Anatomy and Physiology

Key/Legend:
Bold - word emphasis
Pink - important phrases
Purple - side comments

TABLE OF CONTENTS
NERVOUS SYSTEM 1
SENSES 12
ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

I. THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

A. FUNCTIONS
1. Sensory input​ - ​monitor internal​ and ​external stimuli
2. Integration​ - p
​ rocess sensory input​ and ​initiate response
a) Immediate response can be stored as memory/ignored
3. Controlling muscle glands​ - control major movements of the body
4. Maintaining homeostasis​ - depends on the nervous system’s ability
to detect, interpret and respond to changes in internal/external
conditions
a) Can stimulate/inhibit act. to help maintain constant internal
environment.
5. Mental activity​ - is the center; include consciousness, memory and
thinking
B. PHYSIOLOGIC DIVISION
1. Carrying impulses towards the nervous system - sensory division
a) Made up of sensory receptors
2. Carrying impulses away the nervous system - motor division
a) Muscle tissue
C. PARTS
1. CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM ​- located at the axis of the body
a) Brain
b) Spinal cord
2. PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM - ​located in the median
a) SENSORY RECEPTORS
(1) ​Senses - ​SHSTT
(a) Sight
(b) Hearing
(c) Smell
(d) Taste
(e) Touch
(2) ​Internal Environment

©Estanislao, Angelo 1NU10 1

 (a) Chemoreceptors
(b) Baroreceptors
(c) Osmoreceptors
b) MOTOR OR EFFERENT NEURONS
(1) Somatic nervous system (body) - voluntary movement
(a) skeletal muscle
(2) autonomic nervous system (regulating) - involuntary
(a) Cardiac muscle
(b) Smooth muscle
(c) Glands
(i) Parasympathetic (​chill​) rest and digest
(ii) Sympathetic (​alert​) the one that acts
when you are in danger; fight or flight
response
3. GLIAL CELLS ​- supportive cells; (neuroglia) brain cancer
a) Why do you have brain cancer if your neurons do not divide.
CANCER means uncontrollable cell division. Glial cells the
reason for brain cancer.
b) Astrocytoma - tumor of astrocytes
4. CELLS
a) ASTROCYTES ​-​ star like​ , a b ​ lood-brain barrier ​(why do we
need this because it will cause inflammation to the brain)
(1) How does o2 and nutrients go towards the brain?
They will go to the csf then pass through the blood
brain barrier
b) EPENDYMAL ​- responsible for producing the ​cerebrospinal
fluid​, P
​ rotection from a blow​ and ​bacteria
c) MICROGLIA ​- p ​ rotection​ from ​infections ​(not part of the
nervous system) part of the immune system part of the WBC
(monocyte)
d) OLIGODENDROCYTES ​- CNS insulate surrounding axons
(1) To build myelin sheath
e) SCHWANN​ - PNS insulate surrounding axons
(1) To build myelin sheath
5. NEURONS - ​generates and propagates action potential (nerve
impulse)
a) DENDRITES​ - ​sensory​, receive carry nerve impulses towards
cell body
b) AXONS ​- ​effector, ​carries it away the cell body
(1) Myelin sheath
(2) Schwann cells
(3) Node of Ranvier
6. TYPES OF NEURONS:

©Estanislao, Angelo 1NU10 2

 a) MULTIPOLAR​ - Has m ​ any dendrites and one axon; ​most
common neuron
b) BIPOLAR​ - Has ​a dendrite and an axon;​ ​eyes and the nose
c) PSEUDOUNIPOLAR ​- Appears to have ​an axon and no
dendrites;​ m
​ ost of the sensory receptors, collection of it is a
ganglia.
7. MYELIN SHEATH ​- specialized layers wrapped around axons of some
neurons
a) Formed​ by ​process of oligodendrocytes
b) Axons w/ ms - ​myelinated axons
c) Excellent insulator, prevents almost all ion movement across
the cell membrane
d) Nodes of Ranvier​ -​ gaps​, ion movement can occur here
e) Myelination ​increases speed and efficiency of action
potential
f) Multiple sclerosis - damage to the myelin sheath reason for
the slow nerve impulse
8.
CNS PNS

CELL BODIES Nuclei Ganglia

NERVE FIBERS Tracts: Nerves:

Ascending​ tracts = cranial​ nerves
sensation peripheral​ nerves
Descending​ tracts =
motor

​Myelinated​ = ​white
matter

​Unmyelinated​ =
gray​ matter
9. ELECTRICITY ​- change in charge/electric gradient
a) Major extracellular ion​ - ​sodium
b) Major intracellular ion​ - ​potassium
10. LEAK CHANNEL ​- insignificant in developing action potential
11. VOLTAGE GATED SODIUM CHANNEL ​- rapid action
12. ACTION POTENTIALS IMPULSE​ - ​transfer information​ from one part of
the body to another
13. LOCAL POTENTIAL ​- opening of the leak channels
14. RESTING MEMBRANE POTENTIAL ​- Difference between the cell
membrane
a) 70 is the threshold

©Estanislao, Angelo 1NU10 3

 b) DEPOLARIZATION​ - ​entry of sodium​ in cells, ​activation​ of a
cell
(1) Voltage gated sodium channels will open here
(2) +20
c) REPOLARIZATION ​- ​exit of sodium​ in cells, r​ esting​ period of a
cell
(1) Opening of the potassium channel
(2) Reaching hyperpolarization because your potassium
channels are rapidly active
d) Sodium potassium pump - essential to return to the threshold
or resting membrane potential
15. PROPAGATION OF ACTION POTENTIAL ​- segmental conduction;
where the action potential needs to be charged adjacent
a) Slow; that's why we have myelin sheath
D. FUNCTIONAL PROPERTIES
1. IRRITABILITY​ - ability to ​respond to a stimulus​ and convert it into a
nerve impulse or action potential
2. CONDUCTIVITY​ - ability to ​transmit the impulse​ to other neurons
muscles or glands
E. SYNAPSE​ - junction where axon of one neuron interacts with another
neuron or with other cells of an effector organ(e.g muscle /gland) - is a
structure that permits a neuron (or nerve cell) to pass an electrical or
chemical signal to another neuron or to the target efferent cell
1. Synaptic cleft
2. Neurotransmitter ​- key to open the voltage gated channels in your
2nd nerve
F. REFLEXES
1. Spinal cord - ​integration
2. involuntary, rapid, predictable response to a stimulus
a) Reflex arc ​- neuronal pathway by which reflex occurs
(1) Is the basic functional unit since it is the smallest
pathway capable of receiving stimulus and yielding
response; defense mechanism; react rapidly
(2) Sensory root- ganglion
(3) Motor root - no ganglion
3. reflexes are: ​SSIME
a) sensory receptors
b) sensory neurons
c) interneurons
d) motor neurons
e) effector organ
4. Reflex testing

©Estanislao, Angelo 1NU10 4

 a) Knee-jerk - no interneuron (protects overstretching of your
tendons)
b) Withdrawal - injury
5. DERMATOMES ​- landmarks for what part of your cervical spine is
affected
G. NERVOUS TRACTS
1. ASCENDING TRACTS -​ Sensory information
a) Spinothalamic - pain, temperature, light touch, pressure,
tickle, and itch sensations
b) Dorsal column - proprioception, touch, deep pressure, and
vibration.
c) Spinocerebellar - proprioception to cerebellum (anterior and
posterior)
2. DESCENDING TRACTS ​- Motor impulses
a) Direct lateral corticospinal - muscle tone and skilled
movements, especially hands
H. BASAL GANGLIA ​- stabilizes movement
1. Uncontrollable movement - you can see them in parkinson's
disease
a) TICS
b) TREMORS
I. CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
1. BRAIN​ - Most ​complex and large​ tissue
2. DECUSSATION​ - crossing over, the ​left brain​ ​controls​ the ​right​ ​body
and vice versa, and then goes up towards your brain center
a) FOUR REGIONS
(1) BRAIN STEM ​- regulates breathing, heart rate, blood
flow (​vital functions​)
(a) Most important
(b) if there's a condition that starts with “A” means
none
(c) Anencephaly - no brain; no cerebrum
(d) Brainstem injury - critical and will immediate
lead to death
(e) MEDULLA OBLONGATA​ - ​cardiopulmonary
center
(f) PONS VAROLI​ - relay info. between cerebrum
and cerebellumconnects upper and lower
parts of the brain. It serves as a ​message
station​ between several areas of the brain. It
helps ​relay messages from the cortex and the
cerebellum​.
(g) MIDBRAIN​ - ​vital functions

©Estanislao, Angelo 1NU10 5

 (i) SUPERIOR COLLICULUS - visual reflexes
and receive touch and auditory input -
(ii) INFERIOR COLLICULUS - major relay
centers for auditory nerve pathways in
CNS
(h) RETICULAR FORMATION ​- regulates ​cyclical
motor functions​ (e.g. respiration, walking and
chewing
(i) RETICULAR ACTIVATING SYSTEM (RAS)​ - a ​ rousal,
consciousness, sleep-wake cycle
(i) Anaesthetics suppresses RAS
(ii) Damage to this leads to coma
(2) DIENCEPHALON ​- ​homeostasis; ​regulation of body
processes, emotion, mood.
(a) Sulci -
(b) Gyri - elevation
(c) Big depression fissure
(i) Divides left and right hemisphere
(d) THALAMUS​ - serve as r​ elay centers​ for some
impulses ​before the cerebrum
(e) HYPOTHALAMUS ​- autonomic nervous system,
responsible for​ homeostasis​, matures late; main
regulator
(f) EPITHALAMUS​ - has the pineal gland
(responsible for ​melatonin levels​ - biological
clock)
(3) CEREBRUM​ - ​largest part of the brain​, has 4 lobes
(a) Higher brain function ( sensation, motor
function, memory, judgement, cognition)
(b) FRONTAL​ - ​p​ersonality, ​j​udgement, ​a​bstract
reasoning, ​s​ocial behavior,​ l​anguage
expression and ​voluntary​ ​motor function
(i) BROCA’S AREA ​- responsible for ​motor
speech​, when ​damaged​ you will lose
the ​ability to talk ​/ s​ peech production
(c) PARIETAL​ - ​interprets and integrate ​sensation
(d) OCCIPITAL​ - r​ eceives and interprets ​visual input
(e) TEMPORAL​ - evaluates ​hearing​ input and ​smell​,
memory process ​audition/auditory
(i) WERNICKE’S AREA ​- responsible for
sensory speech​, when ​damaged​ you will
lose the ​ability to understand ​/ ​speech
recognition

©Estanislao, Angelo 1NU10 6

 (f) Aphasia -​ problems in speech
(i) Broca’s aphasia​ - inability to produce
speech but can recognize speech
(ii) Wernicke’s aphasia​ - inability to
recognize speech and unable to make
comprehensible speech. (will talk to you
for random gibberish words) but enable
to make a lot of sounds.
(iii) Global aphasia ​- (massive brain
damage) inability to recognize and
produce speech.
(4) CEREBELLUM​ - ​balance and coordination, gait
(a) Most sensitive part of the brain for alcohol
(b) If cerebellum is damage you can still move
because of the motor cortex but no
coordination
(c) Ataxia​ - lack of coordination
(d) EEG (electroencephalogram)​ - measures brain
electrical activity
(e) *nice to know* ECG (electrocardiogram)​ -
measures electrical activity of the heart
(f) Encephalitis - inflammation of the brain
(5) Brain waves
(a) If you are awake ​- the more relax you are
alpha wave; the more stress you are beta
wave
(b) If you drop from beta to theta that is called
seizure (convulsions) - sudden drop in brain
activity
(c) Absence seizure - blank stare, no convulsions
but drop of brain activity
(d) When you go to sleep​ - beta to alpha to theta
and then to delta.
(e) Waking up​ - delta to theta to alpha (best
learning capability) then to beta
(f) Alpha waves
(i) relaxed but focused state
(ii) Not too easy and not too difficult =
enjoyable; balance of the two
(iii) Playing games that are competitive will
go to beta waves; where it should be
relaxing you
(iv) Conducive for learning

©Estanislao, Angelo 1NU10 7

 (g) Beta waves​ - high frequency of electrical
activity / intense;strenuous mental activity
(i) Exams, cramming, anxious, overthinking
(ii) Decrease performance (chronic)
(h) Theta waves
(i) Hypnotic “trance” state
(ii) Children below 7 yrs old have theta
waves because they are magical
thinkers.
(iii) Easily suggestive (hypnosis)
(i) Delta waves
(i) Deep sleep
(ii) Comatose (low delta) low brain activity
(iii) OSA - obstructive sleep apnea
(absence of breathing) will cause CO2
to accumulate your body will result to
decrease level of consciousness.
3. LIMBIC SYSTEM
a) Primal urges ​- hunger, emotion, sexual drive.
b) psychopathy
4. SPINAL CORD
a) A V M (​anterior is motor​)
b) P D S (​posterior is sensory​)
c) Ascending Tracts - are stimulatory ​nerve pathways​ that
transmit information via action potentials, ​somatosensory
and muscle joint sense pathways
d) Descending Tracts - are stimulatory nerve pathways that
transmit information via action potentials, ​brain to lower
motor neurons
e) Basal Nuclei​ - are important in ​p​lanning, o
​ ​rganizing and
c​oordinating ​motor movements and posture
J. PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
1. SPINAL NERVES​ - ​31 PAIRS
a) C​ERVICAL (​C1-C8​)
b) T​HORACIC (​T1-T12​)
c) L​UMBAR (​L1-L5​)
d) S​ACRAL (​S1-S5​)
e) C​OCCYGEAL (​Cx​)
2. PLEXUS​ - where ​nerves​ come ​together and separate
a) CERVICAL PLEXUS​ (​C1-C4​)
(1) Cervix - means neck
(2) Skin, muscles of post head, neck, upper part of
shoulders and diaphragm

©Estanislao, Angelo 1NU10 8

 (3) PHRENIC NERVE​ - causes the ​lungs to expand​, it
contracts the diaphragm
(4) Hemiplegia - half of your body is paralyzed
b) BRACHIAL PLEXUS ​(​C5-T1​)
(1) Brachium - arm
(2) Upper limb and several neck and shoulder muscles
(3) RADIAL NERVE​ (​responsible for extending the wrist and
fingers. It also controls sensation in part of the hand​.​)
AND ​ULNAR​ N ​ ERVE​ (​provide nerve function to the
hand​)
(4) Quadriplegia - paralysis of the torso
c) LUMBOSACRAL PLEXUS​ (L1-S4)
(1) Lower limb
(2) SCIATIC NERVE​ - movement of ​lower limb
(3) Paraplegia - paralysis of the lower limb
d) COCCYGEAL PLEXUS​ - pelvic floor
★ SPINAL NERVES T2-T11 do no joint a plexus
3. CRANIAL NERVES ​- ​12,​ serves the ​head and neck​ (​except C10​)
a) NERVES​: ​O​h ​O​h ​O​h! ​T​o ​T​ouch ​A​nd ​F​eel A
​ ​ ​G​irls ​V​agina. ​A​h,
H​eaven!
b) FUNCTION​: ​S​ome ​S​ay ​M​oney M ​ ​atter ​B​ut ​My ​ ​B​rother ​S​ays ​B​ig
B​oobs ​M​atter ​M​ore
c)
CRANIAL NERVE # CRANIAL NERVE FUNCTION

I O​lfactory Sense of ​smell

II O​ptic Vision

III O​culomotor Pupil constriction​,

opening of the
eye​ and ​most
extraocular
movement

IV T​rochlear Downward​ and

inward
movement of the
eye

V T​rigeminal MOTOR​ -
temporal and
masseter​ muscles
(​jaw clenching​),
lateral movement

©Estanislao, Angelo 1NU10 9

 of the jaw
SENSORY​ - ​facial,
ophthalmic,
maxillary,
mandibular
(​FOMM​)

VI A​bducens Lateral deviation

of the ​eye

VII F​acial MOTOR​ - ​facial

movements and
expression​,
closing​ of the
eyes and mouth
SENSORY​ - ​taste

VIII A​coustic​/ Balance

V​estibulocochlear (vestibular),
Hearing
(cochlear)

IX G​lossopharyngeal MOTOR​ - ​pharynx;

pharyngeal
muscles
SENSORY​ - ​taste
and touch​ of the
tongue

X V​agus MOTOR​ -
palate,pharynx,
larynx (​PPL​)
SENSORY​ -
pharynx, larynx,
viscera (​PLV​)
Parasympathetic
nerve

XI S​pinal/​A​ccessory Neck and upper

back muscles;
Sternocleidomast
oid​ and ​upper
portions o​ f the
trapezius

XII H​ypoglossal tongue

K. AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM

©Estanislao, Angelo 1NU10 10

 1. SYMPATHETIC DIVISION (THORACOLUMBAR)
a) Stimulates organs but inhibits the following: digestive system,
urinary, and reproductive
b) E​pinephrine
c) “​fight/flight”​
d) E​mergency, ​e​xercise, ​e​xcited, ​em ​ barrassed (​4E’s​)
2. PARASYMPATHETIC DIVISION (CRANIOSACRAL) (1973) 9,10,7,3
a) Inhibits organs but stimulates the following: digestive, urinary,
reproductive.
b) A​cetylcholine
c) “​rest and repose”​ / digest
d) ​Di​ gesting, ​d​efecation, ​d​iuresis (​3D’s​)
L. MENINGES:
1. DURA MATER​ - ​outermost layer​, adheres the periosteum, the
thickest, adheres tightly to the cranial bones. Strongest
2. SUBDURAL SPACE ​- ​space between​ the ​dura mater and arachnoid
mater,​ a potential space containing a ​very small amount of serous
fluid
3. ARACHNOID MATER​ - ​second layer​, very ​thin and wispy. ​Fibrous
connective tissue.
4. SUBARACHNOID SPACE​ - ​space between​ the ​arachnoid mater and
pia mater​, filled with ​cerebrospinal fluid and contains blood
vessels​; astrocytes to create your blood brain barrier; and nutrients.
Common site of hemorrhage
5. PIA MATER​ - very tightly bound to the s​ urface of the brain and
spinal cord
M. VENTRICLES: - ​creates CSF;
1. Choroid plexus ​- collection of ependymal cells
2. LATERAL VENTRICLES​ - a relatively l​arge cavity​ in the ​cerebral
hemisphere
3. 3RD VENTRICLE ​- is a ​smaller, midline cavity​ located in the ​center of
the diencephalon​ between the​ two halves of the thalamus​ and
connected by foramina to the lateral ventricles
4. CEREBRAL AQUEDUCT​ - a ​narrow canal​ ​connecting the 4th and 3rd
ventricle,​ ​located at the midbrain
5. 4TH VENTRICLES​ (dorsal to the pons and medulla oblongata) - is
located at the ​base of the cerebellum​ and ​connected to the third
ventricle by the cerebral aqueduct
a) CENTRAL CANAL
b) SUBARACHNOID SPACE
c) RETURNS TO THE BLOOD IN THE DURAL SINUSES

©Estanislao, Angelo 1NU10 11

II. SENSES - ​are the means by which ​the brain receives information about the environment
and ​the body​.
1. Sensation ​- is the process initiated by stimulating sensory receptors.
2. Perception ​- is the conscious awareness of those stimuli.
B. GENERAL SENSES​ - have receptors distributed over a large part of the body.
a) Include the senses of touch, pressure, pain, temperature, vibration,
itch and proprioception ( sense of movement and position of the
body and limbs).
1. SOMATIC​ - provide sensory information about the body and the
environment.
2. VISCERAL​ - provide information about various internal organs, primarily
involving pain and pressure.
B. Sensory Receptors ​- are sensory nerve endings or specialized cells capable of
responding to stimuli by developing action potentials.
1. MECHANORECEPTORS​ - body movement; respond to mechanical stimuli,
such as bending or stretching of receptors
2. CHEMORECEPTORS​ - odor molecules bind to chemoreceptors, allowing us
to perceive smells.
3. PHOTORECEPTORS​ - respond to light.
4. THERMORECEPTORS​ - respond to temperature changes.
5. NOCICEPTORS​ - respond to stimuli that result in the sensation of pain.

6. Free nerve endings ​- the simplest and most common type of sensory
receptor
a) Relatively unspecialized neuronal branches similar to dendrites
b) Distributed almost all parts of the body
c) Some respond to painful stimuli, soome to temperature, some to
itch, and some to movement.
7. Cold receptors ​or ​Warm receptors ​- receptors for temperature
a) Cold receptors ​- respond to decreasing temperatures but stop
responding at temperatures below 12°C(54°F)
b) Warm receptors​ - respond to increasing temperatures but stop
responding at temperatures above 47°C(117°F)

©Estanislao, Angelo 1NU10 12

 c) Sometimes difficult to distinguish very cold from very warm objects
touching the skin because only pain receptors are stimulated at
Temperatures below 12°C or above 47°C.
8. Touch receptors ​- structurally more complex than free nerve endings.
a) Enclosed by capsules
b) Merkel Disks​ - small, superficial nerve endings involved in detecting
light touch and superficial pressure.
9. Hair follicle Receptors ​- associated with hairs, are also involved in
detecting light touch.
a) Light touch receptors ​- very sensitive but not very discriminative,
meaning that the point being touched cannot be precisely
located.
b) Meissner corpuscles ​- for fine, discriminative touch; located just
deep to the epidermis. Very specific localizing tactile sensations.
c) Ruffini corpuscles ​- deeper tactile receptors; play an important
role in detecting continuous pressure in the skin.
d) Pacinian corpuscles ​- deepest receptors are associated with
tendons and joints. These receptors relay information concerning
deep pressure, vibration, and position. (proprioception)
C. PAIN​ - characterized by a group of unpleasant perceptual and emotional
experiences.
a) Localized, sharp, pricking, or cutting pain resulting from rapidly
conducted action potentials.
b) diffuse , burning, or aching pain resulting from action potentials
that are propagated more slowly.
2. Superficial pain sensations ​- highly localized as a result of the simultaneous
stimulation of pain receptors and tactile receptors.
3. Deep or visceral pain sensations ​- not highly localized because of the
absence of tactile receptors in the deeper structures. Visceral pain stimuli
are normally perceived as diffuse pain.
4. Perception of pain ​- can be disrupted through anesthesia.
a) Local anesthesia ​- suppresses action potentials from pain receptors
in local areas of the body through the injection of chemical
anesthetics near a sensory receptor or nerve.
5. Pain sensation ​- can also be suppressed if loss of consciousness is
produced.
a) General anesthesia​ - usually accomplished; treatment where
chemical anesthetics that affect the reticular activating system
are administered.
b) Also be influenced by inherent control systems.
(1) Sensory axons​ - tactile receptors in the skin have collateral
branches that synapse with neurons in the posterior horn of
the spinal cord.
(2) Those neurons, in turn, synapse with and inhibit neurons
that five rise to the spinothalamic tract, a sensory pathway
that relays pain sensations to the brain.

©Estanislao, Angelo 1NU10 13

 (3) (rubbing the skin in the area of an injury stimulates the
tactile receptors, which send action potentials along the
sensory axons to the spinal cord.
c) Gate control theory
(1) ​These action potentials “close the gate” and inhibit action
potentials carried to the brain by the spinothalamic tract.
(2) May explain the physiological basis for several techniques
that have been usd to reduce the intensity of pain.
(3) Exercise programs - important components in the clinical
management of chronic pain.
(4) Acupuncture and acupressure - may also decrease the
sensation of pain by stimulating descending dorsal columns
neurons, inhibit action potentials in the spinothalamic tract
neurons.
(5) Why the intensity of pain is decreased by diverting a
person’s attention.
D. REFERRED PAIN ​- perceived to originate in a region of the body that is not the
source of the pain stimulus.
a) Most commonly, we sense referred pain when deeper structures,
such as internal organs are damaged or inflamed.
b) Clinically useful in diagnosing the actual cause of the painful
stimulus.

E. SPECIAL SENSES​ - are more specialized in structure and are localized to specific
parts of the body. ​(smell, taste, sight, hearing, and balance)
1. Olfaction​ - ​airborne molecules ​enters the nasal cavity (consists of epithelial
cells that produce mucus)
a) Sense of smell
b) Olfactory neurons ​- are bipolar neurons within the ​olfactory
epithelium​ which lines the superior part of the nasal cavity.
c) Dendrites of the olfactory neurons extend to the epithelial surface,
and their ends are modified with long, specialized cilia that lie in a
thin mucous film on the epithelial surface.vv
d) ODORANTS -> NASAL CAVITY (olfactory epithelium/ olfactory
neurons) -> olfactory hairs - mucus (olfactory receptor cells) ->

©Estanislao, Angelo 1NU10 14

 olfactory nerves (CN1) -> olfactory cortex (temporal lobe)

2. Taste​ - ​responsibility of taste buds​ (attached to sense of olfaction)

a) 2 types of cells in tb
(1) TASTE CELLS - contains 40+ taste hairs or receptors
(2) TASTE HAIR
b) TASTANT (stimulants) -> Gustatory receptor cells -> CNVII,CNIX,
CNX, Gustatory portion of the brainstem -> thalamus -> taste are

(parietal lobe)
3. Vision
a) Accessory structures:
b) EYEBROWS​ - prevents ​perspiration​ from entering the eye
c) EYELASHES​ - prevents the ​eyes from traumatic injuries
d) CONJUNCTIVI​ - ​where ointments are placed​, to know if patient is
anemic or not
e) LACRIMAL GLAND (​ upper corner of the eyes)
(1) Tears are produced in the lacrimal gland and pass through
several ducts to the surface of the eye
(2) The tears pass over the surface of the eye

©Estanislao, Angelo 1NU10 15

 (3) Tears enter the lacrimal canaliculi
(4) Tears are carried through the lacrimal sac and
nasolacrimal duct
(5) Tears enter the nasal cavity from the nasolacrimal duct
f)
MUSCLE CRANIAL NERVE FUNCTION

LATERAL RECTUS 6 Moves eye laterally

MEDIAL RECTUS 3 Moves eye medially

SUPERIOR RECTUS 3 Elevates eye

INFERIOR RECTUS 3 Depresses eye

INFERIOR OBLIQUE 3 Elevates eye, turns it

laterally

SUPERIOR OBLIQUE 4 Depresses eye, turns

it laterally
g) STRABISMUS​ - ​weakness in one of the muscles involved with moving
the eye
h) ANATOMY OF THE EYE
(1) TUNICS​ (LAYERS):
(a) FIBROUS​ - ​outer​ layer
(i) SCLERA ​- w ​ hite portion​, responsible for
protecting the inner portions of the eye​,
where muscles or eye movements are
attached, ​maintains the shape of the eye
(ii) CORNEA​ - ​transparent​, responsible for the
refraction (bending of light) in the cornea ​-
75% of bending light is the responsibility of
the cornea, ​no blood supply, thus, having a
transplant is always successful

©Estanislao, Angelo 1NU10 16

 (b) VASCULAR​ - ​middle​ layer
(i) CHOROID​ - ​back of the eyeball​, rich in
blood vessels​, absorb ​dark pigments called
melanin​ (to prevent light pigment scattering
in the eye)
(ii) CILIARY BODY​ - responsible for the ​thickness
of the lenses ​(opaque and gel-like)
(a) FAR OBJECT​ - ​bulges
(b) NEAR OBJECT​ - ​flatens
(iii) IRIS​ - responsible the d
​ iameter of the pupils
(responsible for controlling the amount of
light that enter the eye)

(c) NERVOUS​ - ​inner​ layer (interpretation of the light

rays)
(i) RETINA​ - pigmented retina
(ii) PHOTORECEPTORS​ (​rods​ - function in ​dim
lights and ​cons​ - ​color photoreceptors​)
(iii) BIPOLAR CELL
(iv) Ganglion cells of the Optic Nerves
(v) Optic Nerves
(vi) Cerebral cortex - ​for interpretation
i) PHOTORECEPTORS OF VISION
(1) RHODOPSIN​ - photopigments
(a) OPSIN
(b) RETINAL
j) Dim lights - attached si rhodopsin -> pag may ilaw -> magdisociate
to opsin to retinal (which results to vision) -> immediately associate
k) CHAMBERS OF THE EYE
(1) ANTERIOR AND POSTERIOR CHAMBER
(a) Between cornea and lens

©Estanislao, Angelo 1NU10 17

 (b) Aqueous humor produced by ciliary body
(i) Maintain pressure w/in the eyes
(ii) Refracts light
(iii) Provides nutrients
(iv) Keeps eye inflated
(v) Circulates in the eyes - when blocked it is
called ​glaucoma​ - high pressure in the eye
(2) VITREOUS CHAMBER
(a) Posterior to the lens
(b) Vitreous humor
(i) Maintain pressure within the eye
(ii) Hold lens and retina in place
(iii) Refract light
l) HOW THE EYE FORMS CLEAR IMAGES OF OBJECT ON THE RETINA
(1) REFRACTION - 75% of refraction occurs in the cornea,
aqueous humor, lenses, vitreous humor
(2) ACCOMMODATION - when lenses flatten/ bulge
(3) CONSTRICTION - maliwanag-constrict, pupils-dilate
m) MYOPIA - nearsighted (concave lens)
n) HYPEROPIA - farsighted (convex lens)
o) VISUAL FIELDS
(1) NASAL PARTS OF VISUAL FIELDS
(a) Nasal part is innervated by the lateral part of the
brain
4. Hearing

a) EXTERNAL EAR​ - hearing

(1) AURICLE - collect sound waves and directs to the auditory
meatus (produces mucus or earwax- trapping debris) and
to the eardrums
(2) EARDRUM/ LYMPHATIC MEMBRANE
b) MIDDLE​ - hearing (consists of the smallest bones in the body)

©Estanislao, Angelo 1NU10 18

 (1) MALLEUS
(2) INCUS
(3) STAPES
c) INNER ​- hearing and balance
(1) SEMICIRCULAR CANALS - balance
(2) VESTIBULE - balance
(3) COCHLEA - hearing
5. EQUILIBRIUM​ - responds to various head movements
a) STATIC​ - responds to pull of gravity and position of the head
(1) When swimming
b) DYNAMIC OR KINETIC ​- responds to angular or rotational body
movements
(1) When partying

©Estanislao, Angelo 1NU10 19