2023TECH L1 2 Systems

Sustainable Energy and Resources Technologies and Systems
SYSTEMS
Prof. Dr.-Ing. Joachim Müller-Kirchenbauer

Structure
Systems
Thermodynamic Basics
Circular Processes
Systems | Prof. Dr.-Ing. Müller-Kirchenbauer | Sustainable Energy and Resources – Technologies and Systems
Page 2
System and System Boundaries
System
A system is a definable part of the world that is boundary
interesting to us. It is separated from its
environment by a system boundary. System
Environment
Thermodynamic processes can be understood as a mutual influence of system and

environment or of two systems among themselves. The influence takes place by
transfer of energy.
Types of energy transfer

Mechanical Thermal Through material flow
Different types of energy

Energy in the form of heat (Q) is
Energy in the form of work (W) (e.g. kinetic energy) cross the
transferred across the system
crosses the system boundary system boundary with the
boundaries
material flow
Page 3 Source: Thielen (2011)
System Types
Isolated system
▪ Matter and energy impermeable Example: Thermos flask
▪ No energy transit possible
Closed system
▪ Matter impermeable Example: Closed cylinder of a combustion
▪ Energy transfer in the form of: engine
− Work Work
− Heat
Heat
Open system
▪ Matter permeable Example: Cooled turbo compressor
▪ Energy transfer in the form of:
Material
− Work Material
− Heat
− Material-bound energy transport
Work Heat
Page 4 Source: Thielen (2011)
Contact of Two Technical Systems
Equilibrium A Equilibrium B
Thermally conductive:
“diatherm“ Fully isolated:
“adiabatic“
Pressure Pressure Pressure
Pressure drop increase
Warm Warm
Hot Cold
gas gas
gas gas
Temperature Temperature
Temperature Temperature
drop increase
▪ The equilibrium is the final state of an exchange process

▪ Energy (amount) is maintained (1st law of thermodynamics)
▪ Energy is devalued / depreciated (2nd law of thermodynamics)
Page 5
From System to Model
In order to be able to describe and analyse the world, we divide the system "world" into
System smaller and smaller pieces, into subsystems, and these in turn into sub-sub-systems etc.
The resulting systems are often analysed with the help of mathematical methods.
Basic principle: constructing (model) a simplified description of complex systems. These

descriptions (models) can have a mathematical form, e.g. a system of equations.
Model With the help of a model, a complicated system can be simplified. A model is therefore
not a copy of the real system.
A model is closely related to the purpose of the problem being investigated. The problem
determines the system, system boundaries and the relevant system parameters.
Quickly setting up a conceptual model using a box representation:

▪ Imagine the system as box, the border is the system boundary
▪ Inside the box: system variables 𝒱𝑖
External
▪ Entering the system: variables, which
relation
From system represent relations between environment
and system (input variables), e.g. mass
to model flow, solar radiation, air temperature etc.
▪ Leaving the system: variables representing
effects on the environment Impact of the system
▪ Use arrows to represent the direction of the on the environment
effect
Environment
The number of system variables describes the dimension of the model.

Page 6 Source: Imboden (2008)
Analysis of a Simple Technical System
Example: Cylinder with Piston
The system analysis is a system-technical way of describing a system through:

▪ Elements
System
▪ A cause-effect-relationship
analysis
In a system analysis, the easiest black-box structure is found in order to describe the relationship
between the state of the system and the state of its surroundings.
Analysis of a simple piston-cylinder system:

 Elements: by "macroscopic coordinates" (state variables: pressure, temperature, volume;
characteristics: type and composition of the gas, etc.)
 A cause-effect-relationship: Energy is converted in transition from a system’s state of
equilibrium to another equilibrium state of the same system (movement of the piston).
System boundary
Example
Pressure Gas type

(composure)
Temperature Movement
(action / result)
Volume
(stroke, piston position)
Page 7
Overview of Energy System Research and Analysis
Definition of energy ▪ Investigation of the structural elements of a system, i.e. the representation
system analysis of how the system works
Goals of systems ▪ Support decisions in energy policy and energy research with regard to
research and systems technologies and infrastructures for energy supply and energy conversion
analysis on a knowledge-based and systematic basis
▪ Study of energy systems of different dimensions: global, European-level,

national, district-level, an industrial site or a house
Properties of
investigated systems
▪ Distinction between the investigation of "energy futures" and "technology-
related" system analyses
▪ "What could/should the energy system of the future (in a target year to be
defined) look like, if on the one hand the emission reduction targets of the
European Union in Germany are to be achieved and on the other hand the
Examples
nuclear power phase-out is to be maintained?”
▪ "How does the LCA of a heat pump compare to an oil boiler?"
Page 8 Source: Möst & Wolf & Grunwald (2008)
Example:
Create a Model of a System Representing a House
𝑥1 (𝑡) 𝑦1 (𝑡)
Input parameters at
System
…
…
time t Outputs at time t
𝑥𝑛(𝑡) 𝑦𝑚 (𝑡)
Oil, gas, coal Air
Heat Exhaust gases
Electricity People
Air Waste
Water Heat
People Ash
Food Waste water

Reflected solar
Wood radiation
Solar radiation CO2
O2
Page 9
Example:
Simulating Thermal Energy Flows of a House
𝑸𝑷 Primary energy
𝒇𝑷 Primary energy factor according to DIN 185991
𝑸𝒇𝒖𝒆𝒍 Energy content of the fuel used
𝑸𝑻 Transmission heat losses
𝑸𝑽 Ventilation heat losses
𝑸𝑩 Internal heat demand and losses, e.g. drinking water,
cooling and technical equipment losses
QI +QR QT 𝑸𝑰 Internal heat gains
QP
𝑸𝑺 Solar gains
𝑸𝑨𝑽 Technical system losses of heat generation and distribution
QV 𝑸𝑯𝑾 Heat requirement for hot water heating
𝜼𝑭 Efficiency of heat gains (e.g. 0,95)
QB+QC+QHW +QAV 𝑸𝑹 Regenerative or recovered energy
𝑸𝑪 Cooling requirement
Energy balance: QP = fP * Qfuel = fP * (QT + QV + QHW + QC + QB + QAV – nF * QS – nF * QI – QR)

What measures can be derived to improve the energy efficiency of the building?
▪ Reduction of transmission losses (𝑄𝑇 ) through improved thermal insulation
▪ Reduction of ventilation losses (𝑄𝑉) through building sealing
▪ Improvement of heating system utilization rates (𝑄𝐻𝑊, 𝑄𝐴𝑉)
▪ Use of solar heat gains (𝑄𝑆 ) ) through optimal building orientation and arrangement of window
surfaces
▪ Use of internal heat gains (𝑄𝐼 )
▪ Avoidance of cooling requirements (𝑄𝐶 )
Page 10 Source: Schellong (2016)
Structure
Systems
Circular Processes
Page 11
What is Thermodynamics?
▪ Thermodynamics could be defined as a “general energy theory”.
▪ It teaches to distinguish between different forms of energy.

▪ It describes their conversions into each other by using energy balances of the 1st law
of thermodynamics.
▪ It clarifies the conditions and limits for the conversion during natural and technical
processes by applying the statements of the 2nd law of thermodynamics.
▪ Energy balancing:
Cℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 = 𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑡 + 𝐺𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 − 𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠
Page 12 Source: Baehr & Kabelac (2012)
Elements of Thermodynamics
1. System and system boundaries
2. State / status and variables describing the status

▪ A system can be assigned physical quantities or variables that describe its
thermodynamic properties.
▪ The system is in a certain state if it can be described at any moment by a unique
set of variables.
▪ These variables are called state variables, e.g. mass, temperature, volume, etc.
3. Process and process variables

▪ If a system is in energetic interaction with its environment, the state of the system
changes, it goes through a process.
▪ The energy in the form of e.g. heat or work (process variables) is supplied or
removed over the system boundary.
State and Process Variables
State variables Process variables
Thermal (depend on the Caloric (describe the energy
prevailing temperature) content of a system) Work: 𝑊
Internal energy: 𝑈 Power: 𝑃 = 𝑑𝑊Τ𝑑𝑡
Temperature: 𝑇
Specific internal energy: 𝑢:=U/m
Enthalpy: 𝐻
Pressure: 𝑝
Specific enthalpy: ℎ: = 𝐻/𝑚 Heat: 𝑄
Entropy: S Heat flow: 𝑄ሶ = 𝑑𝑄ൗ𝑑𝑡
Volume: 𝑉
Specific entropy: 𝑠: = 𝑆/𝑚
Extensive properties: Properties, whose values result from the division of a system as the sum of
the corresponding state variables of the parts: 𝑍 = 𝑍𝐴 + 𝑍𝐵 + 𝑍𝐶 + …
Intensive properties: Properties that are not additive when dividing a system or joining
subsystems into a complete system.
Absolute properties: Not related to a uniform basis.
If one divides the extensive size 𝑍 of a system by its mass, its amount of matter or its volume, one
gets specific quantity, molar quantity and density. They are all intensive sizes:
▪ Specific quantity: 𝑧 ≔ 𝑍/𝑚
▪ Molar quantity: 𝑍𝑚 = 𝑍/𝑛
▪ Density: 𝑍𝑉 ≔ 𝑍/𝑉
Energy Units, Definitions, Conversion Factors
1) Oil equivalent
2) Prefixes
Coal equivalent
Nano n 10-9 A billionths
3) Kilocalorie -6
Micro u 10 A millionths
4) Kilowatt hour Milli m 10 -3 A thousandths
5) Centi c 10 -2 A hundredths
British Thermal Unit
Kilo k 10 3 thousand
Mega M 10 6 Million (dt. “Million“)
Oil: barrels (bbl); Giga G 10 9 Billion (dt. “Milliarde)
1 bbl = 159 l ≈ 0.136 t Tera T 10 12 Trillion (dt. “Billion“)
Peta P 10 15 Quadrillion
Gas: 1 cubic feet / day = 10.34 m3/year 18
Exa E 10 Quintillion
Page 15 Source: Own presentation based on AGEB (2010)
Value of Energy
Law of
The sum of all forms of energy always remains the same, but:
Conservation
Energy = Exergy + Anergy.
of Energy
The part of the energy that can be converted into any other form of
Exergy energy under given thermodynamic conditions of the environment.
The exergy share decreases in all conversion processes.
The part of the energy that cannot be converted into other forms of
Anergy energy, e.g. thermal energy at the temperature level of the
environment.
Energy consumption in the thermodynamic sense does not exist, as the sum of exergy
and anergy is constant (1st law).
However, energy can be degraded form exergy to anergy and it is never possible to
convert anergy into exergy (2nd law). This principle could be interpreted as energy
consumption.
Page 16
Definitions of Energy
Page 17 Source: Own presentation
Energy of a System (Energy Level)
System boundaries
Ekin
U
-Epot +Epot
Ekin

Epot - Energy of position (potential) (forces on the stationary system)
System energy E = Ekin - Energy of movement (kinetic) (forces on the moving system)
U - Internal energy (forces inside the system)
Examples for “U“:

▪ Thermal kinetic energy of the molecules in a body, a liquid, or within a gas (measured as
temperature)
▪ Force effect of the moving molecules hitting the system boundaries (measured as pressure)
▪ Binding energy between the molecules of a substance or the atoms of a molecule (chemical
energy)
▪ Binding energy between the components of an atomic nucleus (nuclear energy)
E = Epot + Ekin + U = const. (Principle of energy conservation: Energy of a constant mass can
neither be “produced“ nor “destroyed“, but is conserved.
Page 18
The First Law of Thermodynamics
▪ The first law of thermodynamics describes the principle of energy conservation.

▪ Every system has an extensive state variable energy, the system energy E.
-Q -W
System Epot - Potential energy ≔ 𝑚𝑔𝑧
boundary (Force effects on the resting system)
Ekin Ekin - Kinetic energy ≔ 𝑚
𝑣2
-Epot U +Epot System energy =  2

(Force effects on the moving system)
U - Internal energy ≔ 𝑚𝑢
W Ekin (Force effects within a system)
2
𝑣
Q 𝐸 = 𝑈 + 𝐸𝑝𝑜𝑡 + 𝐸𝑘𝑖𝑛 = m 𝑢 + + 𝑔𝑧
2
▪ Law of conservation of energy: The different forms of energy can be transformed into
each other, but they cannot be generated or destroyed. There can be no generation or
destruction of energy.
𝑑𝐸 𝑑(𝑈+𝐸𝑝𝑜𝑡 +𝐸𝑘𝑖𝑛 )
▪ The temporal change of energy: 𝑑𝑡
= 𝑑𝑡
= 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑡
▪ Three types of energy transport:
– Transport in the form of work, 𝑾
– Heat transfer, 𝑸
– Energy transport through a material flow across the system boundary, 𝐞 ∆𝒎
Page 19 Sources: Baehr & Kabelac (2012), Tsatsaronis (2013)
Entropy and the Second Law of Thermodynamics
▪ The second law of thermodynamics describes the principle of

energy degradation.
▪ All natural processes can only run by themselves in one direction:
All natural processes are irreversible.
▪ Introduction of a thermodynamic state variable: Entropy. Every
system has an extensive state variable entropy 𝑺. Resting position
▪ The entropy of a system changes by:
Simple pendulum
− Heat transport across the system boundary (Entropy transport with heat, 𝑆𝑞 ) → nearly reversible
𝑑𝑆𝑞 𝑑𝑄
• The entropy transported with the amount of heat, 𝑑𝑄: =
𝑑𝑡 𝑇𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑒𝑟
− Mass transport across the system boundaries: 𝑠Δ𝑚
− Irreversible processes inside the system (Entropy generation, 𝑆𝑖𝑟𝑟 )
• The entropy generated by irreversibilities can only assume positive values:
> 0, for irreversible processes
𝑆𝑖𝑟𝑟
= 0, for reversible processes (ideal borderline case)
▪ Entropy is a measure for the irreversibility of a process.
Melting ice cubes
→ irreversible
Page 20 Sources: Baehr & Kabelac (2012), Tsatsaronis (2013); Image source: Stündle (2011)
The Limited Convertibility of Energy
Exergy = fully usable, unlimitedly convertible part of

energy (e.g. work); entropy-free
Energy = Exergy + Anergy
Anergy = non-usable part of the energy in the
considered environment; afflicted with entropy
▪ The exergy share is decisive for the usability of energy, since energy with a high
exergy share is more valuable than energy with a high anergy share.
▪ Energy that is used in many different processes and converted into different
energies is likely to have a high exergy share.
▪ Simplified formulation of the second law of thermodynamics:
“It is never possible to turn anergy into exergy.“
▪ Conclusions from the combination with the simplified formulation:
− Irreversibilities occur during the conversion of exergy into anergy.
− If the conversion is ideal, the borderline case occurs and no anergy is generated.
− The measurement of irreversibilities should be a method to determine the proportions of

exergy and anergy of a system.
Anergy and Exergy of Energy Forms
Examples for ideal Exergy share of the

Energy forms
conversion converted energy
Epot - Potential energy Leverage 100 %
Ekin - Kinetic energy Impact 100 %
U - Internal energy:
• Charge energy Movement of load

100 %
(electricity) carriers
• Chemical binding energy Fuel cell < 100 %
<< 100 % depending on
• Thermal energy Thermal engine temperature level and ambient

temperature:
𝑄 ⋅ 𝜂𝐶 (𝜂𝐶 : Carnot efficiency)*
𝑇 (𝑙𝑜𝑤)
*𝜂𝐶 = 1 − 𝑇𝑚,𝑜𝑢𝑡(ℎ𝑖𝑔ℎ)
𝑚,𝑖𝑛
Page 22 Source: Own representation
Structure
Systems
Circular Processes
Page 23
Thermodynamic Circular Process of a Gas Power Plant
Simplified schematic of a gas Circular process in a T,s-diagram

power plant (Joule process)
Ideal process
Fuel Real process
3
2 Turbine in
Combustion
chamber
1 Compressor
4
Air Exhaust gas out
s
Component Function Process step Description
Compression of the air to the high pressure
Compressor 1 to 2 Isentropic compression in the compressor
in the combustion chamber
Combustion 2 to 3 Isobaric heat supply in combustion chamber
Combustion under supply of fuel
chamber 3 to 4 Isentropic expansion in the turbine
Expansion of the combustion gas to 4 to 1 Isobaric heat dissipation (open process)
Turbine
approximately the ambient pressure
Page 24 Sources: Strauss (2016), Baehr & Kabelac (2012)
Joule Process of a Gas Turbine Plant
(James Prescott Joule, 1818 – 1889)
p T
Qin 3 p2 = p3 = const.
2 3
p2 = p3
4
2 p1 = p4 = const.
W Q
p1 = p4
1 4 1
V s
Qout (∆s)Compressor (∆s)Turbine
Wout: Qin:
−𝑊 = 𝑊𝑖𝑛 − 𝑊𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑄𝑖𝑛 − 𝑄𝑜𝑢𝑡
W in: Qout:
How can the usable energy be maximized?
Idea: Increase heat input without exceeding T3

Answer: Conversion of the process into a rectangle in the T,s-diagram with T2 = T3 and T1 = T4
Theoretical Optimization of the Joule Process: The Carnot Process
(Nicolas Léonard Sadi Carnot, 1796 – 1832)
p s = const. T p = const.
Q
2 s0 = const.
2 3
T
3 p0 = const.
W Q
T = const.
1
4 T0
T0 = const. 1 4
V s
a d b c e s f
Q0
Conducted work W out (2-3-4-c-a): Applied heat Q (2-3-f-e):
Applied work W in (4-1-2-a-c): Discharged heat Q0 (4-1-e-f):
Effective work: −𝑊 = 𝑄 − 𝑄0
−𝑊 𝑄 − 𝑄0 𝑄0
Thermal efficiency : 𝜂𝑡ℎ = = =1−
𝑄 𝑄 𝑄
𝑇0 Δ𝑠 𝑇0
Carnot efficiency : 𝜂𝐶 = 1 − =1−
𝑇Δ𝑠 𝑇
The Realization of a Continuous Open Circular Process
in Reality: The Gas Turbine (Joule Process)
Cross-section of a stationary
Operating principle
axial gas turbine
▪ In its simplest form, a gas turbine consists
of a turbo compressor, a combustion Combustion
Turbine
chamber, the actual turbine and the chamber
generator.
Compressor Exhaust
▪ Working method: the compressor draws in gas
air from the environment and compresses it
to several times its pressure. The
compressed air is fed into the combustion
chamber where it reacts with the fuel
supplied.
▪ In the turbine, the gas is expanded to
ambient pressure and exits the plant.
▪ The generator, which rotates on the same
shaft, converts mechanical energy into
electrical energy.
▪ The compressor also sits on the same shaft
and is driven by the turbine. Fresh air
▪ In the open process, the combustion air is Energy conversion chain:
drawn in from the environment and the Mechanical
exhaust gases are released back into it. Chemical Thermal Pressure, rotation
Kerosene Combustion Kinetic

Recoil
Page 27 Sources: Baehr & Kabelac (2012), Strauss (2016)
The Realization of a Continuous Open Circular Process
in Reality: The Aircraft Engine (Joule Process)
Cross-section of an aircraft
Operating principle
engine
▪ Air is sucked in and flows through the
engine from the front to the rear (a part of
the air passes outside as a sheath flow).
▪ In the front part the air is compressed by a
compressor over several stages.
▪ In the combustion chamber, thermal energy
is added to the compressed air by the
continuous combustion of the fuel.
▪ The exhaust gas jet is accelerated, flows
through the turbine blades at the rear of the
engine and exits the turbine.
▪ The resulting thrust jet provides the
propulsion energy for the aircraft.
▪ The rotational energy absorbed via the Energy conversion chain:
turbine blades simultaneously drives the Mechanical
Chemical Thermal Pressure, rotation
compressor.
Kerosene Combustion Kinetic
Recoil
Page 28 Sources: Baehr & Kabelac (2012), Strauss (2016)
Example: Thermal Power Plant Berlin Mitte
Turbine: Casing
with guide vanes
Combustion
Turbine: Impeller
chamber
Page 29 Image sources: Berliner Kurier (2013), Vattenfall (2013)
References – Literature
▪ AGEB (2010): Arbeitsgemeinschaft Energiebilanzen e.V. Einheitenumrechner. http://www.ag-
energiebilanzen.de/33-0-Energieeinheitenumrechner.html
▪ Baehr & Kabelac (2012): Baehr, H. D.; Kabelac, S.: Thermodynamik: Grundlagen und technische Anwendungen;
mit zahlreichen Tabellen sowie 74 Beispielen. 16. neu bearb. und erw. Aufl. Springer-Lehrbuch. Berlin, 2016.
▪ Imboden (2008): Imboden, D.M: Systemanalyse: Einführung in die mathematische Modellierung natürlicher
Systeme. 3. korrigierter Nachgedruckt der 1. Auflage. Springer, 2008.
▪ Möst & Wolf & Grunwald (2008): Möst, D.; Fichtner, W.; Grunwald, A.: Energiesystemanalyse: Tagungsband des
Workshops "Energiesystemanalyse" vom 27. November 2008 am KIT Zentrum Energie, Karlsruhe.
▪ Schellong (2016): Schellong, W.: Analyse und Optimierung von Energieverbundsystemen. Springer-Verlag Berlin
Heidelberg.
▪ Strauss (2016): Strauss, K.: Kraftwerkstechnik zur Nutzung fossiler, nuklearer und regenerativer Energiequellen.
7. Auflage, Springer Vieweg, S. 25. VDI-Buch, Berlin, 2016.
▪ Thielen (2011): Thielen, K.: Skript – Technische Thermodynamik. https://www.thm.de/wi/images/user/Thielen-
72/Downloads/Thermodynamik/TT-A.pdf
▪ Tsatsaronis (2008): Tsatsaronis, G.: Thermodynamik I, Skript zur Vorlesung. Institut für Energietechnik,
Energieumwandlung und Umweltschutz. Technische Universität Berlin, 2008.
▪ Tsatsaronis (2013): Tsatsaronis, G.: Energietechnik II, Skript zur Vorlesung. Institut für Energietechnik,
Energieumwandlung und Umweltschutz. Technische Universität Berlin, 2013.
Page 30
References – Image Sources
▪ Berliner Kurier (2013): http://www.berliner-kurier.de/berlin/kiez---stadt/das-kraftwerk-an-der-jannowitzbruecke-im-
heissen-herz-von-mitte-4009658
▪ Stündle (2011): Pendelschwingung; https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1c/Pendelschwingung.gif
▪ Vattenfall (2013): Umwelterklärung 2013 – Heizkraftwerk Mitte, Berichtsjahr 2012.
Page 31

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2023TECH L1 2 Systems

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Sustainable Energy and Resources Technologies and Systems

Prof. Dr.-Ing. Joachim Müller-Kirchenbauer

Thermodynamic processes can be understood as a mutual influence of system and

Types of energy transfer

Different types of energy

▪ The equilibrium is the final state of an exchange process

Basic principle: constructing (model) a simplified description of complex systems. These

Quickly setting up a conceptual model using a box representation:

The number of system variables describes the dimension of the model.

The system analysis is a system-technical way of describing a system through:

Analysis of a simple piston-cylinder system:

Pressure Gas type

▪ Study of energy systems of different dimensions: global, European-level,

▪ "How does the LCA of a heat pump compare to an oil boiler?"

Oil, gas, coal Air

Heat Exhaust gases

Food Waste water

Solar radiation CO2

Energy balance: QP = fP * Qfuel = fP * (QT + QV + QHW + QC + QB + QAV – nF * QS – nF * QI – QR)

▪ Thermodynamics could be defined as a “general energy theory”.

▪ It teaches to distinguish between different forms of energy.

Cℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 = 𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑡 + 𝐺𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 − 𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠

1. System and system boundaries

2. State / status and variables describing the status

3. Process and process variables

Examples for “U“:

▪ The first law of thermodynamics describes the principle of energy conservation.

-Epot U +Epot System energy =  2

▪ The second law of thermodynamics describes the principle of

Exergy = fully usable, unlimitedly convertible part of

− The measurement of irreversibilities should be a method to determine the proportions of

Examples for ideal Exergy share of the

Epot - Potential energy Leverage 100 %

Ekin - Kinetic energy Impact 100 %

• Charge energy Movement of load

• Chemical binding energy Fuel cell < 100 %

<< 100 % depending on

• Thermal energy Thermal engine temperature level and ambient

Simplified schematic of a gas Circular process in a T,s-diagram

Air Exhaust gas out

Qout (∆s)Compressor (∆s)Turbine

How can the usable energy be maximized?

Idea: Increase heat input without exceeding T3

Kerosene Combustion Kinetic

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