) tiapk di di 3 bkrc; Lmcr Lmcrk
k qui `˝ `ck,
c̋k, pkhs hr´
hrcć dipi`dir dc
pktˎii`lhc
`lhc im´
imítrhlc
itrhlc dk cpcrimbk c`cmhscdk.
t 7 Tiapk ecstk `c ricmhzcl²ck
c̋˝ k dk trcjcmbk - u`hdcdi7 \i nkr ua cpcrimbk im´ im itrhlk
ítrhlk di 3666U (3oU), lk`su-
s (sieu`dks) ah`dk uac iìrehc di 3oUb, lirtcai`ti, imi prilhscrhc
ffilcr mhecdk
mhecdk durc`ti 3 bkrc. Acs, si nkssi ua cpcrimbk
Kutrc u`hdcdi di pktˎi`lhc,
i`lhc, tcajía
tcajía auhtk uscdc `c di :oU, lk`suah`dk c aisac quc`thdcdi di iìrehc,
prćthlc, ií´ 3 lcvcmk-vcpkr (L^). Istc u`hdcdi nkh prk-
prćthlc, jcstcrhc qui imi piracìlissi mhecdk durc`ti 6,9 bkrc.
pkstc pkr Gcais Uctt i iquhvcmi, cprkxhacdcai`ti, c @k lcsk di ua cpcrimbk im itrhlk í´ trhlk lk`suah`dk tcaj´ tcajia
ía
5<> U. Gcais Uctt lkapcrku c pkt i`lhc iˎ `lhc dc a´
acquh`c
ćquh`c 3oUb `k tiapk di 4 bkrcs, qucm divirhc sir k vcmkr di
suc pktˎ
pktii`lhc
ˎ `lhc imimítrhlc;
ítrhlc; Mkehlcai`
Mkehlcai`ti, ti, c pkt
pktˎii`lhc
ˎ `lhc divirhc
c`cvc
vcpkrpkr,, h`vi
ipklc,
í´ pklc, h`vi`tc
`tcdc
irca dc pkr pcrc
uscdks imi, rithrcr
lka cćeuc
´ dks dcs
ceuc lcvcmk
lcvcmks s qui
ah`csqui,
di, sir heucm c :96U (6,:9oU).
lcrv˝ck.
lcrv c̋k. îrhffilku qui ua lcvcmk nkrti irc lcpcz di sus-
pi`dir ua pisk di 59 oen c 3a di cmturc ia 3 sieu`dk. Ixiapmk
Ixiapm k 4.3 7 Ya cquilidkr imítrhlk
imítrhlk nkh mhecdk ùac
@ks pc´ pcĳsis
ĳ́sis di m´
mĳèuc
ĳ́èuc hèmisc usc-si uac u`hdcdi, prc- lirtc ridi, di akdk qui imi disi`vkmviu uac pktˎi`lhc
i`lhc
thlcai`ti heucm c 3lv, di`kah`cdc 3bp (bkrsi pkwir). im
imítrhlc
ítrhlc di 9666U. \cji`dk-si qui imi piracìliu mh-
@ks aktkris hapkrtcdks distis pc´ pcĳsis
ĳ́sis c pktˎ
pkti`lhc
iˎ `lhc via ecdk durc`ti <6 ahùtks, ditirahì k vcmkr7
ia BV.
3. dc iìreh
iìrehcc im´
imitrhlc
ítrhlc ia gkumis?
3L^ 1 5<>U :. dc iìre
iìrehc
hc im´
imítrhlc
itrhlc ia oUb?
<. dk lustk dissc iìrehc,

iìrehc, lk`shdirc`dk
lk`shdirc`dk qui c tcrhnc
3BV 1 54>U vcmi Z $6, 49/oU
oUbb.
C pktˎi`lhc
i`lhc imítrhlc
imítrhlc ií´ aidhdc pkr ua h`struai`tk lbc- V 1 9666U 1 9oU
acdk wctt´
wcttĳaitrk
ĳ́aitrk qui h`dhlc c pktˎ iˎ `lhc h`stc`tˎ
pkt i`lhc cˎ ìc ia
h`stc`tcìc I 1;
Lustk 1;
Uctts.
Tkac`dk-si
Tkac`dk- si c iqucl
i qucl² c̋ck
˝ k 4.3 i lkmklc`dk ia ivhdˎi`lhc
i`lhc t 1 3266s 1 6, 9b
c iìrehc tia-si7 I 1 V Õ t 1 9666U Õ 3266s
I 1 8666 Õ 36< G
I 1 V Õt
I 1 9oU Õ 6, 9b
Vcrc ´ mlumk
Vcrc lćcmlumk dc iìr
iìreh ehcc lk
lk`s
`sua
uahd hdcc ( ia G ) aumt
aumthp
hpmh
mhlc
lc-- I 1 :, 9oUb
oU b
si c pktˎi`lhc
i`lhc (ia
( ia U) pimk pim k tiapk di kpircl
kpirc l²ck
c̋˝ k dk cpcri-
mbk ( ia s ). @k i`tc`t
i`tc`tk, k, pcrc lć́mlumk di iìrehc, pcrc LY\TK 1 I Õ Tcrhnc
lcmlumk
ffi`s di lkairlhchs, usc-si k Suhmkwctt.bkrc (oUb) `k LY\TK 1 :, 9oU oUb b Õ Z$6, 96/oU oUb b 1 Z$3, :9
muecr dk Gkumi.
Istc
Istc u`h
u`hdcd
dcdii (oUb)
(oUb) ií´ kjt kjthdc
hdc,, aum
aumthp
thpmhl
mhlc`dc`dk-s
k-sii c
pktˎi`lhc
i`lhc ia Suhmkwctts (oU) pimk tiapk ia bkrcs (b),
4.< ^cmk cmkri
riss @ka
@kah`c h`chs hs
lk`nkrai c sieuhr7 @c achkachkrh rhcc dks
dks iquh
iquhpc
pcai
ai`t `tks
ks imímít
itrhrhlk
lkss ixhs
ixhsti
ti c
h`
h`dhdhlc c̋˝ k di vcmkris di ti`s˝
lcll²ck ti`sckc̋ k i pktˎ iˎ `lhc (^KMT\ I
pkti`lhc
G 1 U Õs UCTT\). Iquhpcai`tks imítr imítrhlk
hlkss lug
lugcc ”ti`s˝
”ti`sc̋k
ck `kah`
`kah`cm‑
cm‑
ií´ ::6^ nkrca prkgitcdks pcrc trcjcmbcr ia ridis di
oU
oUb b 1 oU Õ b ::6^. K vcmkr `kah`cm ia UCTT\, she`hffilc c rczc̋k rcz˝ck si-
eu`dk c qucm, c iìrehc im íitrhlc
´ trhlc ií´ trc`snkracdc `kutrc
Ixhsti
Ixhs ti uac rimrimcl c̋˝ k i`tri k oUb i k gkumi, ku sigc7
cl²ck nkrac di iìrehc, tcm lkak lcmkr i muz.
ZKDZHEK \ KYWC I C M^CLHZ TC^CZI\ <> ˎ

/H N\ YM
I ´ TZHLC
Í
Suc`tk achs rćphdcrćphdc uac mˎcapcdc

capcdc trc`snkrac iìr- k trcjcmbk imítrhlk
imítrhlk U pcrc dismklcr uac lcrec imítrhlc
imítrhlc q
ehc im´
imíitrhlc
trhlc ia muz, achkr sirsirćć k jrhmbk.
jrhmbk. Cssha,
Cssha, uac dk pk`tk C pcrc k pk`tk J íi´ dcd
dcdkk pcm
pcmcc sieuh
sieuh`ti
`ti iqucl
i qucl² c̋ck7
˝ k7
cˎ apcdc h`lc`disli`ti di 366U nkrìlir´
mcapcdc nkrìlircć achs muz qui
uac kutrc mˎcapcdc
capcdc h`lc`disli`ti di 59U. 59U. U 1 ^ Õq
@k lcsk di mˎ cˎ apcdcs, ks vcmkris `kah`chs s ck
mcapcdcs, c̋˝ k c suc
\cji`dk-si qui pktˎ iˎ `lhc í́i c rimc
pkti`lhc c̋˝ k i`tri k trcjcmbk ri-
ri mcll² ck
pktˎii`lhc
`lhc i ti`s˝
ti`sc̋k
ck cdiqucdc.
cdiqucdc. Acs si v vklˎ
klˎi nkr lkaprcr
cmhzcdk (ku iìrehc lk`suahdc) i k tiapk trc`slkrrhdk
ua rishstkr, quchs sirhca ks vcmkris qui divia sir nkr-
(V 1 Ut ) tia-si7
ìlhdks
ìlhd
ia ks ck vi`didkr;
UCTT\ vi`di
i iadkr;
KBA\. Ks rishstkris
rishstkris sc̋k
Zishstkris s˝ck
di ispilhffilcdks
aisak vcmkr U ^ Õq
di rishstˎiˎ `lhc s˝
rishsti`lhc sck
c̋k dhspk`´
dhspk`ĳvihs
ĳ́vihs ia dhniri`tis vcmkris di V1 1
t t
pktˎii`lhc.
`lhc. Zishstkris
Zishstkris di lc lcrv˝
rvc̋k,
ck, pkr ixiapmk, sc̋k
s˝ck `kr-
acmai`ti nihtks pcrc 3/2, 3/4, 3/:, m i : wctts. Lk`shdirc`dk qui7 H 1 qt 7
Suc`tk achkr nkr k tcac`bk dk rishstkr di lcrvc̋k, lcrv˝ck,
achkr sir´
sircć c suc pktˎ iˎ `lhc `kah`cm, uac viz qui uac
pkti`lhc
erc`di quc`thdcdi di actirhcm cjskrvirć
cjskrvirć i dhsshpcrć
dhsshpcrć lc-
V1^ ÕH (4.:)
mkr achs nclhmai`ti.
V 7 Vktˎi`lhc
i`lhc Imctrhlc - u`hdcdi7 Uctt ku U
^ 7 Ti`sc̋k
Ti`s˝ck - u`hdcdi7 vkmt ku ^
H 7 Lkrri`ti - u`hdcdi7 Capf

Capiri
if ri ku C
Lka gć
gć nkh istudcdk
istudcdk,, c ri
rimcl
mcl² c̋ck
˝ k i`tri ti`s˝
ti`sc̋k
ck i lkrri`ti
^
`k rishstkr íí dcdk pimc mih di kba7 Z
ti`s˝ck7 ^ 1 Z Õ H 1 H
Hskmc`dk-si c ti`sc̋k7
\ujsthtuh`dk-si ^ `c ` c iqu
i qucl
cl² c̋ck
˝ k 4.: tiaks7
V 1 (Z Õ H ) Õ H
Mkek7
V 1 Z Õ H: (4.<)
Cekrc, si `c iqucl² c̋ck

˝ k dc mih di kba nkr hskmcdc c lkr-
^
ri`ti7 H 1 Z
\ujsthtuh`dk-si
\ujstht uh`dk-si `c iqucl² c̋ck
˝ k 4.: tiaks7
^
V1^ Õ
Nheurc 4.:7 Cmeu`s rishstkris i sucs pktˎii`lhcs

`lhcs `kah`chs Z
Mkek7
Suc`dk si usc iìrehc im´ imitrhlc
ítrhlc ia ua actirhcm lka
rishstˎi`lhc,
i `lhc, imc ií´ trc`snkr
trc`snkracdacdcc ia lcm lcmkr
kr.. Suc`dk
Suc`dk bćbć
achkr pktˎ iˎ `lhc `k actirhcm, c rcz˝
pkti`lhc rcz ck
c̋ k sieu`dk c qucm c
^:
iìrehc imítrhlc
imítrhlc íi´ trc`snkracdc ia lcmkr cuai`tc i c V1 (4.4)
Z
tiapircturc
tiapi rcturc dk actirhcm lrisli. lrisli. \i c tiapi
tiapircturc
rcturc lris-
lir auhtk,
auhtk, k actirh
actirhcm cm pkdir´
pkdirćc quihacr divhdk ck lc-
mkr
mkr. Vkr
Vkr istc
istc rc
rczzck,
c̋˝ k, tkdks
tkdks ks thp thpks
ks di iquhpc
iquhpcai` tks 4.
ai`tks 4.9 9 In Inih ihtk
tk Gkum
Gkumii
im´
imitrhlks
ítrhlks s˝
sck
c̋k ispilhffilcdks pcrc uac pktˎ iˎ `lhc a´
pkti`lhc acxhac.
ćxhac.
Istc ispilh
is pilhffilcl ˝ k pkdi sir ia UCTT\ ku auhtcs vizis @ua lhrluhtk lkapkstk cpi`cs di ffiks lk`dutkris i ri-
ffilcl² c̋ck
ia TI@\CK ˝
C̋K I LKZZI@TI a´ ćxhacs, k qui inithvc- shstkris (lhrluhtk rishsthvk), c iìrehc im´
acxhacs, imitrhlc
ítrhlc cjskrvhdc
ai`ti dćdć c ispilh
is pilhffilcl
ffilcl² c̋ck
˝ k ia wctts. ií´ trc`snkracdc ia iìrehc tírahl tírahlcc (lcmkr).
(lcmkr). Suc`dk
Suc`dk c
lkrri`ti imítrhl
imítrhlcc prkduz
prkduz lcmkr
lcmkr,, dhz-s
dhz-sii qui istcaks `c
pri
prisi`si`ll² c dk Inihtk Gkumi.
4.4 Nḱ
kraumcs
´ raumcs di Vkti`lhc
iˎ `lhc Im´
Imitrhlc
ítrhlc aks Lkak
lhtcr ixiapmks di cpm
cpmhlcl
cmeu`s cpcrimbks hlcl² c̋ck
˝ k dk inihtk
imitrkdka
imitrkdka´ Gkumi,
ísthlks
isthlks pkdi-
di cquilh-
Lk`shdiri ua rishstkr di rishstˎi`lhc
i`lhc imítrhlc
imítrhlc Z, sujai- ai`tk tchs lkak c tkrrcdihrc, k lbuvihrk, k silcdkr di
thdk c uac dhniri`l²c
²c di pkti`lhcm ^ i pirlkrrhdk pkr lcjimks,
lcji mks, k nirrk di pcsscr rkupcs
rkupcs i c istunc.
istunc. Ia eircm
uac lkrri`ti im´
imitrhlc
ítrhlc H . \cjia
\cjiaks,
ks, dc imitrkst
imitrkstćthlc,
ćthlc, qui c̋˝ k lk`sthtu´
sck lk`sthtuĳdks
ĳ́dks di uac mhec ait´
aitcmhlc
ćmhlc (`hlrkak), c qucm

/H N\ YM
I ´ TZHLC
Í
`˝
`c̋k
ck si kxhdc (i `c̋k `˝ck si tkr`c quijrcdhl²c) ²c) quc`dk c lkr- ´H́AITZK. Cmeu`s ixiapmks pkdia sir kjsirvc-
UCTTHAITZK.
ri`ti imímitrhlc
ítrhlc c cquili ck rujrk. dks `c ffieurc 4.4.
Gćc´ scjiaks qui c pkt pktˎi`lhc
iˎ `lhc dipi`di dc rishstˎ
rishstii`lhc
ˎ `lhc i
:
dc lkrri`ti (V 1 Z Õ H ). \i dkj dkjrcr
rcraks
aks c rishst iˎ `lhc
rishstˎi`lhc
pkdir´ĳcaks
pkdir ĳ́caks pi`scr
pi`scr qui c pktˎii`lhc `lhc cuai`tcrhc
cuai`tcrhc pkría
pkría
hstk lcusc c ridul²ck c̋˝ k dc lkrri`ti cf aitcdi i, lkak imc
istćc imivcdc ck qucdrcdk ( H : ), isti nctkr dhahùhrć
ist´ dhahùhrć c ua
qucrtk, nczi`dk lka qui c pktˎ pkti`lhc

iˎ `lhc dhahùc fc aitcdi.
cˎ apcdc h`lc`disli`ti7 Lk`stc di ua ffimcai`tk di
Mcapcdc
tuèstˎii`hk
`hk isphrcmcdk qui si cquili quc`dk pirlkrrhdk
pkr uac lkrri`ti im´ imíitrhlc,
trhlc, ct
ctíí tkr`cr-si h`lc`disli`ti.
Suc`tk achkr c tiapircturc dk ffimcai`tk, achkr c quc`-
thdcdi di iìrehc imítrhlc
imítrhlc trc`snkracdc ia iìrehc muah-
`ksc.
Vkr issc rcz˝
rczck
c̋k uthmhzc-si k tuèstˎ
tuèsti`hk iˎ `hk lkak ffimcai`tk
g´
gćc qui pkssuh cmtk pk`tk di nusc̋knus˝ck (<466kL). Nheurc 4.47 Ucttĳ́aitrk7
ctt´ĳaitrk7 dhehtcm (isq.) i c`cmḱ
kehlk
´ ehlk (dhr.)
@c mˎcapcdc
capcdc via ercvcdc c pktˎi`lhc i`lhc i c ti`sc̋k
ti`s˝ck `kah-
`cm (Ix7 46U-::6^). C muah`kshdcdi dc mˎ cˎ apcdc ist´
m capcdc istćc @c ffieur ffieurcc 4.9 4.9 ti tiak
akss c ripr
ripris isi`
i`tc ˝ k di ua
tcll² c̋ck
rimclhk`cdc lka c ti`sc̋k ti`s˝ck qui riliji, si`dk qui uac wcttĳ́aitrk.
wctt´
ĳaitrk. Virliji-si qui imi pkssuh quctrk tirah`chs,
cˎ apcdc di ffimcai`tk trc`snkrac, `k a´
mcapcdc acxhak,
ćxhak, 36% dc si`dk dkhs tirah`chs di lkrri`ti i ks kutrks dkhs, tirah-
iìrehc imítrhlc
imítrhlc lk`suahdc ia muz i`quc`tk qui ks ris- `chs di ti`s˝
ti`sc̋ck.
k.
tc`tis 86% trc`snkraca-si ia lcmkr. Vcrc si aidhr c pktˎi`lhc i`lhc dhsshpcdc pkr ua cquili-
dkr im´ ítrhlk lkaua, pkdiaks uthmhzcr k UCTT´HAITZK
imitrhlk H́AITZK
(aít
(aítkd
kdk k dhri
dhritk
tk)) ku i`t˝
i`tc̋k,
ck, ua ^KM
^KMT T´H́HAIT
AITZ ZK i ua CA CA--
4.> ˝ di Vkti`lhc
Aidhl² ck iˎ `lhc Im´
Imitrhlc
ítrhlc ´H́AITZK (a
VIZHAITZK ( aíitkdk
´ tkdk h`dhritk).
Cs rishdˎi`lhcs,
i`lhcs, eircmai`ti, rilijia iìrehc imítrhlc imítrhlc dc
ridi urjc`c.
urjc`c. I`tritc`tk
I`tritc`tk,, c`tis dissc dissc iìrehc
iìrehc sir dhs-
trhjuĳ́dc
trhju´ĳdc pimc lcsc, imc divi pcssc pimk aidhdkr di iìr-
ehc, k qucm riehstrc c quc`thdcdi di iìrehc im itrhlc í´ trhlc lk`-
suahdc pimc h`stcmcl² c̋ck.
˝ k.
@c ffieurc 4.< ií´ cprisi`tcdk ua aidhdkr di iìrehc
k qucm ií´ di`kah`cdk di UCTT-BKZCAITZK. ˎ @isti
h`struai`tk
h`strua i`tk di aidhl² ckc̋˝ k di iìrehc im´ imitrhlc
ítrhlc ixhsti ua
dhslk qui ehrc ehrc ùa pmc`k bkrhzk`tcm
bkrhzk`tcm.. C nriquˎi`lhc i`lhc di Nhe
Nheurc
urc 4.97
4 .97 Aidh
Aidhll² c̋ck
˝ k di pkt
pktˎii`lhc
ˎ `lhc
c̋˝ k disti dhslk ist´
rktcl² ck istcć cssklhcdc cf iìrehc lk`suahdc
pimk usućr
usućrhk
hk,, ai
aidh
dhdc
dc ia oUb. oUb. C ”lk`t ”lk`tcc di muz” muz” íi´
lkjrcdc ai`scmai`ti
ai`scmai` ti iai a nu`l c̋˝ k dk lk`suak, qui ií´ c
n u`l²ck
dhniri`l²²cc i`tri cs ducs mihturcs, nihtcs lka ua h`tirvcmk Ixirl´ĳlhks
Ixirl ĳ́lhks
di tiapk di trh`tc dhcs.
3. Yac pisskc
pisskc virh
virhffilc
ffilc qui k sisiuu lbu
lbuvi
vihrk
hrk im´
imítrhlk
itrhlk
˝ k istcć´ cq
`c̋ck cqui
uili
li`d
`dkk suffil
suffilhi
hi`t
`tia
iai`
i`ti ć´ euc.
ti c ceuc.
\cji`dk-si qui c ti`sc̋k
ti`s˝ck cpmhlcdc ck lbuvihrk íi´
lk`stc`ti, rispk`dc7
(c) Vcrc ccuai`

uai`tcr
tcr c pktˎi`lhc
i`lhc dk lbuvihrk, c lkr-
ri`ti qui pcssc ctrcv´
ctrcvíiss dimi divi sir cuai`-
tcdc ku dhahù´
dhahùĳ́dc;
ĳdc;
(j) I`t
I`t˝ck
c̋k pcrc qui bcgc achkr cquilhai`tk dc
ćceuc,
´ euc, c pisskc divir´
divirćc cuai`tcr ku dhahùhr
c rishstˎiˎ `lhc dk lbuvihrk;
rishsti`lhc
(l) Css
Cssha,
ha, quc`dk
quc`dk c lbc lbcvi
vi di ua lbuvi hrk íi´
lbuvihrk
dismklcdc dc pkshl² c̋ck
˝ k ”h`vir`k‑ pcrc ”vir˝
”virc̋k‑,
ck‑,
Nheurc 4.<7 Uctt-bkrˎccaitrk
aitrk
istcaks cuai`tc`dk ku dhahùh`dk suc ri-
shstˎi`lhc;
i`lhc;
Ia cmeu`s lcsks, k qui h`tirissc íí c iìrehc pkr si-
eu`dk, ku sigc, k vcmkr dc pkt i`lhc
iˎ `lhc im´
imitrhlc
ítrhlc i, ìstis :. Ya gkvia
gkvia audku-
audku-sisi dc lhdcdi
lhdcdi di Zhk Erc`
Erc`di
di
iˎ `lhc di`kah`cdk
lcsks rilkrri-si ck aidhdkr di pkt i`lhc (336^) pcrc Vimktcs (::6^), trczi`dk lk`shek ua

/H N\ YM
I ´ TZHLC
Í
cquilidkr im
cquilidkr imí́itrh
trhlk
lk,, lugc
lugc ddp
ddp `kah
`kah`c
`cmm ií´ 336^
336^.. (l) suj
sujsthsthtuh
tuhrr k rishst
rishstkr
kr pkr kutrk di ach
achkr
kr ri-
\cji`dk-si qui c ti`s˝ ti`sck
c̋k dc ridi di Vimktcs íí k dk- shstˎi`lhc.
shst iˎ `lhc.
jrk dc ti`s˝
ti`sck c̋k dc ridi di Zhk Erc`di, imi sujsthtuhu (d) sujs
sujsthtuhr
thtuhr k ffik dk rishstkr
rishstkr pkr ua di aisak
k rishstkr
rishstkr dk cquilidkr
cquilidkr pkr kutrk. Sucm divi divi sir lkaprha
lkap rhai`tk
i`tk i aisa c̋˝ k trc`svirscm, acs
aisacc sil² ck
c ri
rimc c̋˝ k i`tri cs rishstˎ
mcll²ck iˎ `lhcs pcrc qui c pktˎ
rishsti`lhcs iˎ `lhc
pkti`lhc di ai`kr rishsthvhdcdi.
`c̋k
`˝ck si cmtiri;
(i)
(i) sujs
sujsth
thtu
tuhr
hr k ffik dk rish rishst
stkr
kr pkr
pkr kutr
kutrk
k di
<. Ducs
Ducs mˎcapcdcs
capcdcs M3 i M: pkssuia vcmkris `kah`chs aisak actirhcm i aisak lkaprhai`tk, acs
di rispilthvcai`ti, 366U-336^ i 366U - ::6^. di achk
a chkrr sil
si l² c̋ck
˝ k trc`svirscm.
Lk`shdirc`dk-si k ixpkstk, cssh`cmi lka ”^‑ cs
cffiracthvcs virdcdihrcs i lka ”N‑ cs cffiracthvcs >. Wizh`
Wizh`bk,
bk, qui
quiri`
ri`dkdk lkmlkmcjk
cjkrcr
rcr lka k ekvekvir`
ir`kk `k
ncmscs7 si`thdk di ilk`kahzcr iìrehc imítrhlc,
imítrhlc, trklku siu
lbuvihrk di vcmkris `kah`chs 336^ - <666U pkr
(c
(c)) ( ) si M3 nkr nkr mhmhec
ecdc
dc `c ridi
ridi di Vimk
Vimktc
tcss kutrk di ::6^ - <666U. \cji`dk-si qui ia suc
(::6^), imc hr´
hrcć quihacr. ú´ `hlc ridi di 336^, pkdiaks dh-
lcsc ixhsti uac u`hlc
(j) ( ) si M: nkr
nkr mhecmhecdc
dc `c
`c ridi
ridi di
di Vkrtk
Vkrtk Cmieri
Cmieri zir qui imi tirć
tirć ua lk`suak di iìrehc im´ imítrhlc7
itrhlc7
(336^)) imc hr cć´ quihacr.
(336^
(c) hdiˎ `thlk ck c`tirhkr
hdˎi`thlk
(l)
(l) ( ) si M
M33 nkr mhe
mhecd
cdcc ia Vkr
Vkrtk
tk Cmi
Cmier
erii i M:
ia Vimktcs, imcs tirc̋k
tir˝ck c aisac pktˎi`lhc.
i`lhc. (j) ducs v
vizis
izis achkr
achkr
(d) ( ) mhec`
mhec`dk-
dk-si
si M: `c ridridii di
di V
Vkrt
krtk
k Cmie
Cmieri,
ri, (l) c aitcd
aitcdii dk vcmkr c`tirhkr
c`tirhkr
suc pktˎiˎ `lhc sir´
pkti`lhc sircć h`nirhkr c 366U. (d) quctr
quctrk
k vizi
viziss achkr
4. C ffieurc 4.> akstrc,
akstrc, isquiacthlcai
isquiacthlcai`ti,
`ti, k shstiac
shstiac (i) ua qucrtk dk vcmkr c`tirhkr
c`tirhkr..
di cquilhai`tk di ua lbuvihrk imítrhlk,
imítrhlk, k`di c 5. Ya gkvi
gkviaa lcscm h`stcm
h`stcmku
ku ia suc lcsc uac dulbc
lbcvi \ pirah
lbcvi pirahti
ti similhk`c
similhk`crr k akdk di kpircl c̋˝ k
kpircl²ck
(nr
(nrhk,
hk, akr`k ku qui`ti
qui`ti)) dk lbuv
lbuvihr
ihrk.
k. Vc
Vcrc
rc tcm, k im
imítrhlc
ítrhlc akdir`c di 5566U/ ::6^. @k i`tc`tk, ks
pkshlhk`cai`tk lkrritk dc lbcvi sir´
sircć dcdk pkr7 gkvi`s virhffilcrca, dishmudhdks, qui tkdc viz qui
mhecvca c dulbc `c pktˎ iˎ `lhc a´
pkti`lhc acxhac,
ćxhac, discracvc-
nrhk akr`k qui`ti
si k dhsgu`tkr. Vriti`dhca ctí ctí rilkmklcr `k muecr k
(c) H HH HHH vimbk lbuvihrk di <<66U/::6^, qui ù`lc ncmbku.
Nimhzai`ti, ua cahek, qui irc tíl`hlk, tíl`hlk, ks sklkr-
(j) HHH H HH
riu. \ujs
\ujsthtuhu
thtuhu ks lk`dutkris
lk`dutkris i k vimbk vimbk dhsgu`tkr
dhsgu`tkr
(l) HH HHH H pkr kutrk, di acìhrc qui c dulbc nu`lhk`cssi `kr-
(d) H HHH HH acmai`
acm ai`ti.
ti. Cssh`c
Cssh`cmi
mi c u`hlc
ú´ `hlc cmtir`cthvc qui dis-
(i) HHH HH H lrivi lkrritcai`ti k prklidhai`tk dk cahek.
(c) \ujs
\ujsthtuhu
thtuhu k vimbk dhsgu`tkr
dhsgu`tkr di <6C pkr ua
`kvk, di :6C.
(j) \ujs
\ujsthtuhu
thtuhu k vimbk dhsgu`tk
dhsgu`tkrr di :6 C pkr ua
`kvk, di 46C.
(l) \ujs
\ujsthtuhu
dhsgu`tkr di 36C pkr ua
`kvk, di 46C.
(d) \ujs
\ujsthtuhu
dhsgu`tkr di :6C pkr ua
`kvk, di <6C.
Nheurc 4.>7 (i) \ujs
\ujsthtuhu
dhsgu`tkr di 46C pkr ua
`kvk, di :6C.
9. K prkpr
prkprhit´
hitćrhk
crhk di uac lc`th`c virhffilku qui ks cmh-
ai`tks lkmklcdks `k h`tirhkr di uac istunc im´ imitrhlc
ítrhlc 2. Vc
Vcrc
rc kjtir
kjtir c pktˎii`lhc
`lhc di ua cpcrimbk im´
imítrhlk,
itrhlk, ua
ir
irca
ca cquilh
cquilhdk dkss ia diacsh
diacshc. c. Vcrc
Vcrc dhah
dhahù
ùhrhr c istudc`ti sieuhu istis prklidhai`tks7
tiapircturc
tiapi rcturc dissc istunc, imi pkdir´ pkdirćc nczir vćrhcs
vćrhcs
• dismheku tkdks ks cpcrimbks imítrhlks
imítrhlks di suc
ak
akdhdhffil
ffilcl k̋˝ is `c rishstˎ
cl² kis iˎ `lhc di siu rishstkr
rishsti`lhc rishstkr.. I`tri
lcsc, ixlitk uac mˎ cˎ apcdc di 366U i kutrc
mcapcdc
cs kp
kpll²k̋
kis
˝ is sieuh`tis cssh`cmi cquimc qui k mivcr´ mivcrćc c
di >6U? kjsirvku, i`tc̋k,
i`t˝ck, qui k dhsl
dhslk
k dk ai-
kjtir k risumtcdk disigcdk7
dhdkr, mivku 2s pcrc initucr 36 vkmtcs?
(c) lkrtcr
lkrtcr ua pidcl²²k
k qui ffik qui lk`sthtuh
lk`sthtuh k ri- • cpceku cs ducs mˎ cˎ apcdcs i mheku cpi`cs k
mcapcdcs
shstkr. cpcrimbk di pktˎii`lhc
`lhc dislk`bilhdc. Lka hssk
(j) sujsth
sujsthtuh
tuhrr k ris
rishst
hstkr
kr pkr kutrk di ai`kr
ai`kr ri- virhffilku qui k dhslk dk aidhdkr mivku 4s
shstiˎ `lhc.
shstˎi`lhc. pcrc ricmhzcr 36 vkmtcs.

/H N\ YM
I ´ TZHLC
Í
K istudc`ti lcmlumku lkrritcai`ti c pktˎi`lhc

i`lhc dk 34.
34. Ya
Yacc li lirt
rtcc mˎcapcdc
capcdc pksspkssuhuh ks sieuh`ti
sieuh`tiss vcmkris
vcmkris
cpcrimbk, i`lk`trc`dk7 `kah`c
`ka h`chs7
hs7 366U
366U-::-::6^
6^.. Cda
Cdahth
hth`dk
`dk qui suc ri-
iˎ `lhc sigc lk`stc`ti, ditirahì k vcmkr distc ri-
shstˎi`lhc
shst
(c
(c)) 26 U shstˎii`lhc,
`lhc, dc pktˎii`lhc
`lhc im´
imítrhlc
itrhlc i dc lkrri`ti qui lhr-
(j) 3>6U
3>6U lumc, supk`dk qui c mˎ cˎ apcdc ist´
mcapcdc istcć lkìltcdc c uac
(l) :46 U ridi di7
(d) <:6 U
(i) 426 U (c) ::6
::6^
^
(j) :66^
:66^
8. C pktˎ
pktˎi`lhc
i`lhc V di ua lbuvihrk imítrhlk,
imítrhlk, mhecdk c uac
ridi dka´dkaisthlc
ísthlc di ti`s˝c̋ k ^ 1 ::6^, ií´ dcdc pkr
ti`sck 39. Ya ffik di ririshs
shstˎ
tˎi`lhc
i`lhc imítrhlc
imítrhlc heucm c 966℮ íi´ suj-
^:
V 1 Z , k`di c rishstˎi`lhc i`lhc imítrhlc
imítrhlc Z dk lbuvihrk íi´ aithdk c uac dhniri`l²c di pkti`lhcm di :6^ :6^.. Sucm
prkpkrlhk`cm ck lkaprhai`tk dk rishstkr. C ti`s˝ ti`sck
c̋k c iìrehc dhsshpcdc `k ffik ia ua ahùtk;
^ i c lkrri`ti H `k lbuvihrk istc̋k ist˝ck rimclhk`cdcs pimc
c̋˝ k ^ 1 Z Õ H . Disigc-si cuai`tcr c pktˎ
rimcl² ck iˎ `lhc
pkt i`lhc 3>. Ya nnkr`k
kr`k im
imítrhlk iˎ `lhc lk`stc`ti) ií´ vi`dhdk
ítrhlk (rishstˎ
(rishsti`lhc
dk lbuvih
lbuvihrk rk audc`d
audc`dk k cpi`cs
cpi`cs k lkaprh
lkaprhaiài`tktk dk ri- lka c sieuh`ti h`dhlcl² c̋ck74oU-336^.
˝k74oU-336^.
shstkr.
(c) Diti
Ditirahì
rahì c iìrehc
iìrehc (ia gkumis i ia oUb)
(c) Ck cuai
cuai`tc iˎ `lhc, c ceuc
`tcrr c pktˎ
pkti`lhc, ć´ euc ffilcr´
ffilcrcć achs lk`suahdc pimk nkr`k, quc`dk imi nkr mhecdk,
qui`ti ku achs nrhc; durc`ti <6 ahùtks, ùac ridi di 336^.
(j) Vcrc cuai`
cuai`tcr
tcr c pktˎ
pkti`lhc,
iˎ `lhc, k qui divi sir nihtk
(j) Zincl
Zincl²²cc k prkjm
prkjmiac,
iac, cdahth`dk qui c ti`sc̋k
ti`s˝ck
lka k lkaprhai`tk dk rishstkr;
lchu pcrc 26^.
(l) HKquc`dk
qui clk`
clk`tili
tilii`lhc
c pktˎ
pkt lka dk
iˎ `lhc c h`ti`shdcdi dc lkrri`ti
lbuvihrk cuai`tc; 35. Ya lbuv
lbuvihrk
ihrk im´
imítrhlk
itrhlk mhecdk c uac ridi di ::6^
(d) K qui clk`tili lka k vcmkr dc ti`sc̋k
ti`s˝ck ^ iˎ `lhc di ::℮. \cj
tia rishstˎ
rishsti`lhc \cji`d
i`dk mi ií´ uthmh-
k qui iimi
quc`dk
quc`dk c pktˎi`lhc
i`lhc dk lbuvihrk cuai`tc; zcdk durc`ti 3b pkr dhc, tkdks ks dhcs, ditirahì k
lk`suak ai`scm (<6 dhcs) dissi lbuvihrk, ia richs
36. Yac llirt cˎ apcdc ií´ pirlkrrhdc pkr uac lkrri`ti
irtcc mmˎcapcdc (3oUb iquhvcmi c Z$ 6,49).
di :C, quc`dk
quc`dk i`tri sius sius ixixtri
triaks
aks ix
ixhst
hstii uac
dhniri`l²²cc di pkti`lhcm di 336^. 336^. Ditirahì c suc 32. Vkr ua lbuv
lbuvihr
ihrk
k im
imítrhlk
ítrhlk lhrlumc uac lkrri`ti di
pktiˎ `lhc im´
pktˎi`lhc imíitrhlc
tr hlc ìstc
ìst c sh
shtucl ˝ k.
tucl² c̋ck. 39C quc`dk imi istć
istć mhecdk ia ::6^. Lk`shdi-
33. Ya istud
istudc`ti
c`ti ia lugc lcsc
lcsc c ti`sc̋k
ti`s˝ck ií´ 336^, lka- rc`dk qui k oUb lustc Z$6,49, ditirahì k lustk
prku uac mˎ
mcapcdc
cˎ apcdc lka ks sieuh`tis vcmkris `kah- di ua jc`bk di :6ah`.
`chs7 >6U-336^. Ditirahì7
38. Ya lbuv
lbuvihrk
ihrk im´
imítrhlk
itrhlk mhecdk, ia aáídhc,
idhc, 6,9b pkr
(c) k vcm
vcmkr
kr dc rishstˎ
rishstˎi`lhc
i`lhc imítrhlc
imítrhlc dc mˎcapcdc.
capcdc. dhc ecstc Z$46,96 di iìrehc im´
imitrhlc
ítrhlc pkr aˎaisiˎ s (<6
(j) k vcmkr
vcmkr dc lkrri`ti
lkrri`ti qui hr´
hrćc lhrlumcr, quc`dk c dhcs). \cji`dk-si qui c tcrhnc lkjrcdc ií´ di Z$6,49
cˎ apcdc nkr lkìltcdc c ridi im´
mcapcdc imitrhlc.
ítrhlc. iˎ `lhc im´
pkr oUb, ditirahì k vcmkr dc pkt i`lhc imitrhlc
ítrhlc dk
cpcrimbk.
3:. @cs h`stcmcl² kis k̋˝ is rishdi`lhchs di lbuvihrks imítrhlks,
imítrhlks,
lkstuaca-s
lkstu aca-sii uscr nus nus´ĳvihs
ĳ́vihs ku h`tir
h`tirruptk
ruptkris
ris di :6. Ks vcmk
vcmkris
ris `kah
`kah`ch
`chss di ua rishst
rishstkr c̋˝ k7 36℮ i
kr sck7
prkt
pr ktil c̋˝ k (dhsgu
il² ck (dhsgu`tkris
`tkris)) qui dismheca
dismheca cutkacthlc
cutkacthlc-- 9U . Ditirahì ks vcmkris dc ddp aćxhac
aćxhac i dc lkr-
ai`ti quc`dk c lkrri`ti ixlidi ua lirtk vcmkr ri`ti a´
acxhac
ćxhac qui pkdir˝
pkdirc̋ck
k ixhsthr skjri k rishstkr,
pr´
pri-islkmbh
í-islkmbhdk. dk. Sucm k vcm vcmkrkr dk dhsgu`tkr vkliˎ
dhsgu`tkr qui vklˎ di akdk qui imi `˝
` ck
c̋k quihai.
islkmbirhc pcrc h`stcmcr ua lbuvihrk di <966U-
::6^; :3. Ks vcmk
vcmkris
ris `kah
`kah`ch
`chss di ua rishstkr
rishstkr s c̋ck
˝ k :56℮ i
3/4U. Isti rishstkr pkdi sir mhecdk ùac jctirhc
(c) 36C
di 3:^, sia rhslk di quihacr; Gusthffiqui.
(j) 39C
(l) <6C ::. Ya lbuvlbuvihrkihrk im´
imitrhlk
ítrhlk prkgitcdk pcrc ::6^ pkssuh
(d) 56C ua rishstkr lugc rishstˎii`lhc `lhc im´
imítrhlc
itrhlc pkdi cssuahr
dkhs vcmkris7 33℮ i ::℮. \cji- \cji-sisi qui k lbuvihrk
lbuvihrk
(i) :6C
istćc mhecdk ia uac ridi di ::6^ i qui nu`lhk`c
ist´
durc`t
dur c`tii :6 ahùtks
ahùtks pkr dhc. dhc. Lk`
Lk`shd
shdirc
irc`dk
`dk qui
3<. Ya nus´
nusĳ́vim
cmhai` ĳvim
cmhai`tcd
tcdcc di
pkr<6C
uacnkhti`
h`stcmcdk
h`stc
ti`s ˝ kmcdk
sc̋ck di ùac
::6^.rishdˎ
::6^ i`lhc
i`lhc
Suc
Suc`tc
`tcss 3oUb lustc Z$6,49, ditirahì k lustk ai`scm (<6
mˎccapcdcs
apcdcs di 366U-::6^ pkdir˝ pkdirc̋k
ck sir mhecdcs sh- dhcs) rimcthvk c lcdc uac dcs pkshl² k̋ kis
˝ is dk rishstkr
aumtcìcai`ti, di uac nkrac cdiqucdc, sia pi- i hdi`thffi
hdi `thffiqui qui c pkshl c̋˝ k di jc`bk akr`k (vir˝
pks hl² ck (vir ck)
c̋k) i c
rhek di quihacr k nus´
nusĳvim;
ĳ́vim; pksh
pk shll² c̋ck
˝ k k`di k jc`bk qui`ti (h`vir`k).

/H N\ YM
I ´ TZHLC
Í

ixirlĳlhks
ĳ́lhks ùa´
ùairhlks
írhlks
36. V 1 :
::6U
:6U??
33. (c) Z 1 :63, >5℮? (j) H 1 6,949C
3:. H 1 :
:6C?
6C?
3<.
3<. ` 1 >
>>
> mˎccapcdcs?
apcdcs?
34. c) Z 1 424℮? V 1 36
34. 366U
6U?? H 1 6,49
6,499C (j)) Z 1 424℮?
9C?? (j
V1 2:,>4U? H 1 6,43<C
39. I 1 4
42G?
2G?
3>. (c) I 1 :oUb? 5,:AG? (j) I 1 3,6>oUb

3,6>oUb?? <,262AG
35. Lustk1Z$:8,56?
32. Lustk1Z$6,489?
38. V1>oU
:6.
:6. â
âćx15,65^?
ćx15,65^? Ha´
Hacx16,565C?
ćx16,565C?
:3. @ c̋k, imi dhsshpcrhc 6,9<U qui íi´ achkr dk qui imi
@˝ck,
supkrtc qui ií´ 6,:9U ku 3/4U
::. Lust
Lustk k 1 Z$ 38,26 (h`vir`
(h`vir`k)?
k)? (j) lustk 1 Z$ 8,86
(vir˝c̋ck)
(vir k)

/H N\ YM
I ´ TZHLC
Í
ˎ
ZKDZHEK \ KYWC I C M^CLHZ TC^CZI\ 4: L YZ\K DI I MITZKAILC@HLC /HN\
MITZKAILC@HLC /H N\ YM
Lcp´ĳtumk
Lcp ĳ́tumk 9
Lhrluhtk Im´
Imitrhlk
ítrhlk
9.
9.3
3 Lh
Lhrrlu
luht
htk
k Im
Imítrhlk
ítrhlk \hapmis clk`til²c,
²c, ks nus´
nusĳ́vihs
ĳvihs dk lhrluhtk divia istcr ia jkcs
lk`d
lk `dhl k̋˝ is pcrc qui, t˝
hl² kis tck
c̋k mkek c tiapircturc dk trilbk
Ya lhrluhtk imítr
imítrhlk
hlk ií´ ua lcah`bk nilbcdk nkracdk ”ia lurtk‑ si imivi, k nusĳ́vimnus´ĳvim si nnu`dc
u`dc i h`tirrkapc c
pkr, `k aáĳ`hak,
ĳ́`hak, < lkapkì`tis, ku sigc, ua lkapk- pcssceia dc lkrri`ti.
ì`ti qui lrhc i ac`tía
ac`tía uac ddp (nk`ti)? ua kutrk qui
hr´
hrcć lk`suahr c iìrehc nkrìlhdc pimc nk`ti (rishstkr ku
mˎccapcdc)
apcdc) i ua lkapkì`ti qui hr´ hrćc h`tirmhecr c nk`ti i c 9.
9.:
: Lh
Lhrrlu
luht
htk
k Im
Imítrhlk
ítrhlk \´
\irhi
írhi
mccapcdc
ˎ apcdc (lk`dutkris).
@uac cssklhcl² ck
c̋˝ k sírhi,
sírhi, ks rishstkris ffilca pkshlhk`c-
dks ua cp´
cpks
ḱs k kutrk, si`dk pirlkrrhdks pimc aisac lkr-
ri`ti, lk`nkrai c ffieurc 9.<, c sieuhr.
Nheurc 9.37 Lhrluhtk Imítrhlk

Imítrhlk \hapmis
Lurtk-lhrluhtk7
@c ffieurc 9.:, c lkrri`ti sch pkr ua dks tirah`chs
dc nk`ti, pirlkrri k ffik lk`dutkr di rishstˎii`lhc`lhc im´
imítrhlc
itrhlc
dispriz´ĳvim
dispriz ĳ́ vim i piì
piìtr
trcc pimk
pimk kutrk
kutrk titira
rah`
h`cm
cm.. Im
Imcc pir-
pir-
lkrri k lhrluhtk sia pcsscr pkr ì`bua cpcrimbk ku
h`struai`tk qui ti`bc cmeuac rishstˎ iˎ `lhc lk`shdir´
rishsti`lhc lk`shdircvim.
ćvim.
Suc`dk hstk klkrri, dhziaks qui bć bć ua lurtk-lhrluhtk.
Nheurc 9.<7 Lhrluhtk Imítrhlk

Imítrhlk \írhi
\írhi
Ya lhrluhtk s´ sirhi
írhi di rishstkris cprisi`tc cs sieuh`tis
lcrcltir´
lcrc ltirĳ́st
ĳsthlcs
hlcs77
Nheurc 9.:7 Lurtk-lhrluhtk
3. @ua lhrlu
lhrluhtk htk s´
sírhi,
irhi, ks lkapkì`tis sc̋k
s˝ck dipi`di`-
Su
Suc` c`dk
dk klkr klkrriri ua lurt
lurtk-
k-lh
lhrl
rluh
uhtk
tk,, c ri rish
shstˎ
stˎi`lhc
i`lhc tis i`tri sh, ku sigc, pcrc qui k lhrluhtk nu`lhkì
ítrhlc dk trilbk pirlkrrhdk pimc lkrri`ti ií´ auhtk pi-
im´
imitrhlc pirnihtcai`ti, tkdks ks imiai`tks divia istcr ia
qui`c (miajri-si di qui c rishstˎi`lhc i`lhc imítrhlc
imítrhlc dks ffiks jkcs lk`dhl² k̋ kis
˝ is di nu`
nu`lhk
lhk`ca
`cai`t
i`tk.
k. @k lcs lcskk di
di mhec
mh ecll²ck
c̋˝ k i,
í´ , prcthlcai`ti, dispriz´
disprizĳ́ĳvim).
vim). Css
Cssha,
ha, pim
pimcc cˎ apcdcs, si uac quihac (k ffimcai`tk rkapi) cs
mcapcdcs,
^
ri
rimc c̋˝ k H 1 Z , si ^ íi´ lk`stc`ti (ddp dc phmbc ku jcti-
mcll²ck kutrcss hr
kutrc hr˝c̋ck
k cpcecr, pkhs k lhrluhtk ffilcr´
ffilcrćc cjirtk.
rhc) i Z ti`di c zirk, i`tc̋k, i`t˝ck, ìlisscrhcai`ti, H cssuai
vcmkris rimcthvcai`ti imivcdks (”ti`di c h`ffi`htk‑) i íi´ :. K lhrluht
lhrluhtk
k sírhi
sírhi pkssuh uac ú`hlc
u`hlc
´ acmbc nilbcdc
lbcacdc
Lka kdi lkrri`tidcdih`ti`shdcdi
cuai`tk lurtk-lhrluhtk.
dc lkrri`ti, klkrri (trcgitkrhc
(trcgit´
ḱrhc im´
imíitrhlc)
trhlc) pkr isti akthvk c h`ti`shdcdi dc
lkrri`ti íí c aisac ia tkdks ks pk`tks dk lhrluhtk.
tcajía
tcajía k cuai`tk dc tiapircturc
tiapircturc (inih
(inihtk
tk Gkumi). Cs-
sha, k lhrluhtk ia ”lurtk‑pkdi-si cquilir ixceircdc-
ai`ti i dcr h`´
h`ĳlhk
ĳ́lhk c ua h`lˎ iˎ `dhk. Vcrc ivhtcr
h`li`dhk. ivhtcr qui hstk
hstk H3 1 H: 1 ... 1 H` 1 H
4<
L CV ´HTYMK ´ TZHLK
H́ TYMK 9 . L HZLYHTK I M ITZHLK
Í
skac`dk-si cs pktˎii`lhcs
`lhcs h`dhvhduchs di lcdc ri-
shstkr, kjt´
kjtíia-si
a-si k vcmkr dc pkt
pktˎii`lhc
ˎ `lhc tktcm dhsshpcdc
pim
pimcc cssklh
css klhcl ˝ k.
cl² c̋ck.
9.3 7 Dkhs rishstkris sc̋k

Ixiapmk 9.3
Ixiapmk s˝ck mhecdks ia sírhi
sírhi (ffi-
\cji`dk-sii qui Z 3 1 45℮, Z : 1 <<℮ i qui
eurc 9.>). \cji`dk-s
cahì
cssk
cssklhcl
lhcl
cs ² c̋ck
˝ k íi´ cmhai`tcdc
quidcs pkr uac
c̋˝ k (ddp)
di ti`s ck nk`ti
skjri di 2^ , ditir-
ks rishstkris ic
Nheurc 9.47 Lhrluhtk Imítrhlk
Imítrhlk \írhi
\írhi lka Mˎcapcdcs
capcdcs pktˎii`lhc
`lhc dhsshpcdc ia lcdc ua.
<. @ua lhrluh

lhrluhtk tk sírhi,
sírhi, c rishstˎi`lhc
i`lhc tktcm ku iquhvc-
mi`ti (Zt ) íi´ heucm cf skac dcs rishstˎi`lhcs
i`lhcs dk lhr-
luhtk.
Zt 1 Z3 + Z: + ... + Z` (9.3)
4. @k lhrluht
lhrluhtk
k s irhi
í´ rhi c ti`sc̋k
ti`s˝ck cpmhlcdc ck lhrluhtk íi´ Nheurc 9.>7
heucm cf skac dcs ti`skis k̋˝ is pcrlhchs si`dk qui istcs
c̋˝ k prkpkrlhk`chs cs
sck cf s rishstˎ iˎ `lhcs dks lkapkì`tis.
rishsti`lhcs Vkdiaks lcmlumcr c rishstˎi`lhkc
i`lhkc tktcm pkr7
Lkstuac-si lbcacr c ti`sc̋k

ti`s˝ck ia lcdc lkapkì`ti Zt 1 Z3 + Z: 1 45 + << 1 26℮
di ua lhrluhtk s´
sirhi
írhi di ”quidc di ti`s˝
ti`s ck‑.
c̋k‑.
^
Vimc rim
rimcl c̋˝ k H 1
cl² ck Z
lcmlumc
lcmlumcaks
aks c lkrri`
lkrri`ti
ti dk lhr-
lhr-
^t 1 ^3 + ^: + ... + ^` luhtk7
K`di7 ^3 1 Z3 Õ H3 ? ^: 1 Z: Õ H: ? ^` 1 Z` Õ H` ^CJ 2
H1 1 1 6, 3C 1 366aC
Zt 26
Di pks
pkssisi dc lkr
lkrri`
ri`ti,
ti, pkdiak
pkdiakss lcm
lcmlum
lumcr
cr cs quidcs
quidcs
di ti`s˝
ti`sc̋ck7
k7
^ 1 H ÕZ
^CL 1 H Õ Z3 1 6, 3 Õ 45 1 4, 5^
^LJ 1 H Õ Z: 1 6, 3 Õ << 1 <, <^

Nheurc 9.97
\cji
\cji`d
`dk-
k-si
si cs titi`s˝
`sk̋i
kiss i cs lkrr lkrri`
i`ti
tis,
s, pkdi
pkdiak
akss
Vimc mih di Kba virhffilcaks qui k vcmkr dc h`ti`sh- lcmlumcr k vcmkr dc pktˎ
pktii`lhc
ˎ `lhc dhsshpcdc ia lcdc rishstkr.
dcdi dc lkrri`ti qui pirlkrri k lhrluhtk dipi`dirć
dipi`dirć
dc ti`s˝
ti`sck
c̋k cpmhlcdc ck aisak i dc rishstˎ
rishsti`lhc
iˎ `lhc tktcm V1^ ÕH
qui k lhrluhtk knirili.
Ks rirish
shst
stkr
kris
is dk lh lhrl
rluh
uhtk ˝ k pirlkr
tk sc̋ck pirlkrrhd
rhdks ks pim
pimcc V3 1 ^CL Õ H 1 4, 5 Õ 6, 3 1 6, 45U
aisac lkrri`ti i, lkak tˎia ia rishstˎi`lhcs
i`lhcs dhniri`-
tis, cpcrilir˝
cpcrilirc̋ck
k sk
skjr
jrii im
imis
is quid
quidcscs di ti
ti`s
`s˝c̋ck
k dhniri`-
dhniri`- V: 1 ^LJ Õ H 1 <, < Õ 6, 3 1 6, <<U
tis.
Cssha si`dk, c ti`sc̋k
ti`s˝ck cpmhlcdc ck lhrluhtk dhvhdi-
si skjri ks rishstkris cssklhcdks, ffilc`dk c achkr Zisuak dcs lcrcltir´
lcrcltirĳsthlcs
ĳ́sthlcs dk lhrluhtk s´
sirhi
írhi
ti`s˝ck
ti`sc̋k skjri k rishstkr di achkr vcmkr.
• Ya lkapkì`ti dipi`di dk kutrk pcrc qui k lhr-
9. C dhsshpcl² ck
c̋˝ k di pktˎi`lhc
i`lhc sirć
sirć achkr `k rishstkr di luhtk nu`lhkì.
achkr rishstˎ ˎ
rishsti`lhc.
i`lhc.
Lkak c h`ti`shdcdi dc lkrri`ti ií´ c aisac ia tk-
• Ks lkapkì`tis sc̋k
s˝ck pirlkrrhdks pimc aisac lkr-
ri`ti.
dks ks rishstkris i, scji`dk-si qui V 1 Z Õ H : ,
`ktc
`ktc-s
-sii qui
qui c achk
achkrr pktpkti`lhc
iˎ `lhc klkrri
klkrri `k ris
rishs-
hs- • C rishstˎ
rishsti`lhc
iˎ `lhc tktcm dk lhrluhtk ií´ kjthdc ctrcv´
ctrcvíiss dc
tkr di achkr rishstˎ iˎ `lhc. @ktc-s
rishsti`lhc. @ktc-sii tcaj
tcajía
í a qui, skac dcs rishstˎ iˎ `lhcs dk lhrluhtk.
rishsti`lhcs
ZKDZHEK \ KYWC I C M^CLHZ TC^CZI\ 44 L YZ\K DI I MITZKAILC@HLC /HN\
Í
• C ti`sc̋k
ti`s˝ck cpmhlcdc ií´ heucm cf skac dcs quidcs di
ti`s˝c̋ck
ti`s k `ks rishstkris cssklhcdks. ^3 1 ^: 1 ^< 1 ...^` 1 ^CJ
• Cs quidcs sc̋k
s˝ck prkpkrlhk`chs cs
cf s rishstˎi`lhcs
i`lhcs dks ri-
shstkris.
• C pktˎ iˎ `lhc dhsshpcdc ia lcdc rishstkr íí prkpkrlhk-

pkti`lhc
`cm cf suc rishstˎi`lhc.
i`lhc.
9.
9.<
< Lh
Lhrrlu
luht
htk
k Im
Imítrhlk
ítrhlk Vcrcmimk
Tiaks uac cssklhcl c̋˝ k ia pcrcmimk di rishstkris quc`dk
cssk lhcl² ck
tkdks ks rishstkris cssklhcdks ffilca mhecdks cks ais-
Nheurc 9.87
aks pk`tks, pkrtc`tk, sujaithdks c uac aisac ti`s ck c̋˝ k
im´
imitrhlc,
ítrhlc, lk`nkrai ixiapmks dc ffieurc 9.5, c sieuhr.
<. C lkrri`ti
lkrri`ti tkt
tktcm
cm dk lhrlu
lhrluhtk
htk íí c skac dcs lkrri`-
tis pcrlhchs cs quchs, pkr suc viz, s ck c̋˝ k h`virscai`ti
prkpkrlhk`chs fcs
cs rispilthvcs rishstˎ iˎ `lhcs.
rishsti`lhcs.
H3 1 H3 + H: + H< + ... + H`
4. ^caks cekrc kjtir cs rimcl² k̋

kis
˝ is qui `ks pirahtia
lcmlumcr k vcmkr dc rishstˎ

pcrcmimk. rishstii`lhc
ˎ `lhc tktcm di ua lhrluhtk
^
Vimc mih di Kba tia-si pcrc lcdc rishstkr7 H 1
Z
@k `ḱ
`´k tia-
tia-si
si c sieuh`ti rimcl² c̋ck7
˝ k7
H3 1 H3 + H: + H< + ... + H`
Nheurc 9.57 Lhrluhtk Im´
Imitrhlk
ítrhlk Vcrcmimk
^CJ ^CJ ^CJ
H3 1 ? H: 1 ? H< 1
Ya lhrluhtk
lhrluhtk pcrcmimk
pcrcmimk cprisi`tc
cprisi`tc cs sie
sieuh`ti
uh`tiss lcrcl-
lcrcl- Z3 Z: Z<
tir´
tir ĳsth
ĳ́s thlcs
lcs77
\hapmhffilc`dk ^CJ `ks dkhs mcdks tia-si7
3. @k lhrluhtk
lhrluhtk pcrcmimk,
pcrcmimk, ks lkapkì`tis
lkapkì`tis `˝
`ck
c̋k dipi`- ^CJ ^CJ ^CJ ^CJ
dia u`s dks kutrks pcrc nu`lhk`cr, ku sigc, quih- 1 1 + ... +
Z3 Z: Z< Z`
ac`dk c mˎmccapcdc
ˎ apcdc M< `k lhrluhtk cjchxk, cpi`cs
^CJ 3 3 3 3
imc si cpcec, si`dk qui M3 i M: piracìlia cli- 1 ^CJ Õ ( + + + ... + )
Z Z Z Z Z
scs, pkhs istc̋k
ist˝ck ia jka istcdk di nu`lhk`cai`tk 3 3 : < `
i lk`thùca riliji`dk c ti`s˝ ti`sck
c̋k dc ridi (::6^). \hapmhffilc`dk ^CJ `ks dkhs mcdks tia-si7
K ixiapmk dissi thpk di mhecl²c̋ck ˝ k ií´ virhffilcdk ia
`ksscc h`stcmcl
`kss c̋˝ k im´
h`st cmcl² ck imitrhlc
ítrhlc rishdi`lhcm.
rishdi`lhcm. Ia lcsc vi-
rhffilcaks qui, si uac mˎcapcdc capcdc quihac, cs kutrcs
piracìlia cliscs i tcaj´ tcajíia
a ks imitrkdka
imitrkdkaísthlks
ísthlks 3 3 3 3 3
ffilca nu`lhk`c`dk `kracmai`ti. 1 + + + ... + (9.:)
Zt Z3 Z: Z< Z`
@k lcsk
lcsk di cpi
cpi`cs
`cs dkhs rishstkr
rishstkris
is,, tia
tiaks
ks k si-
euh`ti7
3 3 3 Z: Z3 Z3 + Z:
1 + 1 + 1
Zt Z3 Z: Z3 Õ Z: Z: Õ Z3 Z3 Õ Z:
I`tc̋k
I`t˝
ck hskmc`dk-si Zt , tiaks7
Nheurc 9.27 Lhrluhtk Vcrcmimk lka Mˎ

Mcapcdcs
cˎ apcdcs
Z 3 Õ Z:
:. @k lhrluhtk pcrcmimk,
pcrcmimk, lkak ks rishstkris ist˝
istck
c̋k mhec- Zt 1 (9.<)
Z3 + Z:
dks `ks aisaks pk`tks, rilijia c aisac ti`s˝ ti`sc̋ck.
k.
Í
\i thviraks ` rishstkris heuchs (Z3 1 Z: 1 Z` ) kj-

tiaks c rishstˎ
rishsti`lhc
iˎ `lhc iquhvcmi`ti pkr7 Vt 1 V3 + V: 1 6, 8> + 3, 44 1 :, 4U
Zisuak dcs Lcrcltir´

Lcrcltirĳsthlcs
ĳ́sthlcs dk Lhrluhtk Vcrcmimk
Z3
Zt 1 (9.4)
` • Ks lkapkì`tis sc̋k
s˝ck imitrhlcai`ti h`dipi`di`tis
i`tri sh.
9. Lkak `k lhrluhtk
lhrluhtk pcrcmimk
pcrcmimk c ti`s˝ c̋k ií´ c aisac sk-
ti`sck
:
jri tkdks ks rishstkris i, scji`dk-si qui V 1 ^Z , • c̋k ií´ c aisac pcrc tkdks ks rishstkris, pkhs
C ti`s˝
ti`sck
pkdi
pkdiak akss lk
lk`l `lmu
muhr
hr qui
qui k ri rish
shst
stkr
kr di achk achkrr ri ri-- ks aisaks sc̋k s˝ck mhecdks cks aisaks pk`tks.
shstˎii`lhc
`lhc hr´
hrćc dhsshpcr ai`kr pktˎii`lhc.
`lhc. Hst Hstk
k ií´ nclhm-
• C lkrri`ti tktcm íi´ heucm cf skac dcs lkrri`tis dks
ai`ti kjsirvcdk `c nkraumc ḱ´ raumc lhtcdc.
rishstkris.
^:
Lkak V 1 Z i Z3 = Z: mkek, V3 0 V3
• C lklkrrirri`t
`tii dhvh
dhvhdi
di-s
-sii `c rcz˝
rczc̋k
ck h`vi
h`virs
rscc dcs
dcs ri-
ri-
shstˎii`lhcs.
shst ˎ `lhcs.
Ixiapmk
Ixiapm k 9.: 7 Ya lhrluhtk pcrcmimk ií´ lk`sthtu´
lk`sthtuĳdk
ĳ́dk di
dkhs rishstkris (ffieurc 9.36), si`dk Z3 1 396 ℮, Z: 1 • iˎ `lhc tktcm dk lhrluhtk ií´ ai`kr dk qui c
C rishstˎ
rishsti`lhc
366℮ i íí cmhai`tcdk pkr 3:^ . Ditir
Ditirahì
ahì c lkrri`ti i c ai`kr dcs rishstˎi`lhcs
i`lhcs cssklhcdcs.
pktˎii`lhc
`lhc dhsshpcdc ia lcdc rishstkr.
• C pktˎi`lhc
i`lhc dhsshpcdc pkr lcdc rishstkr íi´ h`virsc-
ai`ti prkpkrlhk`cm fc suc rishstˎ
iˎ `lhc.
rishsti`lhc.
9.4
9.4 Lh
Lhrrlu
luht
htk
k Im
Imítrhlk
ítrhlk Ahstk
Lhrluhtks lkapkstks di trˎ trisiˎ s ku achs rishstkris pkdia
sir mhe
mhecdk
cdkss ùa crrc`g
crrc`gk k lka
lkapmi pmixk,
xk, lka pcr pcrtis
tis ia s´
sír
irhi
hi i
pcrtis ia pcrcmimk. Tcm crrc`gk íi´ di`kah`cdk di lhrluhtk
ahstk ku lhrluhtk sírhi-pcrcmimk.
sírhi-pcrcmimk.
Nheurc 9.367 @i`buac nḱraumc
n´kraumc `kvc íi´ ìliss´
ìlissćrhccrhc pcrc ditirah`cr
c rishstˎiˎ `lhc tktcm di uac
rishsti`lhc u ac css
cssklhcl c̋˝ k ahstc di rishstkris.
klhcl² ck
Z3 Õ Z: 396 Õ 366 ^klˎi dh
dhvhd
vhdii k lhrluh
lhrluhtk tk lka
lkapmi pmixkxk ia pcr pcrtis
tis lkapks
lkapkstcstcs di
Zt 1 1 1 >6℮ imiai`tks ia s´ sirhi
írhi i ia pcrcmimk.
Z3 + Z: 396 + 366
^ @isti thpk di cssklhcl² ck c̋˝ k si virhffilca lcrcltir´lcrcltirĳsthlcs
ĳ́sthlcs
Vi
Vimc
mc ri
rimcl c̋˝ k H 1
mcl² ck , ditirah`caks cs lkrri`tis.
Z dk lhrluhtk sírhi
sírhi (lkrri`ti
(lkrri`ti íi´ c aisac) i dk pcrcmimk
^CJ 3: (ti`s˝ck
(ti`s c̋k ií´ c aisac).
aisac). Ks dkhs thpks thpks j´ jćcshlks
shlks di lhrluhtks
Ht 1 1 1 6, :C 1 :66aC ahstks istc̋k
ist˝ck h`dhlcdks `c ffieurc 9.33.
Zt >6
^CJ 3:
H3 1 1 1 6, 62C 1 26aC
Z3 396
^CJ 3:
H: 1 1 1 6, 3:C 1 3:6aC
Z: 366
@k lhrluhtk pcrcmimk Ht si dhvhdi, i`t˝
i`tc̋ck7
k7
Ht 1 H3 + H: 1 6, 62 + 6, 3: 1 6, :C
Vcdi-si kjtir cs pktˎii`lhcs

`lhcs dc sieuh`ti nkrac7
:
^CJ 3::
V3 1 1 1 6, 8>U
Z3 396
:
^CJ 3::
V: 1 1 1 3, 44U
Z: 366
Vt 1 ^CJ 1 3: 1 :, 4U
: :
Zt >6
Vkdi
Vkdiak
akss lk
lkap
aprkrkvc
vcrr c pkt
pktii`lh
ˎ `lhcc tk
tktc
tcmm ct
ctrc
rcv
víis
´ s dc
iˎ `lhcs ia lcdc ua dks rishstkris7
skac dcs pktˎ
pkti`lhcs Nheurc 9.337 Lhrluhtk Imítrhlk
Imítrhlk Ahstk
ZKDZHEK \ KYWC I C M^CLHZ TC^CZI\ 4> L YZ\K DI I MITZKAILC@HLC /HN\
Í
Ixiapmk
Ixiapm k 9.< 7 Lcmlumi c rishstˎi`lhc
i`lhc tktcm `ks lhrluhtk
dcs ffieurcs 9.3: i 9.3<.
Nheurc 9.397
Ixiapmk
Ixiapm k 9.4 7 @k lhrluhtk dcdk (ffieurc 9.3>), lcmlumi
Ht , H :, H < i ^CL.
Nheurc 9.3:7
Nheurc 9.3<7 Nheurc 9.3>7
@k prhai
prhaihrk
hrk lhrluhtk
lhrluhtk (ffieurc
(ffieurc 9.3:),
9.3:), prhai
prhaihrcai
hrcai`ti `ti Lkak lk`biliaks tkdcs cs rishstˎi`lhcs
i`lhcs dk lhrluhtk,
ditirah`caks c rishstˎ
rishstii`lhc
ˎ `lhc iquhvcmi`ti dk pcrcmimk di pkdiaks lcmlumcr Zt. C`tis, pkr´
pkria,
ía, lcmlumcaks Z4.
Z3 i Z:, qui pkdiriaks lbcacr di Z4, pkhs ` ck c̋˝ k ixhsti
Z4 `k lhrluhtk. Z3 + Z< 396 Õ 366
Z4 1 1 1 >6℮
Z3 Õ Z< 396 + 366
Z3 + Z: >Õ<
Z4 1 1 1 :℮ Cssha7
Z3 Õ Z: >+<
Nhlc
Nhlcak
akss lka
lka k lh
lhrl
rluh
uhtk
tk iquh
iquhv
vcm
cmi`
i`ti
ti cjch
cjchxk
xk (ffi
(ffi-- Zt 1 Z3 + Z4 1 36 + >6 1 56℮
eurc 9.34).
^
Vimc rimcl c̋˝ k H 1
rim cl² ck Z
, pkdiaks lcmlumcr cs h`lḱe`htcs.
h`l´ke`htcs.
^CJ 5
Ht 1 1 1 6, 3C 1 366aC
Zt 56
Nheurc 9.347 ctrcví́iss dc Mi
ctrcv Mihh di Kb
Kba,
a, lc
lcml
mlum
umc-
c-si
si c ti
ti`s
`s˝ck
c̋k ^CL7
^ 1 ZÕH
Jcstc cekrc skacr Z4 lka Z< i i`lk`trcr Zt pkhs cs
ducs istc̋k
ist˝ck ia sírhi.
sírhi. ^CL 1 Z3 Õ Ht 1 36 Õ 6, 3 1 3^
Zt 1 Z4 + Z< 1 : + 4 1 >℮ Vcrc lcmlumcraks

lcmlumcraks H : i H <, prhaihprhaihrk
rk divi
diviaks
aks dit
ditir
ir--
ah`cr ^LJ , pkhs íi´ c ddp ixhsti`ti skjri Z : i Z <.
@k si
sieu`
eu`dkdk lhr lhrluh
luhtk
tk (ffieurc
(ffieurc 9.3<),
9.3<), vc
vcaks
aks prh
prhaih
aihrk
rk
riskmvir
riskmvir c s irhi
í´ rhi di Z: lka Z<, qui pkdiaks lbcacr di Lkak7 ^CJ 1 ^CL + ^LJ
Z4.
Mkek7 ^LJ 1 ^CJ √ ^CL 1 5 √ 3 1 >^
Z4 1 Z: + Z< 1 2 + 4 1 3:℮
C ti`s˝
ti`sck
c̋k ^LJ tcaj
tcají́ia
a pkdi sir lcmlumcdc pkr7
Nhlc
Nhlcak
akss lklka
a ua lh lhrl
rluh
uhtk
tk iq
iquh
uhvc
vcmi
mi`t
`tii cj
cjch
chxk
xk (ffi
(ffi--
eurc 9.39). ^LJ 1 Z4 Õ Ht 1 >6 Õ 6, 3 1 >^
Vcrc ffi`cmhzcr, uthmhzcaks c nḱ
kraumc
´ raumc pcrc lcmlumcr Zt,
pcrc rishstkris ia pcrcmimk. c̋˝ k H 1 ^Z tiri
Vimc rimcl² ck tiriaks
aks,, i`tc̋k
i`t˝ck,, pcrc
pcrc H : i H <,
ks sieuh`tis vcmkris7
Z4 + Z3 2 Õ 3: ^LJ >
Z4 1 1 1 4, 2℮ H: 1 1 1 6, 64C 1 46aC
Z4 Õ Z3 2 + 3: Z: 396
Í
(c
(c)) ( ) VcVcrc
rc dha
dhah`hùh
uhra
raks
ks c lkr
lkrri
ri`t
`tii qu
quii pipir-
r-
^LJ > lkrri ua lhrluhtk pkdiaks mhecr ia ssí́irhi
rhi lka
H< 1 1 1 6, 6>C 1 >6aC
Z< 366 imi ua rishstkr.
Kjsirvcaks,
Kjsirvca ks, i`t˝
i`tck,
c̋ k, qu
quii c skac
skac di H : lka H < diu (j) ( ) @ @ua
ua lbuvi
lbuvihrkhrk lka c llbc
bcvi
vi `k h`vi
h`vir`k
r`k,,
ixctcai`ti k vcmkr di Ht . Hssk Hssk prkv
prkvcc qui c lkrri`
lkrri`ti
ti pkdir´ĳcaks
pkdir ĳ́caks lk`shdircr lkak si nkssia dkhs
im´
imíitrhlc,
trhlc, ck lbiecr c ua `k, ḱ´ , dhvhdi-si pimks rishstkris rishstkris mhecdks ia sírhi
sírhi i `k virc̋k
vir˝ck sirhc
cssklhcdks ia pcrcmimk. ú´ `hlk rishstkr pirlkrrhdk pkr lkr-
cpi`cs ua u`hlk
ri`ti.
9.9 irll´ĳlhks
Ixir ĳ́lhks (l
(l)) ( ) \iap
\iapri ri mh
mhec
ecak nus´ĳvim
akss k nus ĳ́vim ia s´
sirhi
írhi lka
k lhrluhtk, di akdk qui, si imi quihacr, k lhr-
luhtk ffilcr´
ffilcrcć cjirtk.
Lhrluhtk \´
\irhi
írhi
(d
(d)) ( ) @k@k lh
lhrl
rluh
uhtk
tk s´
sírhi,
irhi, k rishstkr di achkr
3. Ya lhrluht k íí lk`sthtu´
lhrluhtk lk`sthtuĳdk
ĳ́dk di < rishstkris i ks ais- iˎ `lhc cquili achs.
rishstˎi`lhc
rishst
aks istc̋k
ist˝ck mhecdks ia s´ sírhi.
irhi. K qui divirć
divirć klkrrir
lka c lkrri`ti i c rishstˎ
rishsti`lhc
iˎ `lhc tktcm dk lhrluhtk, si 2. Ya rishst kr di 4℮ i ua di :, 9℮ s˝
rishstkr sc̋k
ck cssklhcdks
prkvklcraks ua lurtk-lhrluhtk skjri ua dks rishs- ia sírhi
sírhi i, cf cssklhcl
cssk lhcl² c̋ck,
˝ k, cpmhlc-si uac ti`s˝
ti`sc̋k
ck di
tkris; 38,9^.
cˎ apcdcss mhecdc
:. Diz mcapcdc ´ rhi hmu
mhecdcss ia síirhi hmuah`
ah`ca
ca uac (c) Sucm c ris
rishstˎ
hstˎi`lhc
i`lhc tktcm dc css
cssklhcl
klhcl² c̋ck;
˝ k;
ćcrvkri
´ rvkri di @ctcm. K qui klkrrir´
klkrrirćc lka k lhrluhtk si (j) Sucm c lkrri`ti qui pirlkrri k lhrluhtk;
cmeuacc dcs m capcdcs
cmeua cˎ apcdcs quihacr;
(l) Suc
Sucmm c quidc
quidc di ti`
ti`s˝
sc̋k
ck ixhsti`ti skjri lcdc
<. Ducs mˎ cˎ apcdcs di rishstˎ
mcapcdcs iˎ `lhcs heuchs,
rishsti`lhcs heuchs, ncjrh
ncjrhlcdc
lcdcss rishstkr;
pcrc nu`lhk`cr ia 336^, pkdirc̋kpkdir˝ck sir mhecdcs ia (d) Sucm
Sucm c pktˎ
pktˎi`lhc
i`lhc dhsshpcdc ia lcdc rishstkr;
síirhi,
´ rhi, nkrac`dk ua lhrluhtk cmhai`tcdk pkr ::6^;
Gusthffiqui. 8. Ya lhrluhtk í´ rhi ií´ lk`sthtu´
lhrluhtk sirhi lk`sthtuĳdk
ĳ́dk di < rishstkris Z3,
Z: i Z<, qui vcmi vcmia, a, rispil
rispilth thvc
vcai`
ai`ti,ti, :℮, 4℮
4. Ducs mˎcapcdcs
capcdcs nkrca ncjrhlcdc
ncjrhlcdcss pcrc nu`lhk`c-
nu`lhk`c- i >℮. \cji\cji-s
-sii qui c quid quidcc di ti ti`s
`s˝ck
c̋ k skjri Z:
ria, h`dhvhducmai`ti, ùac ridi di ::6^, si`dk vcmi 36^. Ditirahì c lkrri`ti qui pirlkrri k lhr-
qui c prhaihrc tirhc uac pktˎi`lhc i`lhc achkr dk qui c luhtk, cs quidcs di ti`s˝ ti`sc̋ck
k skjri ks rishstkris i cs
sieu`dc. Lk`shdirc`dk qui imcs nkrca mhecdcs ia pktiˎ `lhcs ia lcdc rishstkr.
pktˎi`lhcs
í´ rhi i qui ixhsti uac ti`s˝
sirhi ti`s ck c̋k di ::6^ i`tri cs ix-
triahdcdis
triahdc dis dc cssklhcl² ck,
c̋˝ k, ixpmhqui k qui hrć
hrć klkr- 36. Mhec
Mheca-sia-si ia s´
sírhi,
irhi, trˎiiss rishstkris lka rishstˎi`lhcsi`lhcs
cˎ apcdcs.
rir lka lcdc uac dcs m capcdcs. im
imítrhlcs,
ítrhlcs, rispilthvcai`ti,
rispilthvcai`ti, di :66℮, 966℮ i <66℮.
\i`dk
\i` dk c lkrlkrri`
ri`ti
ti `k lhr lhrluh
luhtk tk 366aC,
366aC, lcm lcmlum
lumii c
9. Ya rish rishst
stkr
kr di rish
rishstˎ
stˎii`lh
`lhcc Z3 qui qui is
ist´
tćc lkìl-
lkìl- ti`s˝c̋ck
ti`s k cpmhlcdc fc css
csskl
klhclhcl² c̋ck
˝ k i c pkt
pktˎii`lhc
ˎ `lhc tktcm dhs-
tcdk c uac nk`ti di ti`sc̋k
ti`s˝ck lk`stc`ti dhsshpc uac shpcdc pimc cssklhcl² c̋ck.
˝ k.
pkt iˎ `lhc V3. Cssklhc`d
pktˎi`lhc Cssklhc`dk í´ rhi ua kutrk rishs-
k ia s irhi
tkr di rishstˎi`lhc
i`lhc Z:, k qui clk`tilirć
clk`tilirć lka k vcmkr 33. Trˎiiss rishstkris s˝
sc̋k
ck cssklhcdks ia sírhi
sírhi i k lhrluhtk
dc7 itktcm
í´ cmhai`tcdk
dhsshpcdcpkr <6^.
pimk \cji`dk-si
lhrluhtk ií´ >6U, iqui
quic Zpktˎ
pkt
31 i`lhc
iˎ `lhc
9℮
(c) rishstˎ
rishstˎi`lhc
i`lhc tktcm dk lhrluhtk; i Z : 1 5 ℮, ditirahì cs ti`s˝
ti`skis k̋is `ks rishstkris k
(j) lkrri`ti qui lhrlumc `k lhrluhtk; vcmkr di Z<.
(l) pktiˎ `lhc dhsshpcdc pkr Z3;
pktˎi`lhc
3:. \
\˝ck
c̋k cssk
cssklhcdk
lhcdkss trˎ
tris
iˎ s rishst
rishstkri
kriss ia sirhi
í´ rhi.. \i`d
\i`dk k
>. Ya lh lhrl
rluh
uhtk
tk sír
sírhi
hi ií´ nkracdk pkr uac nk`ti di Z3 1 36℮, Z : 1 39℮ i Z < 1 9℮ i c pktˎ iˎ `lhc dhs-
pkti`lhc
ti`s˝ck
ti`sc̋ k lk
lk`s
`stc
tc`t
`tii (3:^
(3:^)) i ducs
ducs mcapcdcs
cˎ apcdcs heuchs
heuchs shpcdc ia Z: heucm c <<,59U, ditirahì7
(M31M:).
(c) c lkrri
lkrri`ti
`ti dk lhrluhtk
lhrluhtk??
(c) lk`s
lk`shdirc
hdirc`dk
`dk qui ia M3 pcssc 46aC, qucm k (j) c quidc
quidc di ti`s˝
ti`sc̋k
ck skjri lcdc rishstkr?
vcmkr dc lkrri`ti ia M:;
(l) c ti`s
ti`s˝ck
c̋k cpmhlcdc ck lhrluhtk.
(j)
(j) qucm
qucm k vcmk
vcmkrr dc ti
ti`s˝
`sc̋k
ck ia lcdc uac dcs
(d) c pkt
pktˎii`lhc
ˎ `lhc tktcm dk lhrluhtk.
mccapcdcs;
ˎ apcdcs;
(l) lk`s
lk`shdirc
hdirc`dk
`dk qui uac tirlihrc
tirlihrc mˎ
m capcdc
cˎ apcdc M< 3<. @k lhrl
lhrluhtk
uhtk im´
imitrhlk
ítrhlk hmustrcdk cjchxk (ffieurc 9.35),
nkh clrisli`tcdc ia sírhi
sírhi lka cs diachs, c c ti`sc̋k
ti`s˝ck dc nk`ti vcmi :9^, i`quc`tk qui cs ri-
lkrri`ti ia M3 sir´
sircć heucm, achkr ku ai`kr shstii`lhcs
shstˎˎ `lhcs im
imí́itrhlcs
trhlcs vcmia Z3 1 5℮, Z: 1 2℮ i
dk qui 46aC; Z< 1 9℮. Ditirahì7
5. C`cmhsi
C`cmhsi cs cffiracthvcs
cffiracthvcs c sie
sieuhr
uhr i lkmkq
lkmkqui
ui ”^‑ si (c
(c)) c lkrr
lkrri`
i`ti
ti qui
qui ct
ctrc
rcvi
viss
sscc k lh
lhrl
rluh
uhtk
tk i c
virdcdihrcs ku ”N‑ si ncmscs. Gusthffiqui cs ncmscs. ˎ
pktˎ
pkti`lhc
i`lhc dhsshpcdc ia Z3?
Í
(j) c lkrri`ti
lkrri`ti qui lhrlumc `k lhrluhtk,
lhrluhtk, si nkr prk- 32. Ya gkvi
gkvia a lkaprku ua cpcri cpcrimbk
mbk im´
imítrhlk
itrhlk lka ks
vklcdk ua lurtk-lhrluhtk skjri Z< i c `kvc sieuh`ti
sie uh`tiss vcmkris
vcmkris `kah`chs7 99U 99U-::6^
-::6^. Lkak c
pktiˎ `lhc ia Z3.
pktˎi`lhc ridi im´
imitrhlc
ítrhlc ia suc lcsc irc <26^, pi`sku ia uth-
mhzcr ua rishstkr ia sírhi
sírhi lka k cpcrimbk pcrc mh-
ahtcr c lkrri`ti i prkvklcr uac quidc di ti`s c̋ck. ˝ k.
Lcmlumi k vcmkr dc rishstˎi`lhc
i`lhc qui divirć
divirć tir k ri-
shstkr i dc pktˎiˎ `lhc qui imi dhsshpcr´
pkti`lhc dhsshpcr cć di akdk qui
k cpcrimbk nu`lhkì lkrritcai`ti.
Lhrluhtk Vcrcmimk
cˎ apcdcs i uac istunc ist ck

38. Ducs mcapcdcs c̋˝ k tkdcs mhecdcs ia
pcrcmimk i rilijia uac ti`sc̋k
ti`s˝ck di ::6^. Lk`shdi-
Nheurc 9.357
rc`dk qui c prhaihrc mˎcˎ apcdc quihaku, dhec k qui
mcapcdc
klkrrirćc lka c sieu`dc mˎccapcdc;
klkrrir´ apcdc; I lka c istunc;
34. @k lhrluhtk cjc
cjchxk
hxk (ffieurc 9.32), ks vkmt´
vkmtĳaitrks
ĳ́aitrks ^3 Gusthffiqui.
i ^: aidia, rispilthvcai`ti, 9^ i <^, rispilth-
vcai`ti. Ditirahì7 :6. Ya lhrluh
lhrluhtk
tk pcr
pcrcmi mk ií´ lk
cmimk lkap
apks
kstk
tk di ua nirr nirrk
k
im´
imítrhlk,
itrhlk, ua nkr`k imítrhlk
imítrhlk i uac mˎcapcdc
c apcdc.. Vc
Vcrc
rc
(c) c lkrri`ti
lkrri`ti `k lhrluhtk
lhrluhtk ? aidhraks cs lkrri`tis Ht , H 3, H : i H <, h`trkduzhaks
capir´
capi rĳ́aitrk
ĳaitrkss `k lhrluhtk,
lhrluhtk, lk`nkrai
lk`nkrai ffieurc 9.38. \i
(j) k vcmkr
vcmkr dc rishstiˎ `lhc Zm.
rishstˎi`lhc quihacr c mˎ mccapcdc
ˎ apcdc M, k qui divir´
divirćc clk`tilir7
(c) lka c aid

aidhl
hl² c̋ck
˝ k dk capir
capir´ĳ́ĳaitrk
aitrk 3;
(j) lka c aid
aidhl c̋˝ k dks capir´
hl² ck capirĳaitrks
ĳ́aitrks : i <;
(l) lka c aid
aidhl c̋˝ k dk capir´
hl² ck capirĳaitrk
ĳ́aitrk 4;
(d) lka c ris
rishst
hstˎi`lhc
iˎ `lhc tktcm dk lhrluhtk;
Nheurc 9.327
39. Tiaks ua lhrluhtklhrluhtk s´

sirhi
írhi nkracdk pkr dkhs rishstk-
ris Z3 1 ::℮ i Z: 1 >2℮, si`dk qui `c cssklhcl cssklhcl²ck
c̋˝ k
íi´ cpmhlcdc uac ti`s˝ti`sc̋k
ck di 8^. \cji`dk-si qui cs
pkt iˎ `lhcs a´
pktˎi`lhcs acxhacs
ćxhacs qui pkdia sir dhsshpcdcs pimks Nheurc 9.387
s˝ck, rispilthvcai`ti, 3/2U i 3U , ditir-
rishstkris sc̋k,
ahì si ks rishstkris hr˝ hrck
c̋k quihacr ku `˝
`ck,
c̋k, gusthffi- :3. Dhsp˝
Dhspk̋i-si
ki-si di ducs mˎccapcdcs
apcdcs M3 i M: si`dk M37
lc`dk suc rispkstc lka lćmlumks.lćmlumks. 366U-::6^
366U -::6^ i M:7 46U-::6^
46U-::6^. Disi
Disigc`dk
gc`dk-si
-si k
a´
aćxhak
cxhak di pktˎii`lhc
`lhc i dhspk`dk-si tcaj´
tcajía
ia di uac
3>. Yac nk`ti di cmhai`tcl
cmhai`tcl²ck
c̋˝ k di 36^/
36^/:6:6U U divi divi nk`ti di ::6^, diviaks ak`tcr ua lhrluhtk s irhi,í´ rhi,
cm
cmha
hai`
i`tc cˎ apcdcss piq
tcrr 9 mcapcdc piqui` ui`cs
cs i lkm
lkmkrh
krhdcs
dcs di pcrcmimk ku k risumtcdk ií´ k aisak `ks dkhs lhrluh-
3^/:66aU pcrc i`nihtcr uac ćrvkri crvkri
´ di @ctcm. \c- tks; Gusthffiqui.
ji`dk qui cs mˎcˎ apcdcs quihaca, lcsk c ti`s ck
mcapcdcs c̋˝ k sk-
jri imcs sigc achkr dk qui c ispilhffilcdc, riskmvir ::. Cssh
Cssh`cmi
`cmi virdcdihr
virdcdihrk
k (^) ku ncmsk (N). Gusthffiq
Gusthffiqui
ui cs
isti prkjmiac usc`dk ua rishstkr ia s´ s irhi
írhi lka k ncmscs.
lk`gu`tk di mˎcapcdcs.
capcdcs. Sucm k vcmk vcmkrr dk rishstkr
rishstkr i
(c)
(c) ( ) @k lhr lhrlu
luht htk
k pc
pcrc
rcmi
mimk
mk,, ti
tiri
riak
akss ua
uacc
di suc pktˎi`lhc
i`lhc dhsshpcdc;
achkrr dhss
achk dhsshpcl c̋˝ k di pktˎ
hpcl² ck iˎ `lhc `k rishstkr di
pkti`lhc
35. Vc
Vcrc
rc uac ffimihrc cˎ apcdcs di @ctcm nkrca is-
ffimihrc di m capcdcs ai`kr rishstˎi`lhc.
i`lhc.
lkmbh
lkmbhdcs
dcs pcrc
shk`cdc mˎ
m ccapcdcs
ˎ apcdcs di :6℮. Tcmdi
uac h`ti`shdcdi ffimihrc istć dhai`-
istć
lkrri`ti heucm c (j)
(j) siap
( )ri@u
siapri @ua a lh
lhrl
ksrluh
tiriaks
tiria uhtk
tk lka
uac lka dkhs
dkdhsshpcl
achkr hs rish
dhssh rishst
pcl²stkr
ck kris
c̋˝ k is,
di,
<66aC. Suc`tcs mˎcapcdcscapcdcs disti thpk divia sir mh- pktˎii`lhc
`lhc `k rishstkr di achkr rishstˎi`lhc,
i`lhc, h`-
ecdcs ia s´ sirhi
írhi pcrc qui sigc pkss´
pkssĳvim
ĳ́vim nczir c lk- dipi`di`tiai`ti, si k lhrluhtk ií´ s íirhi
´ rhi ku pc-
ìxc̋k fc uac ridi di ::6^ ;
ìx˝ck rcmimk.
Í
(l) ( ) Ks lhrluhtks síirhi ´ rhi i pc pcrc

rcmi
mimk
mk,, (c
(c)) ( ) Lk`n
Lk`nkr
krai
ai ccuauaiì`tc
tcak
akss k `´ ù́airk
uairk di
lk`sth
lk` sthtui
tuia-s
a-si,
i, ris
rispil
pilth
thvc
vcai`
ai`ti,
ti, ia lhr-
lhr- cpcrimbks mhecdks ùac rishdˎrishdii`lhc,
ˎ `lhc, cuai`tc
luhtk dhvhskr di ti`s˝
ti`sck
c̋k i lhrluhtk dhvhskr di iˎ `lhc im´
k vcmkr dc pktˎ
pkti`lhc imitrhlc
ítrhlc tktcm h`stcmcdc `k
lkrri`ti. lhrluhtk.
(d)
(d) ( ) @k @k lhr
lhrlu
luht
htk
k pcr
pcrcm
cmim
imk
k c ri
rish
shstiˎ `lhc tktcm
stˎi`lhc (j) ( ) @ksḱ´ s sck
c̋˝ k pk`tks di ua lhrluhtk k`di si
íi´ siapri ai`kr dk qui k ai`kr vcmkr di ri- uìa < ku achs lk`dutkris bcvi`dk ìmis
iˎ `lhc cssklhcdc.
shstˎi`lhc
shst uac dhvhsc̋k
dhvhs˝ck di lkrri`ti.
(i)
(i) ( ) @ua
@ua lh lhrl
rluh
uhtk
tk pcrc
pcrcmi
mimk
mk di ris
rishs
hstk
tkri
riss (l
(l)) ( ) \ \ia
iapr
prii mmhe
heca
caks
ks k nus
nus´ĳ́ĳvim
vim ia pcrcmimk
iˎ `lhc
heuchs, jcstc dhvhdhraks k vcmkr dc rishstˎ
rishsti`lhc lka k lhrluhtk , di akdk qui, si imi quihacr,
di ua dimis pimk `k di rishstkris, pcrc kjtir- k lhrluhtk ffilcrć
ffilcrć cjirtk.
aks k vcmkr di Zt . (d
(d)) ( ) Ya llhr hrlu
luht
htk
k pcrc
pcrcmi mimk
mk nkr
nkrac
acdk
dk p
pkr
kr uua
a
rishstkr di 99℮ i uac mˎ cˎ apcdc di 446U-
mcapcdc
:<. Dhspk
Dhspk`dk
`dk-si
-si dks lh`lk
lh`lk tir
tirah`
ah`chs
chs ix ixhst
hsti`t
i`tis
is `k
::6^,, pkdir
::6^ pkdirhc
hc sir prktiehdk pkr ua nus´ nusĳ́vim
ĳvim di
jmklk dc ffieurc 9.:6, ncl²²cc cs mhecl²kis
k̋˝ is ìlissćrhcs
ìlissćrhcs
9C quc`d
q uc`dk
k c ccsskl
ssklhcl c̋˝ k nkr mhecdc ia ::6^.
hcl² ck
di akdk qui cs mˎcˎ apcdcs nu`lhkìa lkrritcai`ti.
mcapcdcs
Lk`shdiri qui cs mˎcapcdcs
capcdcs s c̋ck
˝ k heuchs, lugks vcmk- :5. Ya lhrluhtk pcrcm ĳ́dk di Z3 1 3: ℮
imk ií´ lk`sthtu´
pcrcmimk lk`sthtuĳdk
ris `kah`chs s˝
sck
c̋k 3:^-9U i qui c ti`s˝ ti`sck
c̋ k i`tri k i Z: 1 2 ℮ si`dk cmhai`tcdk pkr uac ti`sc̋k ti`s˝ck di
pkshthvk i k ìecthvk dc nk`ti vcmi7 :4^. Lcmlumi c lkrri`ti tktcm dk lhrluhtk, cs lkrri`-
tis qui lhrlumca ctrcv´
ctrcvis
í s di Z3 i Z: i c pktˎ iˎ `lhc
pkti`lhc
(c) :4^
ia lcdc rishstkr.
(j) 3:^
:2. Trˎiiss rishstkris (Z3 1 8 ℮, Z: 1 > ℮, Z< 1 32 ℮)
sc̋ck
˝ k cssklhcdks
Z:, lhrlumc uac ialkrri`ti
pcrcmimk,disi`dk
3, 9C.qui, Dictrcv
ctrcv´
Diti
tira is
íhì
rah` sidic
ti`s˝c̋ck
ti`s k dc nk`ti, cs lkrri`tis ctrcv
ctrcví́iss di Z3 i Z<
i cs pktˎ iˎ `lhcs dhsshpcdcs `ks rishstkris.
pkti`lhcs
iˎ s rishst
:8. Tris rishstkri
kriss di rishstiˎ `lhcs im
rishstˎi`lhcs imí́itrhlc
trhlcss heuchs
heuchs c
Z 1 36 ℮, Z: 1 39 ℮ i Z< 1 <6 ℮, istc̋k ist˝ck cssklhc-
dks ia pcrcmimk i mhecdks c uac nk`ti qui nkrìli
uac lkrri`ti tktcm di 866aC. Diti Ditirahì
rahì k vcmkr
vcmkr
Nheurc 9.:67 dc7
(c) lkrri`ti qui pirlk

pirlkrri
rri lcdc ua dks rishstkris?
:4. Ti`dk skai`ti
skai`ti dkhs rishstkris
rishstkris,, usc`dk-ks
usc`dk-ks ua pkr
viz, ku ia s´ sirhi,
írhi, ku ia pcrcmimk, pkdiaks kjtir (j) pktˎ
pktii`lhc
ˎ `lhc dhsshpcdc ia lcdc rishstkr?
rishstˎi`lhcs di <, 4, 3: i 3> ℮. Cs rishstˎi`lhcs
i`lhcs dks (l) pktiˎ `lhc tktcm dhsshpcdc pimk lhrluhtk?
pktˎi`lhc
rishstkris sc̋k7
s˝ck7
(d) pktiˎ `lhc tktcm dhsshpcdc pimk lhrluhtk, si Z3
pktˎi`lhc
quihacr (cjrhr).
(c) < i 4
(j) 4 i 2 <6. Trˎis
i s cpcrim
cpcrimbks
bks heuchs
heuchs,, lka rishstˎ
rishstˎi`lhc
i `lhc di 426℮
(l
(l)) 3: i < lcdc ua, ist˝
istck
c̋k mhecdks ia pcrcmimk ùac ridi di
336^ . Ditirahì7
(d) 3: i 4
(i) 2 i 3> (c) c lkrri`
lkrri`ti
ti tktcm dk lhr
lhrluhtk
luhtk??
(j) k vcmkr
vcmkr di Ht, si h`trkd
h`trkduzh
uzhrak
rakss ia pcrcmimk
pcrcmimk
:9. Suc`dk mhecaks ia pcrcmimk, dkhs rishstkris,
rishstkris, lcdc lka ks cpcrimbks ducs mˎcapcdcs
capcdcs heuchs, lka
ua lka rishstˎi`lhci`lhc heucm c Z, k rishstkr iqühvcmi`ti
iqühvcmi`ti iˎ `lhc di ::6℮ lcdc uac.
rishstˎi`lhc
rishst
dc cssklhcl
cssk lhcl² c̋ck
˝ k i7
í´ 7
iˎ s cpcrimbks lka rishstˎ
<3. Tris iˎ `lhcs di 32℮, 366℮ i
rishsti`lhcs
(c) Z/: <:℮ ss˝ck
c̋k mhecdks ia pcrcmimk ia ::6^.
(j) Z/4
(c) Vcrc k nu`lhk`c
nu`lhk`cai`tk
ai`tk dist
distii lhrluhtk
lhrluhtk,, íi´ achs
(l) :Z h`dhlcdk uthmhzcr-si
uthmhzc r-si ua nus´
nu sĳ́vim
ĳvim di 9C, 39C ku
(d) 4Z <6C; Gusthffiqui.
(i) @DZ (j
(j)) \i,
\i, `k
`k muec
muecrr dc rish
rishstˎ
stˎii`lh
`lhcc di 32℮, h`trkduzhr-
aks uac mˎccapcdc
apcdc di 366℮, diviriaks uthmh-
:>. C`cmh
C`cmhsi
si cs cffiracthvcs
cffiracthvcs c sie
sieuhr
uhr i lkmkq
lkmkqui
ui ”^‑ si zcr `k lhrluhtk ua nus´
nusĳvim
ĳ́vim di 36C, 39C ku
virdcdihrcs ku ”N‑ si ncmscs. Gusthffiqui cs ncmscs. <6C; Gusthffiqui.
Í
<:. @ua
@uacc h`d´ h`dústrh
ustrhcc k`di c ridi ií´ ::6^, íi´ uthmhzcdk ua (c) k tim
timiv
ivhsk
hskr,
r, k cqu
cquili
ilidkr
dkr,, k mhquhd
mhquhdhffil
hffilcdk
cdkrr i
nus´
nusĳvim
ĳ́vim di 96C pcrc lk`trkmcr c i`trcdc di lkrri`ti. vh`ti mˎ
mccapcdcs?
ˎ apcdcs?
@istc h`d´h`dustrhc
ústrhc ixhstia 366 a´ acquh`cs,
ćquh`cs, tkdcs mhec- (j) k lbuvi
lbuvihrk
hrk i k cquilid
cquilidkr?
kr?
dcs ia pcrcmim
pcrcmimk.
k. \i c rish
rishstˎ
stˎi`lhc
i`lhc imítrhlc
imítrhlc di lcdc
ć´ quh`c ií´ di <<6℮, qucm ií´ k ùairk
acquh`c ú´ airk aácxhak
ćxhak di (l) k lbuv
lbuvihrk,
ihrk, llh`lk
h`lk mmˎccapcdcs
ˎ apcdcs i k cquilidkr.
aćquh`cs
aćquh`cs qui pkdia nu`lhk`cr shaumtcìcai`ti;
<<. Tiaks ua lhrluhtk pcrcmimk

pcrcmimk nkracdk pkr dkhs ri- Lhrluhtk Ahstk
shstkris Z3 1 3 o℮ i Z: 1 <<6 ℮, k`di si cpmhlc
<5. Di clkrdk
clkrdk lka k lhr
lhrluh
luhtk
tk cjchxk
cjchxk (ffieurc
(ffieurc 9.:
9.:<),
<),
39^. \cj
\cji`d
i`dk-s iˎ `lhcs aćcxhacs
k-sii qui cs pktˎ
pkti`lhcs ´ xhacs qui pk-
dhec7
dia sir dhsshpcdcs pimks rishstkris sc̋k,
s˝ck, rispilthv
rispilthvc-
c-
ai`ti, 3/:U i 3/4U , ditirahì si ks rishstkris (c) quc
qucmm dc
dcss mˎcapcdcs
capcdcs tia k jrhmbk achkr.
hrc̋k
hr˝ck quihacr ku `˝
`c̋k,
ck, gusthffilc`dk suc rispkstc lka
(j) k qui clk
clk`tili
`tilir´
rćc lka k jrhmbk di lcdc uac
l´
lćmlumks.
cmlumks.
cˎ apcdcs si quihacr M<.
dcs mˎ
mcapcdcs
<4. @k lhrluhtk dcdk (ffieurc 9.:3)
9.:3),, lk`shdirc
lk`shdirc`dk
`dk qui
Ht 1 :96 aC, ditirahì cs lkrri`tis qui h`dhlca
ks capir´
capirĳaitrks
ĳ́aitrks 3, : i <, i k vcmkr di Z<.
Nheurc 9.:<7
Nheurc 9.:37
<2. @c ffieur
ffieurcc 9.:4, cs mˎmccapcdcs
ˎ apcdcs 3, : i < s c̋ck
˝ k hd
hdˎii`thlcs
ˎ `thlcs
i k lhrluhtk íi´ cmhai`tcdk pkr uac nk`ti di ti`s˝ ti`sc̋k
ck
<9. @k lhrluht
lhrluhtk
k cjchxk (ffieurc 9.::) ditirahì
ditirahì Zt i Ht
lk
lk`t `t´ĳùc
ĳ́ ùc.. K qui
qui cl clk`
k`ti
tili
li lka k jrhm jrhmbk
bk dcs
`cs sieuh`tis
s ieuh`tis lk`dhl² kis7
k̋˝ is7
ˎ apcdc
mccapc dcss 3 i : ck si nilbnilbcr
cr k h`ti
h`tirr rrup
uptktkrr dc
(c) Lb3, Lb:
Lb: i Lb< nilbcdcs.
nilbcdcs. mˎccapcdc
apcdc <;
(j) Lbm i Lb: nilbcdcs
nilbcdcs?? Lb< cjirtc.
cjirtc. MCˎ AVCDC 3 ˎ
MCAVCDC :
(l) Lbm i Lb< nilbcdcs
nilbcdcs?? Lb: cjirtc.
cjirtc. (c) cuai`tc dhahùh
(d) Lb: i Lb< nilbcdcs?
nilbcdcs? Lbm
Lbm cjirtc.
cjirtc. (j) cuai`tc cuai`tc
(l) dhahùh `c̋ck
˝ k vcrhc
(d) `c̋ck
˝ k vcrhc dhahùh
(i) `c̋ck
˝ k vcrhc cuai`tc
Nheurc 9.::7
<>. Ia uac ris

rishdiˎ `lhc (lhrluhtk pcrcmimk) s˝
hdˎi`lhc sck
c̋k uscdks
iv
ivi`tuc
i`tucmai`t
mai`tii dhvirsk
dhvirskss cpcrimbks
cpcrimbks imímítr
itrhlk
hlks,
s, `ks
quchs i`lk`trc-si ispilhffilcdc c pktˎpkt ii`lhc
ˎ `lhc `kah`cm
di lcdc ua. \c̋k
\˝ck imis7 timivhskr
timivhskr (::6U),
(::6U), mˎcapcdcs
capcdcs
(366U lcdc uac), cquilidkr
cquilidkr (3oU),
(3oU), mhquhdhffilcd
mhquhdhffilcdkrkr Nheurc 9.:47
(<66U) i lbuvihrk (9666U). C ddp `kah`cm di tk-
dks ks cpcrimbks
dc lcsc ií´ ::6^
ií´ ::6^, si`dk quii ixhsti
c ddp ua
dc nus´
ridi
nus imítrhlc
imítrhlc
ĳ́vim
ĳvim eircm <8. @k lhrluhtk cjchx
cjchxk
k (ffieurc 9.:9), quc`dk si nilbc c
lbcvi ”\‑, prkvklc-si7
prkvklc-si7
di :9C. Dhec i gusthffiqui lka lćmlu lćmlumks
mks si
s i k nus´
nu sĳ́vim
ĳvim
quihacrćć ku `˝
quihacr `ck
c̋k quc`dk nkria mhecdks shaumtcì- (c) cuai
cuai`tk
`tk dc lkrri`ti
lkrri`ti ia Z:
cai`ti7 (j) dhah
dhahùh c̋˝ k dk vcmkr di Z<
ùhll² ck
Í
(l) cuai`
cuai`tk
tk dc lkrri`ti
lkrri`ti ia Z<
(d) cuai`tk
cuai`tk di ti`sc̋k
ti`s˝ck ia Z:
(i) cuai`
cuai`tk
tk dc rishs
rishstˎ
tˎi`lhc
i`lhc tktcm dk lhrluhtk
Nheurc 9.:57
Nheurc 9.:97
46. Lcdc rishstkr dc ffieurc 9.:> pkssuh uac rishstˎ rishstˎi`lhc

i`lhc
Z. K rishstkr iquhvcmi`ti cf cssk
cs sklh
lhcl
cl² ck
c̋˝ k dc ffieurc i`-
tri ks pk`tks C i J ií´ heucm c7
(c) Z/4
(j) Z/:
(l) Z
(d) 4Z
(i) :Z
Nheurc 9.:27
Nheurc 9.:>7
43. @k lhrluh
lhrluhtk
tk dc ffieurc
ffieurc 9.:59.:5 cjc
cjchxk
hxk,, ix
ixhsthstia
ia tr
trˎis
iˎ s
cˎ apcdcs heuchs, trˎ
mcapcdcs iˎ s lbcvis,
tris lbcvis, ua nus´
nusĳvim
ĳ́ vim i uac
nk`ti. \cji`dk-si qui ixhstia vćrhks
vćrhks thpks di lhr-
luhtks (shapmis, s´
sirhi,
írhi, pcrcmimk i ahstk), rispk`dc
cs sieuh`tis pireu`tcs7
(c) Lka cs trˎ

trˎis
is lbcvis cjirtcs, qucm k thpk di lhr-
luhtk kjthdk;
(j) Nilbc`dk-s
Nilbc`dk-sii cpi`cs lb:, k lhrlu
lhrluhtk
htk si trc`s-
nkrac; Ia lcsk cffiracthvk, qucm k `kvk lhr-
luhtk;
(l) \i cpi`cs lb3 i lb: is
isthviria
thviria nilbcd
nilbcdcs,
cs, qucm
k lhrluhtk kjthdk;
(d) Suchs cs lbcvis
lbcvis qui divia
divia sir nilbcdcs
nilbcdcs di
akdk qui k nus´

nusĳvim
ĳ́vim quihai;
4:. Dit
Ditira
irahìhì c rishstˎ
rishstˎi`lhc
i`lhc tktcm ku iquhvcmi`ti dcs Nheurc 9.:87
cssk
cs sklh
lhcl
cl² kis
k̋˝ is di rishstkris dcs ffieurcs 9.:2 (C i J) i
9.:8 (L i D).
ZKDZHEK \ KYWC I C M^CLHZ TC^CZI\ 9: ˎ
/H N\ YM
Í
Nheurc 9.<67
4<. @k lhrluht
lhrluhtk
k dc ffieurc 9.<6, ditira
ditirahì7
hì7 V3 , H: , H< ,
^CL i V4 .
44. @k lhrluht
lhrluhtk
k dc ffieurc 9.<3,
9.<3, ditir
ditirahì7
ahì7 H3 , V: , Ht i
^LJ .
Nheurc 9.<<7
Nheurc 9.<37
49. @k lhrluh
lhrluhtk
tk dc ffieurc 9.<:, ditirahì7
ditirahì7 ^LJ , Vt , Hx i
Z< .
Nheurc 9.<47
Nheurc 9.<:7
4>. @k lhrluh
lhrluhtk ditirahì7 Hx , ^LD , V3 ,
tk dc ffieurc 9.<<, ditirahì7
Z4 i V4.
45. @k lhrluhtk dc ffieurc 9.<4, ditirahì7 H3 , V3 , Z< , V4

i Vt .
ZKDZHEK \ KYWC I C M^CLHZ TC^CZI\ 9< ˎ
/H N\ YM
Í
42. @k lhrluh
lhrluhtk ditirahì7 H y , Hx , Z3 , V4
tk dc ffieurc 9.<9, ditirahì7
i ^LJ .
Nheurc 9.<57
Nheurc 9.<97
48. @k lhrluh
lhrluhtk Lcmlumi Ht i Vt , si7
tk dc ffieurc 9.<> Lcmlumi
(c) tkd
tkdcs
cs ccss mˎcapcdcs
capcdcs isthviria ia jka istcdk?
(j) quihacr
quihacr cpi`cs
cpi`cs M:?
(l) quiha
quihacr
cr cpi`cs
cpi`cs M9.
Dcdks7 Z M3 1 2℮? ZM: 1 :℮? ZM< 1 4℮? ZM4 1 <℮?

ZM9 1 39℮
Nheurc 9.<27

ixirlĳlhks
ĳ́lhks ùa´
ùairhlks
írhlks
Lhrluhtk \´
\irhi
írhi
2. c) Zt 1 > , 9℮? j) H 1 < C? l) ^ CL 1 3:^ ? ^ LJ 1
5, 9^ ? d) V3 1 <>U ? V: 1 ::, 9U
8. c) H 1 : , 9C? j)^CL 1 9^ ? ^LD

^L D 1 36^ ? ^ DJ 1
39^ ? l) V3 1 3:, 9U ? V : 1 :9U ? V< 1 <5, 9U
Nheurc 9.<>7 36. ^CJ 1 366^ ? Vt 1 36U
96. @k lhrllhrluhtuhtkk dc ffieur

ffieurcc 9.<5,
9.<5, dhsp˝
dhspk̋i-si
ki-si dks sieuh`- 33. ^ CL 1 36^ ? ^ LD 1 34^ ? ^ DJ 1 >^ ? j) Z < 1
33. c) ^C
tis imiai`t
imiai`tks7 ks7 dkhs
dkhs rishst
rishstkri
kriss hd iˎ `thlks (366℮
hdˎi`thlks <℮
lcdcc ua),
lcd ua), uac nk`ti nk`ti di ti`s˝
ti`sc̋k
ck (:2^), ua ca-
pir
pir´ĳ́ĳait
aitrk rk,, uac ˎ apcdc
uac mccapc dc (<(<^
^-3-3,9
,9U)
U) i ffiks ffiks di 3:. c) H 1 3, 9C? j) ^CL 1 39^ ? ^LD
3:. ^L D 1 ::, 9^ ?
mhec
mh ecll²ck.
c̋˝ k. Vrit
Vritiì`di
di-s
-sii ak
ak`t`tcr
cr ua lhrlulhrluht
htk
k ia ^ DJ 1 5, 9^ ? l) ^CJ 1 49^ ? d) Vt 1 >5, 9U
qui c mˎcapcdcc apcdc nu`lhkì di clkrdk lka cs sucs
isp
ispilh
ilhffilc k̋˝ is, i k capir´
ffilcll²kis, capirĳaitrk
ĳ́aitrk clusi c lkrri`ti 3<. c) H 1 3 , :9C? V 1 36 , 8<U ? j) H 1 3 , >5C? V 1
3<.
qui pcssc pkr imc. 38, 9:U
(c) Suc
Sucmm ií´ c lkrri`ti qui k capir´
capirĳaitrk
ĳ́aitrk h`dh-
34. c) H 1 6, 9C? j) Z3 1 <, 9℮
34.
lcrć;
lcr´
c;
(j) Ak`ti k lhrluhtk,
lhrluhtk, h`lmuh`dk
h`lmuh`dk ks imiai`tks
imiai`tks ì- 39. V3 1 6, ::U (quihac)? V: 1 6, >2U (`c̋k
(`˝ck quihac)?
lissćrhks.
liss ćrhks.
93. Vcrc k lhrluhtk di lkrri`ti lk`t´

lk`tĳ́ùc
ĳùc dc ffieurc 9.<2, 3>. Z 1 :9℮? V 1 3U
tiaks7 ^ 1 <4^ , Z 3 1 4℮, Z : 1 4℮, Z < 1 <, :℮, 35.
35. ` 1 <
<5
5 mˎccapcdcs
apcdcs
Z4 1 :℮, Z 9 1 >℮ i Z > 1 :℮. DitirDitirahì
ahì k vcmkr
dc quidc di ti`sc̋k
ti`s˝ck h`dhlcdc
h` dhlcdc pimk vkmtĳ́aitrk
vkmt´ĳaitrk ^ 4. 32. Z 1 >46℮? V 1 46U
/H N\ YM
Í
Lhrluhtk Vcrcmimk
:5. c) Ht 1 9 C? j) H 3 1 : C? H : 1 < C? l) V3 1 42U ?

:5.
V: 1 5:U
:2. c) ^CJ 1 8^ ? j) H 3 1 3C? H < 1 6, 9C? l) V3 1 8U ?

:2.
V: 1 3<, 9U ? V < 1 4, 9U
:8.
:8. c) H 3 1 6 , 49C? H : 1 6 , <C? H < 1 6 , 39C? j) V3 1
:, 6:9U ? V: 1 3, <9U ? V< 1 6, >59U l) Vt 1
4, 69U ? d) Vt 1 :, 6:9U
<6. c) H 1 6, >259C? j) H 1 3, >259C

<6.
<3. c) Nus 11» <6C, pkhs c lkrri`ti qui lhrlu

lhrlumc
mc vcmi,
cprkxhacdcai`ti, :3, <C. j) NusNus 11»
11» 39
39C, pkhs
c lkrri`
lkrri`ti
ti qui lhr
lhrlum
lumcc vc
vchi,
hi, cprkxh
cprkxhacd
acdcai
cai`ti
`ti,,
33, <C.
<:. ` 1 5
59
9 a´
acquh`cs
ćquh`cs
<<. V3 1 6, ::9U (`
(`˝c̋ck
k quihac
quihac)?
)? V: 1 6, >2:U
(quihac)?
<4. H 3 1 6, 3C? H : 1 6, 6>5C? H < 1 6, 62<C? Z< 1 3:6℮
<9. c) Zt 1 <6, 9>℮? Ht

<9. H t 1 <, >C? j) Zt 1 >2, 59℮? Ht
Ht 1
3, >C l) Zt 1 <9, 42℮? Ht 1 <, 3C? d) Zt 1 44℮? Ht 1
:, 9C
<>. c) @˝ k? H 1 3> C? j) @˝
@c̋ck? k? H 1 :5 C? l) \ha? H 1
@c̋ck?
<:, 5C
Lhrluhtk Ahstk
4:. c) Zt 1 : , 4℮? j) Zt 1 35 ℮? l) Zt 1 8 ℮? d) Zt 1
4:.
39℮
4<. V3 1 :5U ? H : 1 6, >C? H < 1 :, 4C? ^CL 1 8^ ?

V4 1 5:U
44. H 3 1 6, 3:C? V: 1 6 , <24U ? Ht 1 6 , 4C? ^L

^LJJ1
9, :^
49. ^CJ 1 <^ ? Vt 1 <U ? Hx

H x 1 6, :9C? Z< 1 9℮
4>. Hx 1 3 , >C? ^L
^LDD 1 <:^ ? V3 1 46U ? Z4 1 9 ℮?
V4 1 3:, 2U
45. H 3 1 6 , :C? V 3 1 6, 3:U ? Z < 1 :6℮? V 4 1 6 , 8U ?

Vt 1 3, 9U
42. Hy 1 6 , >C? Hx 1 6, 4C? Z3 1 <9 ℮? V4 1 9 , 4U ?

^L
^LJJ 1 36^
48. c) Ht 1 :C? Vt 1 :4U j) Ht 1 3, 28C? Vt 1 ::, >2U

48.
l) Ht 1 3, :C? Vt 1 34, 4
96. H 1 6, 9C
93. ^ 4 1 3^
/H N\ YM
Í
ZKDZHEK \ KYWC I C M^CLHZ TC^CZI\ 9> ˎ
/H N\ YM
Lcp´ĳtumk
Lcp ĳ́tumk >
Nk`tis Im´
Imitrhlcs
ítrhlcs
95
L CV ´HTYMK ´ TZHLC\
H́ TYMK > . N K@TI\ I M ITZHLC\
Í
/H N\ YM
Lcp´ĳtumk
Lcp ĳ́tumk 5
Mihs di Ohrlbbknn
98
L CV ´HTYMK
H́ TYMK 5 . M IH\ DI O HZLBBKNN
ZKDZHEK \ KYWC I C M^CLHZ TC^CZI\ >6 ˎ
/H N\ YM
iˎ `lhcs Jhjmhker´
Ziniri`lhcs Jhjmhkercffilcs
ćffilcs
_3Q CZLHVZI
CZLHVZITH,TH, @hlkmc
@hlkmcèièimk
mk Dimm‘
Dimm‘ i EZC@
EZC@CDKCDK,, _35Q EK@L ² CMÎ\,
CMÎ\, Cur íimhk
´ mhk Nhmbk i TK\LC@K, Lcr-
@imsk` ^hmbi`c - N´
Nĳshlc
ĳ́shlc <. \˝
\ck ´
c̋k Vcumk7 Cthlc,
Ćthlc, 3823. mks - N´
Nĳshlc
ĳ́shlc i Zicmhdcdi. ^km.<. \˝
\ck
c̋k Vcumk7 \lhphkì,
3885.
_:Q CZ@KMD,
CZ@KMD, Zkjirt. Nu`dcai`tks
Nu`dcai`tks di Imitrkt
Imitrktíl`hlc.
íl`hlc.
\c̋k
\˝ck Vcumk7 IVY, 3859. _32Q EKW
_32Q EKWWH,
WH, Ehu
Ehusi sipi
pi Ehkvc
Ehkvc`h`h Acssha
Acsshak
k - Lhr
Lhrluh
luhtks
tks
aceì́thlk
ace`´
ithlks.
s. \˝
\ c̋ck ´
k Vcumk7 Irhlc,
Írhlc, 388>.
_<Q JKLBITTH
JKLBITTH,, Vcumk Vcumk i AI@D
AI@DIM,IM, Lcrmks Cmjirtk.
cˎ ahlc i Imitrkaceìthsak. Zhk di Gcìhrk7 _38Q EZCX
Imitrkdh`ˎcahlc
Imitrkdh` EZCX, C. & UCMMCLI, CMMCLI, E.C. - Imit Imitrktrktíl`hlc
íl`hlc
Ixpid, 3853. - Vrh
Vrh`l
`l´ĳphk k̋˝ is. Zhk di Gcì
ĳ́phk i Cpmhlcl² kis. Gcìhrk
hrk77 MhMhvrk
vrkss
T´
Tíl`hlks
il`hlks i Lhi`
Lhi`t´
tĳ́ffilks,
ĳffilks, 385>.
_4Q JKXMI\T
JKXMI\TCD, CD, Zkjirt & @C\BIM\OH, Mkuhs. Dhs-
pkshthvks Imitrˎkˎ `hlks i Tikrhc di Lhrluhtks. < id. Zhk _:6
Imitrk`hlks _:6QQ EYI
EYIZZH ZZH@H, ´ mhk Vir
@H, Díimhk Virihr
ihrcc - Imitrk í´ l`hlc.. \ck
Imitrkttil`hlc c̋˝ k
di Gcìhrk7 Vri`thli Bcmm, 3824. ´
Vcumk7 Irhlc,
Írhlc, 3886.
_:3Q EYIZZH@H,
EYIZZH@H, D´ Dimhk
ímhk Virihrc - H`stcmcl k̋˝ is Im´
H `stcmcl² kis Imitrhlcs
ítrhlcs
_9Qtrkt
LC^
LCí^
trkt´ CMLC@TH,
il`hlc
l`hlc pcrc T´ V.G. Ai`dis
Til`hlks
íl`hlks - Nu`dcai`tks
kˎ `hlc, 3> id.di
ia Imitrˎ
Imitrk`hlc, ZhkImi-
di Vridhchs. \c̋k ´
\˝ck Vcumk7 Irhlc,
Írhlc, 3886.
Gcìhrk7 Mhvrks Tíl`hlks
Tíl`hlks i Lhi`t´
Lhi` tĳ́ffilks,
ĳffilks, 3829.
_::Q
_::Q EY EY\\
\\KKU, Ah
Ahmt
mtk`
k` - Im Imit
itrh
rhlh
lhdc
dcdi
di Jć
Jćsshl
hlcc -
_>Q LI@CNKZ - Vrkercac
Vrker cac di Idulcl
Idulc l²c̋ck
˝ k Til`hlc
í´ l`hlc - I`- c̋˝ kVcumk7 AlErcw-Bhmm, Lkm. \lbcua, 3829.
\ckVcumk7
c̋˝ k ia Imitrkt´
sh`k H`dustrhcm - Bcjhmhtcl²ck Imitrktil`hlc.
íl`hlc. \˝
\ck
c̋k
_:<Q
_:<Q BC
BCMM
MMHD
HDCCX, Dc
Dcvh
vhd,
d, ZIZI\@\@HL
HLO,
O, Zkji
Zkjirt
rt i
Vcumk7 Li`cnkr, 3829.
OZC@I, Oi`ìtb - N´
Nĳshlc
ĳ́shlc < - 4 id. Zhk di Gcìhrk7
_5Q
_5Q L
LBC
BCÎ Î\,
\, Zk
Zkji
jirt
rtk
k - Acù
Acùcm
cm di H` H`st
stcm
cmcl
cl²kis
k̋˝ is MTL, 388>.
Im´
Imitrhlcs.
ítrhlcs. Zhk di Gcìhrk7 Til`kprh`t, 3823.
_:4Q OC\
_:4Q OC\CCTOH@
TOH@ - Nu`
Nu`dca
dcai`t
i`tks
ks di Imi
Imitrk
trkttíil`hlc
´ l`hlc -
_2Q
_2Q LBZ
LBZH\ H\TH
THI,
I, Lm
Lmcr
cri`
i`li
li ^. - ImImia
iai`
i`tk
tkss di Im
Imi-
i- Akslku, Ahr.
trktíl`hlc
trktíl`hlc - Vkrtk Cmieri7 Emkjk, 38>8. _:9Q ACZOY\,
ACZOY\, Ktćvhk.
Ktćvhk. Lhrluhtks Imítrhl
Imítrhlks7
ks7 Lkrri`ti
Lkrri`ti
Lk`t´ĳùc
Lk`t ĳ́ùc i Lkr
Lkrri`
ri`ti
ti Cmt
Cmtir`
ir`cdc c̋˝ k Vcumk
cdc.. \ck ´ rhlc,
Vcumk.. Irhlc,
Í
_8Q LHVIMMH,
LHVIMMH, Acrlk
Acrlk i ACZO
ACZOY\, Y\, Kt´
Ktcvhk
ćvhk - Lhrluhtks
ia Lkrri`ti
Lkrr i`ti Lk`t´
Lk `tĳ́ùc.
ĳùc. \ c̋ck ´
˝ k Vcumk7 Irhlc,
Írhlc, 3888. :664.
c _:>Q ACZ
ACZTHE@
THE@K@H,
K@H, Cmnk`
Cmnk`sk.
sk. Imitr
Imitrkt
ktíl`hlc
í l`hlc.. Vkr
Vkrtk
tk
_36Q LZIDIZ
_36Q LZIDIZ,, Bímhk
Bímhk - H`stcmcl²kis Imítrhlcs. 8 id.-
k̋˝ is Imítrhlcs. Cmieri. Emkjk, 3853.
Zhk di Gcìhrk7 MTL, 3824.
´ RHAK, C`tˎ
_:5Q ACRHAK,
Ć C`tk k`hk
ˎ `hk i CM
CM^^CZI@EC,
CZI@EC, JictJictrhz
rhz -
_33Q LYTMIZ,
LYTMIZ, Vbhmm
Vbhmmhp
hp - C`´
C`cmhsi
ćmhsi di Lhrluhtks LC. \˝
\ck
c̋k
Lursk di N´
Nĳshlc,
ĳ́shlc, vkm. <.\˝
<.\ck
c̋k Vcumk7 \lhphkì, 3885.
Vcumk, AlErcw-Bhmm, 385>.
_:2Q @IÎ
_:2Q @IÎ\, \, Iurhlk
Iurhlk Euh
Euhacr˝
acrc̋i
ciss di Lcst
strk
rk - Imi
mi--
_3:Q DCUI\
_3:Q DCUI\,, Lbisti
Lbistirr M.- Lursk
Lursk di Imitrk
Imitrkt´
tíl`h
il`hlc.
lc. Vkrtk
trktíl`hlc
trktíl`hlc Eircm. Vimktcs7 Id. Y`hv. Ynpim, 3888.
Cmieri7 Emkjk, 3855. vkm.3-:.
_:8Q ZIWI@DI,
ZIWI@DI, Ir`cÌr`c`hh dc Akttc - Actir
Actirhchs
hchs Yscdks
_3<Q IDAH@H\TIZ, Gksipb C. - Lhrluhtks ítrhlks, :c
Lhrluhtks Im´
Imitrhlks,
ia Imitrkt´
Imitrktil`hlc.
íl`hlc. Zhk di Gcìhrk7 H`tirlhˎ
H`tirlhii`lhc.
ˎ `lhc. 3855.
id. \c̋k
\˝ck Vcumk7 AlErcw-Bhmm, 3829.
_<6Q \CMAIZK@,
\CMAIZK@, Zkjirtk C. - H`trkdul² c̋ck
˝ k cf Imitrhlh-
_34Q
_34Q NI
NIZI
ZI@L
@LII Gr Gr.,
., MI
MIAK
AK@@ & \TIV
\TIVBI
BI@\
@\K@
K@ - dcdi i ck Aceìthsak. \c̋k
\˝ck Vcumk, 3853.
k
Lu
Lurs
rsk
k di N´
N ĳshlc
ĳ́shlc - Imitrkace`
Imitrkaceìths
ithsak,
ak, 4 vkm. \˝
\ck
c̋k
Vcumk, Idecrd Jmülbir.
Jmülbir. _<3Q \CZCH^C,
\CZCH^C, Dimlyr Jcrjksc - Actirhchs Im´
Imitrhlks.
ítrhlks.
Euc`cjcrc Dkhs.
_39QQ NHTWEI
_39 NHTWEIZCM
ZCMD,
D, C.I
C.I.. - Aćcquh`cs
´ quh`cs Im
Imítrhlcs.
ítrhlcs. \˝
\ck
c̋k
Vcumk, AlErcw-Bhmm, 3859. _<:Q \LBAHDT
\LBAHDT,, Ucmnri
cmnridk
dk - Acti
Actirhchs
rhchs Im´
Imíitrhlks.
trhlks. \
\˝ck
c̋k
Vcumk7
Vcumk7 Idecrd
Idecrd Jm
Jmü̈
ulbir,
lbir, 3858.
_3>Q NKUMIZ,
NKUMIZ, Zhlbcrd G. - Imitrhlhdcdi- Vrh`l´
Vrh`lĳ́phk
ĳphk i
Cpmh
Cp mhlc
lcll²k̋
kis
˝ is - vkm. 3.\
3.\˝ck
c̋k Vcumk7
Vcumk7 Acork`,
Acork`, AlErcw-
AlErcw- _<<Q TYZ@IZ, M.U.M.U. - Acùcm J´
Jćcshlk kˎ `hlc. 4c
shlk di Imitrk`hlc.
Bhmm, 388:. id.\˝ck
id.\c̋k Vcumk7 Biaus, 3822.
>3
ˎ @LHC\ J HJMHKEZCNHLC\
Z INIZI@LHC\
I ´ NHLC\
Ć
_<4Q ^C@ ^CMOI@JYZE

^CMOI@JYZEB, B, @KKEIZ & @I^HMMI
- Imitrhlhdcdi J´
Jćcshlc.
shlc. Zhk di Gcìhrk7 Idhtkrc Ck Mh-
vrk T´
Til`hlk,
íl`hlk, 382:.
_<9Q ^C@ ^CMOI@JYZE

^CMOI@JYZEB, B, @KKEIZ & @I^HMMI
- Imitrˎk
k`hlc
`hlc J´
Jćshlc
cshlc dk Istcdk \ḱmhdk.
\´kmhdk. vkm.3, Zhk di
Gcìhrk7 Idhtkrc Ck Mhvrk T´
Til`hlk,
íl`hlk, 3829.

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Cpksthmc di

Vrkn. Zkdrhek \c`tks di \kuzc

< Zishs iˎ `lhc Im´

Ks actirhchs hskmc`tis s˝ sck

Nheurc 3.<7 Hskmc`ti

ZKDZHEK \ KYWC I C M^CLHZ TC^CZI\ > ˎ

lkrpk `iecthvk sirć

Nheurc 3.97 Imitrhzcl c̋˝ k pkr Ctrhtk

Lkrpks pkdia cluaumcr lcrec im´ imitrhlc

ZKDZHEK \ KYWC I C M^CLHZ TC^CZI\ 5 ˎ

Nheurc 3.367 Lcapk Imítrhlk

ZKDZHEK \ KYWC I C M^CLHZ TC^CZI\ 2 ˎ

3.>.: ˝ i \i`thdk dk Lcapk Im itrhlk

N 7 Nkrl²c - u`hdcdi7 @ (@iwtk`)

d 7 Dhst cˎ `lhc i`tri cs lcrecs - u`hdcdi7 a (aitrks)

Nheurc 3.337 Mh`bcs di Lcapk Im´

@c ﬃeurc Zinirˎ iˎ `lhcslkapkrtcai`tk pkdi sir kjsir-

Nheurc 3.3<7 Mih di Lkumkaj

ZKDZHEK \ KYWC I C M^CLHZ TC^CZI\ 8 ˎ

Vkdir dcs Vk`tcs

ZKDZHEK \ KYWC I C M^CLHZ TC^CZI\ 36 ˎ

3:. Virtk di uac piqui`c isni isnirc

ZKDZHEK \ KYWC I C M^CLHZ TC^CZI\ 33 ˎ

ZKDZHEK \ KYWC I C M^CLHZ TC^CZI\ 3: ˎ

:.3 Dhniri`l² c di Vkti`lhcm

akdk qui k akvhai`tk di lcrecs `k h`stc`ti t3 pkssuh

Nheurc :.:7 C`cmkehc i`tri Imitrhlhdcdi i Bhdrćumhlc

dk tiapk (ﬃeurc :.<), kjt´

ZKDZHEK \ KYWC I C M^CLHZ TC^CZI\ 34 ˎ

Nheurc :.97 Vkti`lhcm di ua pk`tk

ZKDZHEK \ KYWC I C M^CLHZ TC^CZI\ 39 ˎ

Nheurc :.367 Ysks dk Inihtk Gkumi

t6 c t : 1 siahlhlmk pkshthvk? t : c t 4 1 siahlhlmk `iec-

ZKDZHEK \ KYWC I C M^CLHZ TC^CZI\ 3> ˎ

ZKDZHEK \ KYWC I C M^CLHZ TC^CZI\ 35 ˎ

<. ssii c piss pisskc

Tkdcs cs nunu`l k̋˝ is dk lkrpk buac`k s˝

lkrpk. @isti prklissk tkdk ks `iurˎk`hks k`hks sc̋k

• uac lkrri`ti di 36aC pkdi lcuscr dkris i ispcs-

• uac lkrri`ti di 366aC pkdi mivcr cć´ akrti, pkr-

• lkrri`tis achs imivcdcs prkvklca c pcrcdc lka-

:.< Aidhl² k˝ is ´ trhlcs

ZKDZHEK \ KYWC I C M^CLHZ TC^CZI\ 32 ˎ

• C pk`tihrc pritc divi sir lk`iltcdc

ZKDZHEK \ KYWC I C M^CLHZ TC^CZI\ 38 ˎ

ZKDZHEK \ KYWC I C M^CLHZ TC^CZI\ :6 ˎ

<. Lkapmiti cs mclu`cs c sieuhr7

4. @c ﬃeurc :.:3, tiaks uac

( ) @uac mˎ cˎ apcdc di mc`tir`c lhrlumc uac lkr-

ZKDZHEK \ KYWC I C M^CLHZ TC^CZI\ :3 ˎ

::. Lirtk lk`dutkr ií´ pirlkrrhdk pkr uac lkrri`ti di

ZKDZHEK \ KYWC I C M^CLHZ TC^CZI\ :: ˎ

trc`spkrtcdc pkr ﬃks lk`sthtu´

• uac ddp ^CJ3 prkvklcvc uac lkrri`ti H 3 ? ^ 7 Ti`s

I`u`lhcdk dc Mih di Kba7

Nheurc <.47 ^crhstkr

ZKDZHEK \ KYWC I C M^CLHZ TC^CZI\ :4 ˎ

ZKDZHEK \ KYWC I C M^CLHZ TC^CZI\ :9 ˎ

σ6 7 rishsthvhdcdi dk actirhcm ia uac tiapircturc di

c̋˝ k `kracmai`ti h`s-

ZKDZHEK \ KYWC I C M^CLHZ TC^CZI\ :> ˎ

í´ rhi lkairlhcm di rishstkris

Tcjimc <.<7 Lḱdhek