COLLEGE OF NATURAL SCIENCE

DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS

TITLE: THE ENERGY EMANATION FROM SOLAR POWER

A SENIOR PROJECT SUBMITTED SALALE UNIVERSITY DEPARTMENT OF

PHYSICS IN PARTIAL FULLFILLMENT OF THE REQUIRMENTS FOR BSC
DEGREE IN APPLIED PHYSICS

NAME ID.NO
BY: - 1. GIRMA TADESSE……………………………RU/0082/13
2.DAWIT DAGINET…………………………...RU/1809/13
3.OLANTU BIRHANU ………………………...RU/ /13
ADVISOR: MISGANA.T (MSc)

SUBMISSION DATE:

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 FITCHE, ETHIOPIA

Acknowledgement
Firstly, we would like to give a great thank to our “GOD”! Who helped us to stay with a nice and
blessed time in this compass and to serve this chance for preparing our project by living in our
mind. Second, we would like to extend our gratitude to our adviser Misgana (MSc). he had been
guiding and assisting us through totally new topics required to write this project. Lastly it is our
great pleasure to our parents for their financial support in completing our study.

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MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMKKKKKKKKKKK

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mmmmmmmmmmmmmm

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nnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnquestion cnjuctionquestion cnjuction

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Abbreviation
AC-Alternative Current
DC-Direct Current
PV- photo-voltaic
ICS- Integral collector-storage system
UV-ultraviolet
CSP- concentrated solar power

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Contents
Abstract.....................................................................................................................................iii
CHAPTER ONE..............................................................................................................................1
1. introduction..............................................................................................................................1
1.1 Background of the study........................................................................................................2
1.1.1 Statement of the problem................................................................................................2
1.1.2 Research questions..........................................................................................................2
1.2 General and specific Objectives of the study.........................................................................3
1.3 Methods of the study..............................................................................................................3
1.4 Significant of the study..........................................................................................................3
1.5 Limitation of the study...........................................................................................................3
CHAPTER TWO.............................................................................................................................4
Review Literature............................................................................................................................4
2. Harnessing and using Solar Energy............................................................................................4
2.1 Solar Collectors......................................................................................................................4
2.2 Solar water heating.................................................................................................................4
2.3 Solar Cooking........................................................................................................................6
2.3.1 Types of Solar cookers....................................................................................................6
2.4 Solar Electricity......................................................................................................................7
2.4.1 Photovoltaic Electricity...................................................................................................8
2.4.2 Solar Thermal Electricity................................................................................................8
2.5 Solar water Disinfection (purification)..................................................................................9
2.6 Amount of solar energy reaching the earth............................................................................9
2.7 Photo-voltaic effect................................................................................................................9
2.8 Photovoltaic Cells (Solar Cells)...........................................................................................10
2.8.1 How do photovoltaics work?............................................................................................11
2.9 The Efficiency of the Solar Cells.........................................................................................13
CHAPTER THREE.......................................................................................................................15
3.1 Methodology of the Study.......................................................................................................15
3.1.1 Method...........................................................................................................................15

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 3.1.2 Study area......................................................................................................................15
3.2 Research design................................................................................................................15
3.3 Source of data analyzing......................................................................................................15
CHAPTER FOUR.........................................................................................................................16
4.1 Time schedule and budget planning.....................................................................................16
4.1.1 Time schedule................................................................................................................16
4.1.2 Budget planning............................................................................................................16
4.2 Summary..............................................................................................................................17
References......................................................................................................................................18

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 List of figures

Figure Page

Figure 2.1: Active, Closed loop solar water heater.....................................5

Figure 2.2: Passive, Batch solar water heater.............................................. 5

Figure 2.3: Solar box cooker.........................................................................6

Figure 2.4: Solar panel cooker......................................................................7

Figure 2.5: Solar parabolic cooker………………………………………....7

Figure 2.6: photo-voltaic effect …................................................................ 10

Figure 2.7: operation of a basic photo-voltaic cell …..................................12

Figure 2.8: solar cell, module and array......................................................12

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 CHAPTER ONE

introduction

Renewable energy is from an energy resource that is replaced by a natural process at a rate that is
equal to or faster than the rate at which that resource is being consumed. Renewable energy is a
subset of sustainable energy. Most renewable forms of energy, other than geothermal and tidal
power, ultimately derive from solar energy. Energy from biomass derives from plant material
produced by photosynthesis using the power of the sun. Wind energy derives from winds, which
are generated by the sun's uneven heating of the atmosphere. Hydro power depends on rain
which again depends on sunlight's power to evaporate water. Even fossil fuels derive from solar
energy, as fossil fuel originates from plant material. However, while theoretically renewable on a
very long time-scale, fossil fuels are exploited at rates that may deplete these resources in the
near future, and are therefore not considered renewable. Renewable energy resources may be
used directly, or used to create other more convenient forms of energy. Examples of direct use
are solar ovens, geothermal heating, and water- and windmills. Examples of indirect use which
require energy harvesting are electricity generation through wind turbines or photo-voltaic cells
(PV cells), or production of fuels such as biogas from anaerobic digestion or ethanol from
biomass. [1].

Renewable energy is the energy obtained from natural and persistent flows of energy occurring
in the immediate environment. It is a form of energy that meet our today’s demand of energy
without putting them in danger of getting expired or depleted and can be used over and over
again. An obvious example is solar (sunshine) energy. Note that the energy is already passing
through the environment as a current or flow, irrespective of there being a device to intercept and
harness this power. Such energy may also be called Green Energy or Sustainable Energy. Solar
energy is an important source of renewable energy and its technologies are broadly characterized
as either passive solar or active solar depending on how they capture and distribute solar energy
or convert it into solar power. Active solar techniques include the use of photo-voltaic systems,
concentrated solar power and solar water heating to harness the energy. Passive solar techniques
include orienting a building to the Sun, selecting materials with favorable thermal mass or light-
dispersing properties, and designing spaces that naturally circulate air. Solar energy is considered
as a green technology because it does not emit greenhouse gases. Solar energy is abundantly
available and has been utilized since long both as electricity and as a source of heat.[2].

Solar energy is widely available today, because the sun will always shine on the Earth. We only
need the right instruments to capture the sun’s rays and convert those rays into energy. Also, a

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need must exist for solar energy to be stored for future use. The only problem with solar energy
is that if a day happens to be overcast or it is night, we don’t have power. A means of storing the
energy has to be implemented. Solar energy has the ability to provide us with a much-needed
energy source, if we can only know how to tap into it during times when the sun is not shining.

1.1 Background of the study

Solar energy has been used by humans for thousands of years. For example, ancient cultures
used energy from the sun to keep warm by starting fires with it. They also kept their homes
warm through passive solar energy designs. Buildings were designed so that walls and floors
collected solar heat during the day that was released at night to keep them warm. If we have ever
stood in the sun to get warm then we too have utilized solar thermal energy. First solar collector
was created by Swiss scientist named Horace-Benedict de Saussure in 1767, he takes an
insulated box enclosed with three layers of glass which suck up heat energy. After that
Saussure’s box became famous and widely known as the first solar oven, getting temperatures of
230 degrees Fahrenheit. After that in 1839 a most important landmark in the progression of solar
energy occurs with the significant of the photovoltaic effect by a French scientist Edmond
Becquerel. [12].

In this he used two electrodes placed in an electrolyte and then exposing it to the light and results
is tremendous electricity increased a lot. After that lots of experiment are occurred by various
scientists at time to time and modified our solar energy system to produce more electricity from
solar energy. But now a day’s also in this field various experiments are doing by a scientist, how
to utilize maximum solar energy which is available on the earth. In 1873, Willoughby Smith
discovered photoconductivity of a material known as selenium. In 1887 there was the discovery
of the ultraviolet ray capacity to cause a spark jump between two electrodes and this was done by
Heinrich Hertz. In 1891 the first solar heater was created. In 1893 the first solar cell was
introduced. In 1908 William J. Baileys invented a copper collector which was constructed using
copper coils and boxes. In 1958, solar energy was used in space

1.1.1 Statement of the problem

Due to the science is new and much beyond what we have known before, some people See's the
idea of solar energy and its applications not to be understand. So, to make a clear
understanding of the science truth it is necessary to have a series of publication to people around
us. Therefore, the study is aimed to solve this problem and to have a clear understanding more
about solar energy and its applications in their related course matter.

1.1.2 Research questions

1, What form of energy is output from solar power?
2, How do photovoltaics work?

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3, What is the basic principle of solar power?

1.2 Objectives of the study

General Objective:
The general objective of this project is to give a brief explanation about the energy emission
from solar power.

Specific Objectives:
the specific objectives of this study include:
• To manifests on conversion of solar energy to electrical energy
• To assessing the elaboration and the uses of solar energy
• To over view principle of photo-voltaic cells

1.4 Significant of the study

Our study is valuable in utilizing and applying solar energy for various purposes. Because of the
reduced environmental impact of using solar energy in comparison to fossil fuels and other non-
renewable resources has been noted and lauded. Photo-voltaic panels will not change the
environment and are small in comparison to dams. One of the advantages of solar power is its
versatility. A land or roof installation can be set up in regions that many would think don’t
receive enough sunlight. Understanding how solar energy works is important, since its benefits
are unfortunately rarely compared to other green and sustainable sources.

1.5 Limitation of the study

When we were performing our project, we got problems like:

• Lack of awareness

• Shortage of Internet service

• Shortage of reference materials.

• No sufficient experimental observation in the laboratory.

• Shortage of time

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 CHAPTER TWO

Review Literature

2. utilizing and using Solar Energy

2.1 Solar Collectors

Heating with solar energy is not as easy as we might think. Capturing sunlight and putting it to
work is difficult because the solar energy that reaches the Earth is spread out over a large area.
The sun does not deliver that much energy to any one place at any one time. The amount of solar
energy an area receives depends on the time of day, the season of the year, the cloudiness of the
sky, and how close you are to the Earth’s Equator. A solar collector is one way to capture
sunlight and change it into usable heat energy [4].

There are three types of solar collectors as followed below:

 Flat-plate collector: There are two types of flat-plate collectors. One is a glazed flat-
plate collector that is insulated and water proof. It also contains a dark absorber plate
under a glass cover. The other type is an unglazed flat-pate collector. This has a dark
absorber that is made of metal or polymer, but without a cover.
 Integral collector-storage system (ICS): This system contains one or more black tanks
or tubes in an insulated and glazed box. It works by cold water going through the solar
collector first, where it is preheated. Then to a storage tank where it is used.
 Evacuated-tube solar collector: This collector features parallel rows of transparent glass
tubes, with a glass outer tube, and a metal absorber tube that is attached to a fin. [2].

2.2 Solar water heating

In order to heat water by using solar energy we have to use solar water heater. Solar water
heaters can be a cost-effective way to provide hot water in our homes. Instead of relying on gas
that is more expensive and could cause death if inhaled, we can save money with free power that
only the sun can provide. Solar water heaters come complete with storage tanks and solar
collectors. In order to use a solar water heater a well-insulated storage tank is needed. These
storage tanks have an outlet and inlet connected to and from the collector. If it is happened to
have a two-tank storage system, the solar water heater will preheat the water before it goes into
the regular water heater. [7].

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Solar water heating systems: There are two types of solar water heater systems available:
active and passive. As for the active system, there are two that are available:
 Direct circulation systems: The pumps circulate household water through the collectors
and into the home.
 Indirect circulation systems: The pumps circulate non-freezing, heat-transfer fluid
through collectors and a heat exchanger. This allows the water to get heated then it flows
into the home.

Figure 2.1: Active, Closed loop solar water heater [7].

Just as there are two active solar water heating systems, there are also two passive water heating
systems:
 Integral collector-storage passive system: This system works best in areas where the
temperature rarely hits the freezing point.
 Thermo-siphon system: This system works by water flowing through when warm water
rises as cooler water sinks. A collector must be installed below the storage tank, so the
warm water will rise into the tank.

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 Figure 2.2: Passive, Batch solar water heater [7].

2.3 Solar Cooking

A solar cooker is an appliance that utilizes heat from the sunlight instead of gas and electricity.
Solar cooking is used mainly in poorer communities due to its low cost. After purchasing a solar
cooker, no additional money has to be paid as it only uses sunlight. Other advantages of solar
cooking include better indoor air quality, reduced emissions of carbon monoxide, and
conservation of fuel through reduced use of air conditioning. While a solar cooker has many
advantages, it also has a few disadvantages. Some of the disadvantages to solar cooking include
difficulty in cooking during unfavorable weather conditions, difficulty in retaining heat as
efficiently as electric or gas cookers, and eyesight damage if sunlight reflected back into
someone’s eyes. It is very important to wear protective materials while using solar cookers
[http://www.solarcooking.org/asae-std.pdf]

2.3.1 Types of Solar cookers

There are many varieties and countless styles of solar cookers that have been made, and are
continually being modified around the world. But there are three main styles (classes) of solar
cookers which are in use today.

 Box Cooker: is probably the most common and popular variety of the solar cookers. In
order for the solar rays to covert to heat energy they must be able to reach the cooking
utensil (pot, pan) usually passing through a transparent covering (glass, plastic) on the
box cooker. The solar UV rays are then converted to longer infrared rays that heat the pot
and food. The longer UV rays are not able to pass back out through the glass
(transparent) covering and are thus retained inside the box enclosure, creating a buildup
of heat; raising the temperature inside to sustainable cooking levels and thus causing the
food to cook [17].

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 Figure 2.3: Solar box cooker [17].

 Panel Cooker: is a combination of the box oven and the parabolic oven, using panels to
receive the heat and direct it to a separate container where the food is stored inside a pot
or other cooking vessel. The inner container is made of glass or plastic and serves to trap
the heat inside. Panel cookers are inexpensive to manufacture and are cheap to assemble.

Figure 2.4: Solar panel cooker [17].

 Parabolic Cooker: Often Known as, concentrator cookers, these are usually a bit more
complicated to construct due to the design and necessary materials, but still are quite
common in some areas of the world. In comparison to the other solar cookers, parabolic
cookers create high heat and cook foods quickly. Parabolic cookers focus the sun's heat
with rounded walls to the cooker's base where the food is placed to receive the heat. The
parabolic cooker can reach high temperatures more quickly; therefore, cooking is
accomplished more rapidly, though more frequent adjustment of the concentrator is
needed for maximum effectiveness.

Figure 2.5: Solar parabolic cooker [17].

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2.4 Solar Electricity
Solar electricity systems are usually called photo-voltaic (PV) because they transform light
energy into electricity. A standard PV cell is a thin semiconductor sandwich, with two layers of
highly purified silicon. Photo-voltaic arrays are nothing more than huge matrices of
interconnected semiconductor sandwiches. Usable PV systems comprised all sorts of equipment
that protects the user from electrical shock, stores the electricity in battery banks, and converts
the direct current (DC) into alternating current (AC), which is what people use in their houses.
But at the heart of each system there is a simple conversion process.

Photo-voltaic (PV) solar panels: are made up of many solar cells. Solar cells are made of
silicon, like semiconductors. They are constructed with a positive layer and a negative layer,
which together create an electric field, just like in a battery. When photons hit a solar cell, they
knock electrons loose from their atoms. If conductors are attached to the positive and negative
sides of a cell, it forms an electrical circuit. When electrons flow through such a circuit, they
generate electricity. Multiple cells make up a solar panel, and multiple panels (modules) can be
wired together to form a solar array. The more panels we can deploy, the more energy we can
expect to generate.

Solar Inverters: take the DC electricity from the solar array and uses that to create AC
electricity. Inverters are like the brains of the system. Along with inverting DC to AC power,
they also provide ground fault protection and system stats including voltage and current on AC
and DC circuits, energy production, and maximum power point tracking. Central inverters have
dominated the solar industry since the beginning. The introduction of micro-inverters is one of
the biggest technology shifts in the PV industry. Micro-inverters optimize for each individual
solar panel, not for an entire solar system, as central inverts do.

2.4.1 Photovoltaic Electricity

Photo-voltaic comes from the words photo, meaning light, and volt, a measurement of electricity.
Sometimes photo-voltaic cells are called PV cells or solar cells for short. We are probably
familiar with photo-voltaic cells. Solar-powered toys, calculators, and roadside telephone call
boxes all use solar cells to convert sunlight into electricity. Solar cells are made up of silicon, the
same substance that makes up sand. Silicon is the second most common substance on Earth.
Solar cells can supply energy to anything that is powered by batteries or electrical power.
Electricity is produced when radiant energy from the sun strikes the solar cell, causing the
electrons to move around. The action of the electrons starts an electric current. The conversion of
sunlight into electricity takes place silently and instantly. [20].

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2.4.2 Solar Thermal Electricity
Like solar cells, solar thermal systems, also called concentrated solar power (CSP), use solar
energy to produce electricity, but in a different way. Most solar thermal systems use a solar
collector with a mirrored surface to focus sunlight onto a receiver that heats a liquid. The super-
heated liquid is used to make steam to produce electricity in the same way that coal plants do.
Solar energy has great potential for the future. Solar energy is free, and its supplies are unlimited.
It does not pollute or otherwise damage the environment

2.5 Solar water Disinfection (purification)

Solar water Disinfection, also known as SODIS is a method of purifying water using sunlight.
SODIS is a free and effective method for decentralized water treatment, usually applied at the
household level and is recommended by the World Health Organization (WHO) as a viable
method for it. UV-A (ultraviolet-A) rays from the sun destroys cell structures of bacteria. UV-A
rays reacts with oxygen dissolved in the water and produces highly reactive forms of oxygen that
are believed to also damage pathogens.

2.6 Amount of solar energy reaching the earth

The average power density of solar radiation just outside the atmosphere of the Earth is 1366
W/m 2, widely known as the solar constant. And the radius of Earth is (2/π) × 10 7 m. The total
power of solar radiation reaching Earth is then Solar power = CA=1366 W/m 2 × 4 /π × 10 14 m2 =
1.73 × 10 17 W. C is solar constant, and A is the surface area of the earth that is unmasked to Sun.
Each day has 86,400 s, and on average, each year has 365.2422 days. The total energy of solar
radiation reaching Earth per year is Annual solar energy = (Power) (time) = 1.73 × 10 17w ×
86400sec/day × 365.2422day = 5.46 × 10 24 J.
To have an idea of how much energy that is, let us compare it with annual global energy
consumption; The United States Energy Information Administration regularly publishes a report
on world consumption for most types of primary energy resources. The most recent estimate of
the world energy consumption was 5.67 × 10 20 joules, in 2013. This is about only 0.01% of the
annual solar energy reaching on earth.

2.7 Photo-voltaic effect

Photovoltaic (PV) is a term which covers the conversion of light into electricity using semi
conducting materials that exhibit the photo voltaic effect, a phenomenon studied in physics,
photochemistry, and electro chemistry. It is also defined as the creation of voltage or electric
current in material upon exposure to light and is a physical and chemical property or
phenomenon. The physical essence of the difference is usually that photoelectric emission
separates the charges by ballistic conduction and photo-voltaic emission separates them by

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diffusion, but some "hot carrier" photo-voltaic device concepts blur even this line of distinction.
[10].

Figure 2.6: Photo-voltaic effect [20].

2.8 Photovoltaic Cells (Solar Cells)

Photovoltaic (PV) cells are structures designed to allow light to be directly converted
into electricity at the atomic level. A solar cell (also known as a photovoltaic cell or PV
cell) is defined as an electrical device that converts light energy into electrical energy
through the photovoltaic effect. A solar cell is basically a p-n junction diode. Solar cells
are a form of photoelectric cell, defined as a device whose electrical characteristics such
as current, voltage, or resistance vary when exposed to light. Individual solar cells can
combine to form modules commonly known as solar panels. The common single
junction silicon solar cell produces a maximum open circuit voltage of approximately 0.5
to 0.6 volts.

Components to Photovoltaic Cells:

 Photovoltaic Effect: PV cells are able to create electricity at the atomic level using the
photovoltaic effect. Often the photovoltaic effect is confused with the photoelectric
effect. One is related to the other as both begin with the basic understanding that the
universe is created of two core entities: matter and energy. Matter is anything that has
mass and takes up space. In physics energy is defined as a source providing the ability to

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 do work (e.g. light, heat, sound, electricity). In the photoelectric effect, there are two
components: photons (energy) and electrons (matter). Photons are light “packets”. Each
one carries a specific quantity (quanta) of energy revealed in different frequencies of light
(higher energy photons are found in higher frequencies of light waves).

 Semi-Conductor: Semi-conductors have an intermediate band gap. Meaning they require

more energy to move electrons than a conductor, but less than an insulator. Once
electrons are moved, they create electron “holes” or unoccupied orbitals in the valance
band and easily released electrons in the conduction band. In PV cells, semi-conductors
are often used because they can regulate conduction band electrons and electron “holes”
more readily, especially if the semi-conductor is “doped” or impurities are added.

 P-N Junction (Photo diode): The photo voltaic effect within a PV cell is able to produce
an electric current by using a P-N junction. The P-N Junction is made of two kinds of
semi-conductors. The N-type (N for Negative or electron-rich) is doped to have a high
density of electrons and few holes, while the P-type (P for Positive or electron-poor) is
doped to be the opposite. Electrons flow from areas of high to low concentration. The
difference between these concentrated areas is known as voltage. A P-N junction
regulates the voltage, so current only flows in one direction resulting in an electric
current.

Operation of Photovoltaic Cells (Solar Cells): PV Cells are able to convert light into electricity
by first allowing radiant energy from the sun to pass through a transparent layer (glass). Photons
are absorbed ejecting electrons from the doped N-type semiconductor layer. The amount depends
on intensity and angle of light sent and the continuing development of the manufacturing
technology. These electrons are passed to a conductor, which completes a circuit back to the P-
type semi conducting layer.

2.8.1 How do photovoltaics work?

The diagram below illustrates the operation of a basic photo-voltaic cell, also called a solar cell.
Solar cells are made of the same kinds of semiconductor materials, such as silicon, used in the
microelectronics industry. For solar cells, a thin semiconductor wafer is specially treated to form
an electric field, positive on one side and negative on the other. When light energy strikes the
solar cell, electrons are knocked loose from the atoms in the semiconductor material. If electrical
conductors are attached to the positive and negative sides, forming an electrical circuit, the
electrons can be captured in the form of an electric current -- that is, electricity. This electricity
can then be used to power a load, such as a light or a tool. [19].

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 Figure 2.7: operation of a basic photo-voltaic cell [20].

A number of solar cells electrically connected to each other and mounted in a support structure
or frame is called a photo-voltaic module. Modules are designed to supply electricity at a certain
voltage, such as a common 12 volts system. The current produced is directly dependent on how
much light strikes the module those a number of modules electrically connected to each other
and produce photo-voltaic array. The conversion process is as shown in the diagram blow.

Figure 2.8: solar cell, module and array

The larger the area of a module or array, the more electricity will be produced. Photo-voltaic
modules and arrays produce direct-current (DC) electricity. They can be connected in both series
and parallel electrical arrangements to produce any required voltage and current combination.

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2.9 The Efficiency of the Solar Cells
Efficiency of a solar cell is the ratio of the Power output per unit area of the cell and the Power
Input per unit area of the light source.

Power Input Measurements: Input power is a result of the photons hitting the solar cell surface.
Several processes can happen to attenuate the light reaching the material that absorbs the
incoming light. Also, there will be a distribution associated with the wavelength dependence of
light. The material, itself, has wavelength dependence.

The efficiency of the solar cell is usually measured based on a source that mimics a certain
region of the spectrum.

Power Output Measurements: The output power is measured as a function of the resistance
through an external load. There is a built-in potential in the solar cell that can be used to drive
current through an external load. However, the current can be limited by the resistance of the
solar cell itself (its ability to conduct the electrons) as well as by the resistance in the external
load. If the external load has zero resistance, then we have a measure of the current that can be
provided, essentially limited by the movement of the electrons across the junction potential and
through the doped semiconductor to the external contact.

This will be the maximum current that the solar cell could provide in a particular light source,
the short circuit current, Isc. Conversely, if the external load has an infinite resistance, then no
current can flow through the external connection. The light then simply moves the electrons and
holes to opposite contacts creating the maximum potential possible from the solar cell for the
particular light source being investigated. The voltage available under no current flow conditions
is called the open circuit voltage, Voc. If current was flowing the potential would be reduced as
the electrons move away from the external junction. Ideally, then, the maximum power that
could be generated would be, if we could provide as much current as is possible under short
circuit conditions, Isc. Also, ideally, if the current load did not pull down the potential, then the
maximum voltage possible would be the open circuit voltage, V oc. The ideal maximum power
then is the product of Isc and Voc.

In practice, however, an external load affects both the voltage and the current. A typical IV plot
made by varying the external resistance would look something like.

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 Dark
0.50
Blue
Green
0.40
Yellow
Red
0.30

Photocurrent (mA)
Solar

0.20

0.10

0.00
0 100 200 300 400 500 600
Bias (mV)

This curve was actually made by putting a reverse potential across the solar cell and observing
the current flow as a function of the bias. This is similar to imposing an external resistance to the
flow of electrons. The max power can be obtained from the diagram by looking at the current
and voltage to see where the maximum product occurs. It will occur at the “knee” of the curves
on the diagram. Once the maximum power has been obtained, it is divided by the area of the
solar cell to get the maximum power per area. Then this number is divided by the power per
area of the incident light and multiplied by 100% to give the % efficiency.

% Efficiency = (Max Power/Area) (generated Solar Cell) / (Power/area) (incident light)

Another Quantity that is often quoted is the fill factor. The fill factor is defined as

Max Power per Area (from solar cell) / Ideal Max Power per Area

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 CHAPTER THREE

3.1 Methodology of the Study

3.1.1 Method
First, we read many reference that have been the energy emanation from solar power. Af-
ter that we collect information that is gained from many references Second, we read many
researches that is studied by scientists and we gain new idea about our tittle

3.1.2 Study area

This proposal will be conducted at Salale University physics department. The study will be
related and investigated on the energy emanation from solar power

3.2 Research design

The Research is used both quantitative & qualitative methods. The systematic review will
be conducted in Salale University and it describes the energy emanation from solar power

3.3 Source of data analyzing

In this proposal the review of different books in the library and different ideas from the in -
ternet will be conducted. The source of information’s is only second source of data collec-
tion like study article in other way source of information is the material that used to com-
plete the proposal work by review article are gathered from searching from manuals, docu-
mentary and related books from the library. The source and information of this study will
be gathered and collected in many sources different ways. The source of gathered will be
only secondary source of data collection like article, internet, and we use relate any docu-
ment source. Data can be collected from the following material. Such as any kinds of
books, internet, journals and information from our advisor. The gathered information
from internet, different books and documents will be compiled. The literature will be pre -
pared to compare and contrast published researchers and different articles about the topic
after reading repeatedly.

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CHAPTER FOUR

4.1 Time schedule and budget planning

4.1.1 Time schedule

The following table outlines the activities to be done within 12 months

NO Activities Jan Feb. Mar. April. May. June. July Aug. Sep. Oct. Nov. Dec.
. .
1 Title selec- 
tion
2 Collection 
material
3 Proposal 
preparation
4 Project
writing
5 Project sub-
mission date

6 Presentation

4.1.2 Budget planning

Budget planning is very important to conduct project. Will be conducting the project work
is crucial to consider its benefits and the cost to be minimized. Therefore, the benefits from
conducting the project work should at list have set the cost. The following minimum costs
will be budgeted for the completion of this project

NO Items Units Quantity Unit price Total cost

birr
1 Pen Piece 2 20 40
2 Paper Ream 1 400 400
3 Ruler Piece 1 20 20
4 Photo copy Page 20 1 20
5 Print Piece 20 2 40

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 6 Transport km 00 0 00
7 Computer typist One 00 00 00
8 Mobile Number 5 20 100
9 Flash Piece 1 200 200
Grand Total 50 663 820

4.2 Summary

Renewable energy is from an energy resource that is replaced by a natural process at a rate that is
equal to or faster than the rate at which that resource is being consumed. Renewable energy is a
subset of sustainable energy. Sustainable energy is the sustainable provision of energy that meets
the needs of the present without compromising the ability of the future generations to meet their
needs. Solar energy is the energy that emanates from the sun. It is created by light and heat
which is emitted by the sun, in the form of electromagnetic radiation. It is an important source of
renewable energy and its technologies are broadly characterized as either passive solar or active
solar depending on how they capture and distribute solar energy or convert it into solar power.
Most renewable forms of energy, other than geothermal and tidal power, ultimately derive from
solar energy. Solar energy is abundantly available and has been utilized since long both as
electricity and as a source of heat. Solar energy has many uses such as solar water heating, Solar
Cooking, Photovoltaics (PV), Water Purification etc. We can make electricity from solar energy
by either the photo-voltaic or solar thermal systems. Solar water Disinfection is a method of
purifying water using sunlight.

The photovoltaic effect is the creation of voltage or electric current in a material upon exposure
to light and is a physical and chemical property/phenomenon. The photovoltaic effect is closely
related to the photoelectric effect. In either case, light is absorbed, causing excitation of an
electron or other charge carrier to a higher-energy state. The main difference is that photoelectric
effect is now usually used when the electron is ejected out of the material (usually into a
vacuum) and photo-voltaic effect used when the excited charge carrier is still contained within
the material.

Photovoltaic (PV) cells are electrical devices that convert sunlight energy directly into electricity
by the photovoltaic effect. The three components of the photovoltaic cells are Photovoltaic
Effect, Semi-Conductor and P-N Junction (Photo diode). A number of solar cells electrically
connected to each other to give a photo-voltaic module, and a number of modules electrically
connected to each other and produce photo-voltaic array.

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 i.e. Cell→ Module→ Array (in increasing order)

References
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Sons, Inc
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[4]. S P Sukhatme and J K Nayak. 2008. Solar energy principles of thermal collection and
storage. 3rdedition. New Delhi. Tata McGraw-Hill
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Colorado. Taylor and Francis group

[12]. https://us.sunpower.com/blog/2015/06/15/how-does-solar-energy-work/

[13]. https://www.britannica.com/topic/solar-energy

[14] Saxena A, Varun, Pandey SP, Srivastav G. A thermodynamic review on solar box type cookers.

Renew Sustainable Energy Rev 2011;15:3301–18

[15] Ashok K. A review of solar cooker designs. TIDE; 1998.

[16] Erdem Cuse, Pinar Mert Cuce “A comprehensive review on solar cookers/Applied energy

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[17].https://www.researchgate.net/publication/312626609_Solar_cooker-_A
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[19].https://www.basengreen.com/how-photovoltaics-work-pdf/

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[20].https://web.pdx.edu/~rueterj/courses/ESM342-solar/WK3-GE-MC3-PVintro.pdf

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