31-03-2024

Synopsis
• REBOUND HAMMER
• ULTRASONIC PULSE VELOCITY
• RESIPOD
• REBAR LOCATOR
• COVER METER
• HALF CELL POTENTIAL
• IMPACT ECHO TEST
• GROUND PENETRATION RADAR
• ULTRASONIC PULSE TOMOGRAPHY

REBOUND HAMMER
The following points are to be taken care:
1) The surface should be smooth, clean and dry
2) The loosely adhering scale should be rubbed off with a
grinding wheel or stone, before testing.
3) The test should not be conducted on rough surface resulting
from incomplete compaction, loss of grout, spalled or tooled
surfaces.
4) The point of impact should be at least 20mm away from edge
or shape discontinuity
ADVANTAGES
• To find the surface comp ressive strength of concrete and plastering
• Result can obtained immediately at the site.

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PROCEDURE
PROCEDURE • Readings sensitive to local variations
• Vertical upward • 9 to 25 readings, 300 mmsquare
• Vertical down ward • Surface requirements
• Horizontal THEORY, CALIBRATION AND INTERPRETATION
• Find out the rebound number • Principle: Rebound depends on hardness
• Rebound number varying from 10 to 100 • Not directly related to any property of concrete
• Find the compressive strength using the
CALIBRATION
graph
• Manufacturer’s calibration graph not very
Limitations of Rebound Hammer useful
•Depends on smoothness of surface – Average rebound Quality
preparation is Essential. number
> 40 Very good quality
•Varies with size, shape and rigidity of 30 - 40 Good
specimen, as well as the age (not suitable
20 - 30 Fair
for strengths less than 7 MPa)
< 20 Poor and/or delaminated
•Affected by degree of saturation and surface 0 Very poor and/or
moisture, type, size and content of delaminated
aggregate, type of cement, and type of
mould.

• Carbonation of surface produces

erroneous results.

Pull Out Test

Probe embedded in concrete while casting is pulled out at later ages
to determine the strength
•Very popular technique – number of common tests: ‘LOK’, ‘CAPO’
•Does not suffer from the limitations of rebound and probe
tests

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CAPO Test LOK Test

Pull Off Test

Failure patterns
Test is very good for bonded overlays
or repair materials

Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity Technique (UPV ) (IS

13311 part 2)
Principle is that the speed of travel of the
sound wave depends on the density and
stiffness (or modulus of elasticity) of the • Pulse velocity = (Path
material. length/Travel time)
From measurement of the time taken
by the pulse to travel • This velocity in concrete
dynamic modulus of elasticity of the material can be related to its
can be determined. v = L/t = f(E/ρ) compressive strength.
• The Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity Test is conducted for
assessing the quality. • The ultrasonic pulse velocity
depends on the density
• The instrument consists of a transmitter & a
and elastic properties of the material
receiver (two probes).
being tested.
• The distance between the two probes (path length)
can • The pulse velocity in concrete may
be physically measured. be influenced by:
a) Path length,
• The time of travel for the wave from the transmitter to
the receiver when kept opposite to each other is b) Lateral dimension of the
recorded in the ultrasonic instrument specimen tested,

v = L/t = f(E/ρ) c) Presence of

t, E, ρ reinforcement steel,
Transmitter
Receiver d) Moisture content of the
Object concrete

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Selection of Transducers FACTORS INFLUENCING PULSE VELOCITY

• Standard 54 kHz Transducer MEASUREMENT
These transducers have improved 1) Moisture content
performance to increase range 2) Temperature of concrete
and stability. 3) Path length
4) Effect of reinforcing bars
• 150 kHz and 250 kHz Transducer
5) Shape and size of specimen
These transducers have more resolution,
but a decreased range. For use on fine 6) Stress history
grained samples. Limitations of UPV
• Gives only an ‘average’ picture
• 500 kHz Transducers
•Assessment of internal defects is
For use on rough surfaces without couplant.
not accurate
• Velocity on its own may not be e n ou g h…
• 250 kHz Shear Wave Transducers
For use with fine grained materials, such as
rock and ceramics
BIS (IS13311) criterion Pulse velocity obtained in
for UPV direct transmission mode Condition of
S. No. concrete
(km/sec)
1 > 4.5 Excellent
2 3.5 – 4.5 Good
3 3.0 – 3.5 Medium
4 < 3.0 Doubtful*
* Either quality is poor or more tests necessary

RESIPOD
• Resipod is a fully integrated 4-point Wenner
probe, designed to measure the electrical
resistivity of concrete in a completely non-
destructive test.
• It is the most accurate instrument available,
extremely fast and stable and packaged in a
robust, waterproof housing designed to
operate in a demanding site environment.
• Recent studies have shown that there is a
direct correlation between resistivity and
chloride diffusion rate and even to
determination of early compressive strength.
• This makes it one of the most versatile NDT
methods for concrete.

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Half cell potential

METHOD
• The half-cell is usually used in combinations of copper/copper sulphate
cell.
• It consists of a volt meter,electrode,and a cell.
• Electrode is connected to steel bar and cell used to take readings.
• Reading is taken at regular interval of every 50cm by using contour lines.
• As the potential is getting higher the risk of corrosion is high
Bulge of steel indicates the corrosion

Cover meter

• It is an electro magnetic pulse induction technology.

• It will send and receive electric pulses followed by eddy current formation.
• It is used to find the depth of the cover
• Used to find the depth of steel located
• To find the dia of bars

Rebar locator
• . An instrument for rebar detection that
quickly and accurately determines the location
of the reinforcing bars in the concrete will
significantly decrease construction time and
costs.
• The Profometer 5+ combines rebar detection
and measurement of concrete cover and bar
diameters in one instrument.

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IMPACT ECO TEST

• waves that propagate through the structure and
are reflected by internal flaws and external
surfaces.
• Measurements of thickness in concrete slabs and
plates
• The location and extend of flaws such as cracks,
delamination, voids, honeycombing and de
bonding in plain reinforcement and post-
tensioned concrete structures.
• Locate voids in slabs and pavements
• Not affected by presence of steel bars

GPR(Ground penetrating radar)

PROCEDURE
An electromagnetic wave passes through the specimen
BY using the dielectric constant of the material we can analysis the
materials present inside the specimen analysed

It can locate and/or delineate rebar, tension cables, grade beams,

conduits, voids and slab thicknes.

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Aplications of GPR

• geophysical imaging technique used for subsurface

exploration and monitoring.

• used within the engineering, geological, mining

and archeological communities

• In concrete it is used in various foundation floor

systems such as structurally suspended slabs, post
tensioned or conventionally reinforced slab-on-
grade foundation systems, retaining walls, decks,
tunnels, balconies and garages

Graph for GPR

ULTRA SONIC TOMOGRAPHY-GRAPH

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ULTRASONIC TOMOGRAPHY
• diagnosis of concrete and natural stone
constructions.
• tomographer uses an antenna formed by several
bundled transducers, the multiple reflections of
which are analysed by the so called “Synthetic
Aperture
• Focusing Technique” which builds a 3D image as
well as a 2D cross section of the given object.
• show internal disturbances non visible at the
outside surface such as voids, cracks,
honeycombing

Resistivity using 4 probe

method

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Core Testing Core dimensions

Why test cores?
• Issues of low strength in standard
specimens
• Estimate in‐place strength
• Correlate with other NDT methods
• Obtain samples for petrographic
evaluation
• Estimate general internal condition of
concrete
•Get information on carbonation depth,
density, UPV etc.
How many cores?
Depends on objective
•If meant for issues of low strength
results from standard specimens, then
at least 3 from the area in question
•If meant for in‐place strength, as
many as possible! – Rebound / UPV
tests may be done to identify areas
with potentially large differences in
strength
Coredrilling equipments
• Water‐cooled, diamond impregnated drill bit
• Stable support, low feed pressure, high speed
•Min diameter 94 mm, or 2 x max aggregate
size, whichever is larger
•However, 69 mm is allowed and has to be
used sometimes because of reinforcement
congestion
• L/d of 2 preferred (1.9 – 2.1 OK)
• Correction factor needed for L/d < 1.75
• For cube strength test, L/d of core can be taken
equal to 1 (after capping, if L/d < 1, core cannot be used
– IS 516)
End preparation
•Ends should be cut properly to ensure
smooth Surface
•Capping recommended in the absence of
grinding – capped surface should not depart
from the plane by more than 0.05 mm
• Grinding, if available, is ideal..
•Materials for capping: neat cement, high
strength cementitious mortar, sulphur mortar
• Unbonded caps as per ASTM C1231 are also
allowed (in ASTM)

Dressing of the concrete core as Testing of cores Correction factor – IS 516

per l/d ratio requirement before
conducting compression test
Unbonded caps
• As per IS516 (or as per ASTM
C39)
•Length of specimen includes
capping
thickness….correction factors
suggested for L/d other than 2
•Cores with embedded
reinforcement should not be
used as much as
possible…however, sometimes
it is inevitable – no real Correction factor – ASTM C42
correction can be done for that!
Location of reinforcements in
core should be carefully
n ot e d …

Moisture conditioning
•IS 516: After capping, place specimens in water at
24 – 30 deg.C for 48 hours before testing
• ASTM C42: After drilling, wipe off surface water,
and place in watertight containers; test after 5
days (procedure was similar to IS in the old days
– later changed as it was not good forthe
modern concretes with low w/c)

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Wenner 4 Probe Resistivity Test Resistivity,

Concrete
kΩ cm
Method Merits Demerits quality
•Consists of four • Quick method •Depends on pore > 100 Good
probes • Resistivity is used to solution 50 - 100 Normal
• Through two outer calculate the conductivity and 10 – 50 Poor
probes current is corrosion rates in moisture condition < 10 Very poor
applied while the concretes of the specimen
inner two probes • Avoids heating •Inclusion of
measure the • Very low voltage conductive
potential (10V or lower) is materials affect the
applied for a short results
time
Rapid Chloride Permeability Test (ASTM C 1202
•Specimen subjected to a 60V potential, for 6 hours
•-ve side filled with 3% NaCl solution and +ve side conductive NaOH solution
• Current ismeasured in each half hour, from which the total charge passed is
•Merits: Widely used test method
•Gives qualitative classification of concrete
•Demerits: Current passed is related to all
ions in the pore solution
•Increase in temperature
• Presence of 0.3M material affects The #20 brass mesh
test results #20 brass mesh screen
•Many transport mechanisms act together 0.3 N NaOH
Vacuum saturated specimens
(100mm dia. , 50 mm thickness)

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Accelerated Chloride Migration Test (NT Build 492)

Method Merits Demerits
• 30 V potential is applied • Capable of • Presence of
initially and after addressing conductive
measuring the initial some of the materials affects
current, voltage is criticisms of the test results
adjusted. RCPT related to • Many transport
• After specified duration the mechanisms
the specimen is split and examination of acts together
silver nitrate solution is actual chloride
sprayed ion movement
• Depth of chloride and
penetration is used to temperature
calculate the non-steady rise.
state diffusion coefficient

Nordtest Method Concrete

BUILD 492, quality
Migration coefficient
(m2/s)

< 2 × 10-12 Very good

2 – 8 × 10-12 Good
8 – 16 × 10-12 Normal
> 16 × 10-12 Poor

Chloride Conductivity Test (DI Manual, SA)

Method Merits Demerits

• Consists of a two cell • Specimens • Destructive

Chloride
conduction rig in which preconditioned • Can not be Concrete quality
conductivity
(mS/cm)
concrete core specimens before testing to applied on site < 0.75 Very good
0.75 – 1.50 Good
are exposed on either side standardize the 1.50 – 2.50 Poor
> 2.50 Very poor
to a 5M NaCl solution pore water
• Chloride conductivity is solution Classification
determined by measuring • Nullify the effect Criteria:
Alexander et al., 1999

the current flowing of other ions in

through the specimen due the pore solution

to the application of 10V

potential difference

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Bulk diffusion test (ASTM C 1556)

Method Merits Demerits
•Natural diffusion under a •Identical to • Slow process
very high concentration natural diffusion •Powder can be
gradient process lost during
•Specimens saturated •Other transport profiling
with saturated lime water mechanisms are •Effect of
is immersed in 3% NaCl avoided aggregates is
solution for 35 days unavoidable
•Uni-directional diffusion
•Chloride profiling with
profile grinder
•Chloride ion
concentration determined
Apparent diffusion Resistance to chloride
coefficient (x 10-12 m2/s) penetration
> 15 Low
Classification
10 – 15 Moderate
criteria – Nilsson
5 – 10 High
etal.1998
2.5 – 5 Very High
< 2.5 Extremely High

Oxygen Permeability Test (DI Manual, SA)

Method Merits Demerits
•Measures the pressure • Good correlation • Sensitive to
decay of oxygen passed with accelerated macro- voids
through an oven dried, 30 carbonation test and cracks
mm thick slice of a 70mm •Sensitive to
diameter core placed in a the edges of
falling head permeameter the specimen
•The oxygen permeability
index is defined as the
negative log of the
coefficient of permeability

Classification Oxygen permeability

Criteria: index Concrete quality
Alexander et OPI
al., 1999 > 10 Very good
9.5 - 10 Good
9.0 – 9.5 Poor
<9 Very poor

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Torrent Air Permeability Test

Swiss Standard SIA 262/1-E:2003
Method Merits Demerits
•Method is based on •Simple •Sensitive to
creating a vacuum on the • Non destructive the moisture
surface of the concrete •Both lab and condition of
and monitoring the rate at site application the specimen
which the pressure is
raising in the test •Test is more
chamber after the vacuum
sensitive to
pump has been the surface
disconnected condition of
the specimen

Torrent kT
×10-16m2 Concrete quality
Classification
< 0.01 Very good
criteria:
0.01 - 0.1 Good
Torrent and
0.1 - 1.0 Normal
Jacobs, 2009
1.0 - 10 Poor
> 10 Very poor

Sorptivity Test (DI Manual, SA)

Method Merits Demerits
• Measures the rate of • Simulates natural • Sensitive to
movement of a water phenomena macro-voids and
front through the • Applicable to cracks
concrete under drilled cores • Sensitive to the
capillary suction micro-structural
properties of the
near-surface zone
of concrete
• Destructive
Water sorptivity Accelerated Carbonation Test
Concrete quality •Methods: Measuring the depth ofcarbonation at
test, mm/√h
<6 Very good different sections of the prismatic samples at
6 - 10 Good different time intervals (70,98, 112 an154 days)
10 - 15 Poor •Phenolphthalein used as indicator – colourless
> 15 Very poor
implies carbonated
•Merits:Mechanism is diffusion, which is
similar to the natural phenomena
•Demerits:High degree of carbonation may lead
to microstructural alterations at high CO2
concentrations

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Water Permeability Test (DIN 1048 part 5)

Method Merits Demerits
• Measure of the resistance • Depth of • Destructive
of concrete against the water • Air
Coefficient of
penetration of water penetration compressor water Concr
exerting pressure. is measured is needed to permeability, ete
• The test be done when the keep the quali
age of concrete is between pressure m 2
ty
28 and 35 days constant
• A water pressure of 0.5 < 10 -12 Good
N/mm2 is applied for a 10-12 - 10-10 Normal
period of 3 days > 10-10 Poor
• After the pressure is
released, the specimen is Germann Water Permeability Test (GWT)
split into two and the depth Method Merits Demerits
of water penetration is •A sealed pressure chamber • Non-destructive • Pressure is not
noted. is attached to the concrete • Both field and lab sufficient for
surface. test impermeable
• Water is filled into the concretes
pressure chamber and a • Water flow may
specified water pressure is not be parallel to
applied to the surface the gasket if
•Pressure is kept constant pores are present
using a micro-meter gauge
with an attached pin that
reaches into the chamber

Durability of Concrete Structures Reactions in Suphate Attack

Damage of Concrete
• Concrete structures can be
damaged as a result of:
• Deterioration of concrete due to
chemical reactions or physical
phenomena within the material.
2.Corrosion of the steel reinforcement.
Deterioration due to Chemical Reactions

• Leaching due to exposure to soft (acidic) water

• Calcium hydroxide is dissolved and reacts
(Type II ≤ 7% C3A; Type V ≤ 5% C3A)
with carbon dioxide to be deposited as
(white) calcium carbonate within the
concrete and on the surface.

• Sulphate attack
• Sulphates react with the calcium
hydroxide to form gypsum. The gypsum
reacts with the hydrated compounds to
form ettringite. This results in expansion
and cracking of the concrete.
• In addition, attack by magnesium sulphate
is more damaging since the magnesium Expansion after exposure in
hydroxide that is formed in the reaction sulphate solution for one year
with the C-S-H replaces the ca2+ ions
Mg2+ Which destroys the cemeting effect

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Alkali-Silica Reactions
Deterioration due to Chemical Reactions
• Alkali-silica reaction : Hydroxides of
sodium and potassium present in the
cement can react with fine-grained
porous silica aggregates. The product
is a silicate gel that absorbs water and
expands. When all the pores are filled,
further expansion causes cracking.
Dehydration of the gel leaves open
cracks.
Deterioration due to Chemical Reactions
• When the silica has high surface area
(as in silica fume) or the concentration The entry of aggressive chemicals into concrete
of alkalis is low, non- swelling gels are depends on:
formed and there is no damage.
Permeability (ease with which water can flow into
• Alkali-carbonate reaction: Dolomitic
and through concrete) ,Governed by the volume
limestone (CaCO3.MgCO3) aggregates
and size of capillary pores, Low w/c and extended
can react with alkalis resulting in the
curing lowers permeability,Addition of a mineral
loss of bond strength and
admixture also decreases the permeability due to
microcracking.
more C-S-H formation (and a discontinuous pore
Potentially reactive forms of silica
structure)

Diffusion of ions and gases through the empty

pores andthe pore solution in saturated poresw/c
and curing are again of primary importance
Cracking:Facilitates the entry of water
and other aggressive substances

Corrosion: An Electrochemical Process

Deterioration due to Physical Effects

• Corrosion involves the formation of a cathode

• Frost (Freeze-Thaw) Attack
Fire Damage:Heat penetrates concrete
slowly so inner layers are not much
affected.
• Thermal Cycles
• Shrinkage Stresses
Increasing the Durability of Concrete
• Proper mix design
• Reduction of cracking
• Optimum cover thickness
• Adequate compaction and curing
• Quality of construction
• Correct maintenance
and an anode, with electric current flowing in
a loop between the two.
• In the anode, iron atoms are oxidized to Fe2+
ions, which dissolve in the surrounding
solution. At a distance, cathodic reactions
occur with the consumption of electrons and
the formation of OH- ions.
• For the cathodic reaction to occur moisture
must be present and there should be supply of
oxygen.
• The ions formed at the cathode and anode
migrate through the aqueous solution present
in the pores of the surrounding concrete.

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FrostAttack (Freeze-Thaw Cycles)

• When the temperature of concrete drops to below 0°C, thewater does not all freeze
immediately.
• Water in smaller pores will need a lower temperature to freeze (e.g., water in 10 nm
pores will not freeze until
• -5°C, and pores of 3.5 nm will not freeze until -20°C; gel water will not freeze until -78°C).
• 3. As the water freezes, it dilates and compresses the remaining water. The pressure is relieved
if the water diffuses to open voids. If no voids are available near enough, the pressure may
build up and cause rupture.
• 4.In air-entrained concrete, the bubbles relieve the pressure and prevent damage from
occurring. Instead of dilation, there is contraction on freezing.

Effect of Corrosion
• The Fe2+ and OH- ions in the pore solution interact
near the anode to produce iron oxide (rust).
• The corrosion of the steel in the concrete results in:
Expansion created by the rust, which can lead to
cracking and spalling of the concrete. (Rust has a
volume that is two to six times that of the steel.)
• Reduction of the cross-section of the steel bar.
Corrosion Protection
• In general, the high pH of concrete is sufficient
to maintain the steel in a passivated state. This
leads to the spontaneous formation of a
stable protective iron oxide film around the
steel. Corrosion occurs only when these
conditions are changed and pH drops.

• Depassivation of the concrete can occur when:

The calcium hydroxide has been carbonated by
the penetration of CO2 into the concrete (and
the pH becomes lower than 11).

• Chloride ions are present in the concrete (more

than 0.2-0.4%), even though the pH is high.

• Moisture and oxygen are necessary for

corrosion to be sustained. Porous concrete and
cracks permit the ingress of water and oxygen,
and promote corrosion.

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Hardened Concrete
Testing of concrete

•For 150 mm cubes fill in 3

layers compact
each layer 35 times.
•For 100 mm cubes fill in 3
layers compact each layer 25
times.
•No need for capping.

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2. Effect of L/d ratio 3. Specimen Geometry

Different geometries for a concrete
The standard cyinder has L/ D of 2 specimen can be used:
If L/D ratio is other than 2.0 a correction factor Prisms, Cubes, and cylinders.
must be applied to count for the restrainment As stated before, cube are more
effect of the platens; discussed earlier. confined by the platens
thus have higher strength than
cylinder made of the same
concrete. It has been found that c=1.25 cyl .
As specimen size increases,
strength decreases.
4. Rate of Loading
Higher rate of loading 
higher strength.
5. Moisture Content
Standards require testing of concrete in SSD
conditions
(ASTM C39).
6. Temperature at Testing
Higher Temperature 
lower strength

Splitting test:

In this test, a concrete cylinder, of the type used for

compression tests, is placed with its axis horizontal between
the platens of a testing machine, and the load is increased
until failure by indirect tension in the form of splitting along the
vertical diameter takes place.

However, immediately under the load, a high compressive

stress would be induced and, in practice, narrow strips of a
packing material, such as plywood are interposed between
the cylinder and the platens.

With such an arrangement, the distribution of the horizontal

stress will be almost uniform.

Without packing strips, the recorded strength is lower,

typically by 8 percent.

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The strength
determined in
the splitting
test is
believed to be
close to the
direct tensile
strength of
concrete,
being 5 to 12
% higher.

2P
 sp 
LD

B. Flexural strength ( IS: 516-1959 )

f :

• The test is useful since most concrete members is loaded in bending rather than
in axial tension. Thus, it represents the concrete property of interest.

• Size of specimen:

• 15X15X70 cm ( Agg.size < 38mm)- 400 kg/min as rate of loading

10X10X50 cm ( Agg. Size <19mm)- 180 kg/min as rate of loading

• The flexural strength of the specimen shall be expressed as the modulus of

rupture.

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• This test is mostly used for quality control of highways

and airport runways. It gives more useful information
than do compression tests.
Flexural strength:
Affected by:
- Specimen Size  strength 
 in compression.
- Temperature: Same as
The tensile strength of concrete is approximately equal to
10% of its compressive strength.

Stress-strain relationship for ordinary concrete

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Stress-Strain Behaviour of Concrete

A typical relationship between stress and strain for normal strength

concrete is presented in Figure. After an initial linear portion lasting
up to about 30 – 40% of the ultimate load, the curve becomes non-
linear, with large strains being registered for small increments of
stress.

The non-linearity is primarily a function of the coalescence of micro

cracks at the paste-aggregate interface.

The ultimate stress is reached when a large crack network is

formed within the concrete, consisting of the coalesced micro
cracks and the cracks in the cement paste matrix.

The strain corresponding to ultimate stress is usually around 0.003

for normal strength concrete. The stress-strain behavior in tension
is similar to that in compression.

Complete stress-strain curve including post-peak

response

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The descending portion of the stress-strain curve, or in other words,

the post-peak response of the concrete, can be obtained by a
displacement or a strain controlled testing machine.

In typical load controlled machines, a constant rate of load is

applied to the specimen. Thus any extra load beyond the ultimate
capacity leads to a catastrophic failure of the specimen

In a displacement controlled machine, small increments of

displacement are given to the specimen. Thus, the decreasing load
beyond the peak load can also be registered.

The strain at failure is typically around 0.005 for normal strength

concrete, as shown in Figure below.

The post peak behaviour is actually a function of the stiffness of the

testing machine in relation to the stiffness of the test specimen, and
the rate of strain. With increasing strength of concrete, its
brittleness also increases, and this is shown by a reduction in the
strain at failure.

It is interesting to note that although cement paste and

aggregates individually have linear stress-strain
relationships, the behaviour for concrete is non-linear. This
is due to the mismatch and microcracking created at the
interfacial transition zone.

Understanding the post peak response of

concrete

Concrete belongs to a class of materials that can be called

‘Strain – softening’, indicating a reduction in stress beyond
the peak value with an increase in the deformation (as
against the strain hardening behaviour commonly exhibited
by metals like steel). Figure 3 shows different types of
material behaviour.

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Different types of material

behaviour (post peak
response)

A displacement controlled test is

possible using a machine with
a servo valve, in a closed loop.
As shown in the
schematic diagram in
Figure 5, the machine
compresses the concrete
specimen at a constant
displacement rate of the
specimen.
The LVDT on the specimen
provides feedback to the Modes of testing –
controller,which then indicates to
the servo valve the degree of piston Green indicates
movement to be provided (to keep load control, red
the specimen displacement indicates
constant). displacement
In this way, the load response of the specimen is control
continuously
studied as it undergoes incremental displacements.
Failure occurs when the cracks in the
specimen grow to an‘unstable’ size.

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Loading Types
•Uniaxial compression •Uniaxial loading
•Biaxial compression
•Failure planes in uniaxial compression
•Compression and tension are the planes of principal tensile strains,
•Biaxial tension which are parallel to the direction of the
•Triaxial compression applied load.
•In the case of uniaxial tensile loading,
the failure plane is again the plane of
maximum principal strain, which in this
case is perpendicular to the applied load.

Closed loop servo

controlled test system

Biaxial loading

•Biaxial compression - Failure planes are the planes of

maximum principal tensile strains, which are parallel to
both the applied principal compressive stresses. Such
loading causes an increase in overall strength; this
increase is especially high if end restraints also exist. The
strength increase can be as high as 27%

•Biaxial compression and tension -The overall strength of

concrete is reduced substantially due to the additive effect
tensile strains (from Poisson effect and from the tensile
principal stress). Failure planes in this case are
perpendicular to the maximum principal tensile stress.

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Uniaxial and biaxial tension

•Similar strength
•Failure plane perpendicular
To max principal tensile
stress

Biaxial stress
interaction
diagram

Triaxial loading
Triaxial compressive loading of concrete causes a
drastic increase in the strength of concrete.

The tensile strains generated are overcomeby the

compressive stresses; in effect, the specimen is held
together and tensile cracking is prevented.

Thus, failure in triaxialloading could occur by a pure

case of compression.
The increase in strength is higher for low strength
concrete.

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A Mohr failure envelope is generated for concretes of

different strengths. The maximum shear strain at failure
according to this envelope is equal to the half of the
difference between the maximum and minimum
compressive principal stresses.

Mohr failure envelope for triaxial loading

Constitutive relationships
• Stress-strain curve: Linear
up to ~ 40% of ultimate
then non-linear
• Non-linearity due to heterogeneity
of concrete (presence
of ITZ and micro cracks)
• Strain corresponding to ultimate
stress ~ 0.003 (normal
strength concrete)
• Behavior in tension also similar.

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Relation between strength

and W/C ratio

B. maximum Aggregate Size (Dmax)

• Dmax   Reducing the specific surface area

 Less Bond  Strength 

• II. Dmax   More restraint on volume changes in

the paste
Inducing additional stresses in paste 
Strength 
• III. Dmax   Water content   Strength 

• C. Aggregate Strength

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The effect of steel platens of testing machine in Uniaxial

loading:
•In compression test, tangential forces being developed
between the end surfaces of the concrete specimen and the
adjacent steel platens of the testing machine.

•These forces will cause lateral expansion in concrete.

•The steel platen will restrain the lateral expansion of the

concrete in the parts of the specimen near its ends:
• The degree of restraint exercised depends on the
friction actually developed.
• When the friction is eliminated, ( applying paraffin wax/
graphite to the bearing surfaces) the specimen exhibits a
large lateral expansion and eventually splits along its full
length.

With friction acting, i.e. under normal conditions of test, an

element within the specimen is subjected to a shearing stress
as well as to compression.

The magnitude of the shearing stress decreases and the

lateral expansion increases, with an increase in distance from
the platen.

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