2 All - Notes

LEEDS BECKETT UNIVERSITY
SCHOOL OF THE BUILT ENVIRONMENT,

ENGINEERING & COMPUTING
Civil Engineering:
Geotechnical Engineering B
Geotechnical Engineering Design & Theory
Level 6 – BSc & BEng
Lecture notes
Dr Martin Pritchard
m.pritchard@leedsbeckett.ac.uk
© 2022 Leeds Beckett University. All rights Reserved

Civil Engineering Geotechnical Engineering Level 6
Session: 1
Site investigation
Dr Martin Pritchard Page 1

Overview:
This lecture considers the importance of site investigation for civil engineering works and
introduce students to the processes involved in undertaking a desk study, site reconnaissance
and the ground investigation.
Contents:
1. Introduction
2. Stages of a site investigation
2.1 Desk study
2.2 Site reconnaissance
2.3 Ground investigation
2.3.1 Trial pits
2.3.2 Hand auger boreholes
2.3.3 Light cable percussion (shell & auger)
2.3.4 Mechanically Augered Boreholes
2.3.5 Rotary Open Hole Drilling
2.3.6 Rotary Core Drilling
3. Sampling methods
a. Disturbed samples
b. Undisturbed samples
c. Water samples
d. Standard Penetration Test (SPT)
4. Cost of site investigation
5. Number of boreholes required and example borehole log
Learning outcomes:
On completion of the lecture, you should be aware of the importance of site investigation to
the planning, design, and construction of any civil engineering works. Additionally, you should
have acquired a basic understanding of the processes involved in site investigation.
Specific text:
Author/ Editor Whitlow, R.

Title Basic Soil Mechanics – chapter 12
Edition 4th
Publication Year 2000
Publisher Prentice Hall
ISBN 9780582381094
Recommended reading ü
Description British Standards online:

• BS 5930: 2015 — Site Investigation.
• BS EN 1997-2: 2007 Eurocode 7 — Geotechnical design — Part
2: Ground investigation and testing.
URL http://libraryonline.leedsbeckett.ac.uk/pages/resources/databases

1. Introduction
Main objectives of a site investigation are:
Suitability
• To assess the general suitability of the site and its surroundings for the proposed work.
Design
• To enable an adequate and economic design to be prepared, including the design of
temporary works.
Construction
• To plan the best method of construction (avoiding difficulties and delays due to ground
or local conditions).
• To explore sources of indigenous material for use in construction.
• Select sites for the disposal of waste and surplus materials.
Effect of changes
• To determine the changes that may arise in the ground and environmental conditions
(naturally or as a result of work) on adjacent works and environment in general.
Choice of site
• Where alternatives exist, to advise on the relevant suitability of different sites or
different parts of the same site.
In addition, site investigation may be necessary in reporting upon the safety of existing works,
for the design of extensions, vertical or horizontal, to existing works, and for investigating
cases where failure has occurred. The procedure for undertaking a site investigation will
generally include the following aspects:
• Desk study
• Site reconnaissance
• Ground investigation
• Laboratory testing
• Report writing
• Possible instrumentation
• Geophysical surveys
The first three bullet points will be covered in more detail in the sections below.

2. Stages of a site investigation

The normal order (but can sometimes vary) of the stages of a site investigation are:
2.1 Desk study
Search through relevant maps and documents in order to learn as much about the site and
its surroundings as possible.
Possible sources of information include:
1. Geological survey maps: A study of both the solid and drift maps of the area will enable
an assessment of the type of soil likely to be exposed on the site. They also provide
information on the dip and strike of the stratum, the location and throw of major faults
and the presence of geological discontinuities. Associated with the geological maps are
'Geological Handbooks. These handbooks provide detailed information on rock and soil
descriptions, including the occurrence of fossils, together with a section on the
economic products derived from the soil and rock.

2. Hydrogeological maps: These maps provide information relating to rivers, the

groundwater profile (phreatic surface), together with the nature and extent of major
aquifers. Also shown on the maps are the geological logs of most of the existing wells.
http://www.largeimages.bgs.ac.uk/iip/hydromaps.html?id=southern-yorkshire.jp2
(web-link to map above)
http://www.bgs.ac.uk/research/groundwater/datainfo/hydromaps/hydro_maps_sca
nviewer.html
(web-link to hydrogeology maps of the UK)
3. Ordnance Survey maps: Topographical features of the site, together with information
on local rights of way can be obtained from Ordnance Survey maps. Also shown on these
maps are points of historical interest, marshland, rivers, etc. In order to locate the site
accurately on the geological and hydro-geological maps it is useful to establish the grid
reference for the site.

4. Historical maps: The old Ordnance Survey maps and other ancient maps of the area can
provide a wealth of information on the previous uses of the site.
Table 2.1: Summary of site history
Year MAP TITLE SUBJECT SITE SURROUNDING LAND
1908 Lancs - CIV-12, 1:2500 The site is predominately occupied by St Francis’ A Gas Plant Works is located to the east of the site.
and and RC Church, and a Franciscan Friary. To the east Beyond this a railway line runs approximately
1909 Lancs - CIV-SE, County and west boundaries of the site school buildings north west, south east. To the east of the railway
Series 6”, and associated grounds are located. The southern line the land appears to be open fields with some
boundary of the site is Gorton Lane. housing. A Chemical Works is located to the north
east of the site, after which Corn Brook flows from
east to west. Beyond Corn Brook and the railway
line is an Engine Shed and Ashbury’s Sidings
(railway). A school is located adjacent to and
outside the south eastern corner of the site.
Adjacent to the school domestic housing is present
along Napier Street. Domestic housing is also
present to the south and west part of the site.
Beyond the houses to north west of the site is a
corporation yard.
1922 Lancs - CIV-12, 1:2500 No significant change. The Chemical Works has been replaced by a Motor
and 1923 and Works, which adjoins the Gas Plant works. Some
Lancs - CIV-SE, County of the houses on Napier Street have been
Series 6”, demolished and buildings associated with the motor
works have been built in their place. A small
reservoir is located to the east of the gas plant
building.
A Parochial Hall is located to the north of the site.
1932 Lancs - CIV-SE County No significant change. The Crossley Motor Works building is shown to
and 1933 Series 6” and encompass the Gas Plant Works. The Gas Plant
Lancs - CIV-12, 1:2500 Works, including the small reservoir, are no longer
shown. The land to the east of the railway, is shown
as an athletics ground. A school is now shown with
the Parochial Hall, beyond which is a tennis court.
1938 Lancs - CIV-SE, County No significant change. The domestic houses to the west of the site have
Series 6”, been redeveloped, which is now shown as Compton
House.
1950 SJ8796NE, 1:1250 A school is shown to the north eastern part of the The building formerly shown as Crossley Motor
site. Otherwise no significant change. Works is now indicated as a Raw Cotton Storage
5. Aerial photographs: Stereo pairs of photographs can be used for topographical

mapping and can be particularly useful in identifying ancient slope failures, among other
landforms. Care must be taken when using such photographs in heavily wooded areas
as the tree canopy can mask the surface features. More sophisticated aerial
photography includes the use of infra-red which can detect active landfill sites. Also, the
use of drones to undertake aerial surveys are becoming common place nowadays.
6. Mining activity: British Coal have and can provide details of coal mining in the area of
the site, provided that an accurate grid reference is supplied. Their reports will indicate
the depth and extent of mining, together with some comments on the prospect of
future mining in the vicinity. British Coal records are not necessarily complete as illicit
or ancient mines may be present but not recorded. Details of other mining activity, for
example Elland flags in the Leeds/Bradford area, flint mines in Norfolk, tin mines in
Cornwall etc. can be obtained from other publications or public records.
7. Open-cast mining and quarrying: Often information relating to either open-cast mining
or quarrying is carried by the local authority planning office and/or in the local library
records. A study of the old Ordnance Survey maps can help to chart the development
of the mine or quarry.
8. Waste tips: The local authority dealing with waste management will have information
on all known landfill sites. It is a planning regulation that all sites within 250m of a landfill
must be checked for the presence of landfill gasses (generally methane and carbon
dioxide).
9. Public utilities: The location of all services should always be established prior to the
commencement of any investigation.
10. Previous use: If possible, the previous use of the site should be established in particular
any industrial use should be investigated as this may give an indication of potential
hazards on the site due to contamination.

2.2 Site reconnaissance
Much can be learnt about a site simply from a visit and visual inspection. During such a visit
the following points could be considered:
1. Tree cover: Chalk or limestone is usually treeless, conifers = dry, deciduous = wet,
willows = very wet. If trees are to be removed, then problems associated with
desiccation of the underlying soil may represent a significant problem.
2. Vegetation: Changes in vegetation on site often indicates a change in the soil

conditions. Where vegetation on derelict sites is sparse, contamination should be
suspected.
3. Slopes: If trees are not vertical, unstable slopes should

be suspected. Other tell-tale signs of slope instability
include tension cracks developing in the soil at the crest
of the slope, bulging of the soil at the toe. Old landslide
areas are often characterised by generally undulating
slopes.
4. Groundwater: Signs of water such as springs, shallow water table, periodic flooding etc.
should be noted.
5. Strata conditions: An indication of the strata conditions at the site can be obtained from
an inspection of any excavations or cuttings in the area.
6. Obstructions: The presence of overhead cables, for example, is an extremely important

feature when considering the design of site investigations.
7. Existing buildings. Any existing structures should be examined and any defects which
may be associated with the ground conditions should be noted.
2.3 Ground investigation
The object of the ground investigation is to:
• Establish the strata profile in terms of a detailed ‘log’ of the soil and/or rock.
• Obtain accurate information relating to the water table and piezometric surface.
• Acquire suitable samples to enable visual classification and laboratory testing of the soil
and/or rock.
• Undertake appropriate in-situ tests and measurements as an alternative, or as a
supplement, to laboratory testing.

• Provide a report on the factual information derived from the fieldwork, together with
an interpretation of the data with respect to the proposed development.
In order to fulfil the first three objectives, it is necessary to excavate some form of hole in the
ground. The more common methods include:
• Trial pits
• Hand auger boreholes
• Light cable percussion (shell and auger) boring
• Mechanical auger boreholes
• Rotary open hole drilling
• Rotary core drilling
These methods of investigation are considered in more detail below.
2.3.1 Trial pits
The simplest method of ground investigation is by the excavation of trial pits, either
undertaken manually or by the use of back acting mechanical excavators. Without recourse
to comprehensive temporary support, excavations of about 3m depth are generally
undertaken. In many cases unsupported excavations can be made, but in such cases, all
sampling and any observations must be made from ground level. NO ONE SHOULD ENTER
ANY UNSUPPORTED EXCAVATION.
Trial pitting may be used to provide detailed information on the strata revealed at shallow
depth, either as in-fill data or as an investigation in its own right. Examples of the use of trial
pits could include the investigation for highways, car parking areas, floor slabs, installation of
services, house foundations, etc. They are also invaluable when assessing cases where failure
has occurred.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vW-GC6f6RFI
(YouTube video: simple trial pit excavation)

Advantages of trial pits as a method of investigation are that:

• No specialist equipment is required.
• Detailed visual inspection of the strata is possible.
• Bulk disturbed samples of specific horizons can be obtained.
• They demonstrate how material will behave during construction (particularly with
respect to groundwater and excavation stability).
• Excavation of hand dug trial pits in confined areas is possible.
The disadvantages are:

• Limited depth of excavation.
• Difficulties of excavating granular soil below the water table.
2.3.2 Hand auger boreholes

Another simple method of ground investigation is by the use of hand augers, which are
capable of forming shallow boreholes in predominantly cohesive soils. A selection of hand
augers is shown.
The depth of penetration of hand augers is dependent on the strength of the operator and
the nature of the soil. As it is difficult to employ the use of temporary casing during boring,
the ground must be self-supporting. Therefore, it is not possible to hand auger in granular
soils below the water table. The most common of the hand augers is the post-hole auger,
gravel auger and Dutch auger.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HfvPBTqlyG0
(YouTube video: mechanical hand auger)
Advantages:
• Light weight equipment transported in boot of car.
• Ability to operate in confined locations.
Disadvantages:
• Limited depth of investigation.
• Slow penetration in stiff clays or sands and gravels.
• Unable to penetrate obstructions, including roots of significant size.
2.3.3 Light cable percussion (shell & auger) boring
The term ‘shell & auger’ is still often used to describe this method of drilling, even though the
use of the auger was dropped before the last war. Essentially, the drilling rig comprises an ‘A’
frame with top pulley wheel and motorised winch unit. The winch is arranged such that the
cable can be pulled in using the motor but is able to free fall when the clutch is disengaged.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=11EebRrB-XA
(YouTube video: Light cable percussion)
The method of advancing the borehole in cohesive soil and granular deposits are different,
although both rely on dropping drilling tools down the hole and retrieving the soil from the
tool.

• In cohesive soil, the clay cutter (or cross cutter) and its sinker bar is dropped into the
soil. The tool is then slowly withdrawn from the borehole and the soil wedged in the
tool is cleaned out using a clay spoon forced through the slot in the side of the clay
cutter.
• In granular soil, the shell is used to advance the borehole. The shell comprises an open-
ended steel tube with a one-way flap valve, known as a clack, at its base. The method
of operation is to ensure that the temporarily cased borehole is full of water then surge
the shell up and down in the base of the borehole. On the up-stroke the clack is closed
thus the soil in the base of the borehole is lifted into suspension, to be collected by the
shell on the down stroke. The casing will generally follow the shell down as boring
proceeds. If it does not, it can be driven down by placing a drive bar through the drive
head and slotted sinker bar.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=t_VZxXHNF_k
(YouTube video: Window sampling and the percussion drilling rig)
In cohesive soil where there is no need for temporary casing, the maximum borehole depth
is the length of cable on the winch. However, in soil which has to be cased, the depth of
borehole is generally limited by the capacity of the winch to pull the casing out of the ground.
In this context the winch has to be capable of lifting the dead weight of the casing and
overcome the friction between the casing and surrounding soil. Winches are commonly 1.5
or 2 tonnes capacity, and the pulling power can be increased to about 10 tonnes by the use
of pulley blocks. Beyond this level of pull there is a risk of collapsing the 'A' frame of the rig. If
casing becomes stuck it is possible to use a pair of high capacity jacks which push against a
clamp at the top of the casing. In order to overcome the problems outlined above, it is
possible to start the borehole using large diameter casing and tools, reducing their size as
drilling proceeds. The usual casing diameters are 450mm, 300mm, 200mm, and 150mm.

The drilling-equipment is robust, and the method of boring appears to be simple. However,
great skill is required to drill efficiently, and the accuracy of the data obtained is largely
dependent on the skill of the operator.
This is the most common method of sinking boreholes through soil in this country. During
borehole construction disturbed and undisturbed samples can be taken, in-situ tests (e.g. SPT,
see section 3.4) performed and groundwater observations made. Prior to back-filling the
borehole other instruments may be installed (e.g. piezometric standpipes).
Advantages:
• Boreholes can be sunk to considerable depth.
• Disturbed and undisturbed samples of the underlying soil can be readily obtained.
• Drilling progress can be reasonable, up to about 20m/shift.
• Inflows of groundwater can be monitored, and in-situ permeability tests undertaken
• Instrumentation can be installed in the completed borehole.
Disadvantages:
• Fines can be lost due to the process of drilling with a shell; thus, samples may not be
representative.
• Unable to penetrate significant obstructions (e.g. large concrete blocks in fill) or rock.
2.3.4 Mechanical Augured Boreholes
This method of investigation generally comprises rotary drilled boreholes, using continuous
flight augers. The augers are generally driven from above using a hydraulic motor (referred to
as a 'top drive rig') and can vary in size from lorry mounted drills to small highly portable units.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XMs71TELweE
(YouTube video: Mechanical Augured Boreholes Drilling Rig)

Advantages:
• Very fast method of drilling holes in cohesive deposits.
• Installation of instruments in cohesive soil can be simple.
Disadvantages:
• Not suitable for gravels and sands.
• Disturbed samples only (no undisturbed samples).
• Difficult to determine depth of strata changes etc.
• Unable to detect macro structure of the soil.
• Unable to penetrate significant obstacles.
In view of the above limitations this method of investigation
is not generally recommended. However, a development of
the system known as hollow stem augering is proving
extremely useful, particularly in the sphere of contaminated
land investigation. As the name implies the system
comprises a continuous flight auger with a hollow central
stem, which is used to advance the borehole and provide
temporary casing. When required a non-rotating internal
steel tube, inserted and withdrawn on a wire line, will allow
near undisturbed samples to be recovered in transparent plastic liners. Discrete sampling,
testing and installation can be undertaken down the centre of the augers at all stages of the
borehole. (YouTube: hollow stem: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6dMkTODaDJ4)
Advantages:
• Hollow stem auger provides temporary casing.
• Continuous near undisturbed sample of strata penetrated.
• Installation of instrumentation is simple.
• Technique minimises contact between driller and potentially contaminated soil.
• Boreholes can be extended by rotary open hole or core drilling techniques.
Disadvantages:
• Relatively expensive method
2.3.5 Rotary open hole drilling
Rotary open hole drilling is a fast and simple method of drilling a borehole in rock. The drilling
rigs come in a wide range of sizes and can be ‘top drive’, as used for augered boreholes, or
‘chuck driven’, which are generally slower in operation. In the ‘chuck driven’ rig the drill rod
passes through the rotating chuck, and downward pressure is applied by independent feed
rams. Progress is achieved using various types of drill bit, two of which are illustrated below.
The cuttings from the borehole are returned to the surface by pumping air, water, drilling
mud, foam or bentonite down the centre of the rod, through the drill bit and up the borehole.

Open hole drilling is used for rapid penetration only of the strata whose engineering
properties are not of interest as the flush material gives no indication of the structure and
strength of the rock penetrated. Its use is limited, therefore, to establishing the presence of
voids or mine adits*, etc. Highly fractured ground can also be detected as loss of drilling fluid
is likely to occur. With water flush the returns can be examined to determine the geological
constituents of the rock, thus open hole drilling can be used determine the boundaries
between rock types.
*Adit is obtained from the Latin word ‘aditus’, meaning entrance. It

is a horizontal or nearly horizontal entrance to an underground mine,
from which the mine can be entered, drained of water, ventilated or
through which minerals can be extracted.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mxDDX_sfEm4 (YouTube video: Rotary Drilling)

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=J0bqJRb3PeU (YouTube video: Rotary Drilling Rig)
Advantages:
• Fast method of forming borehole.
• Suitable for installation of some instrumentation.
• Useful if investigating for the presence of voids, mine adits, etc.
Disadvantages:
• Only chip or dust samples available, therefore comprehensive rock descriptions not
possible.
2.3.6 Rotary Core Drilling
As with rotary open hole drilling, both 'top drive, and 'chuck driven' rigs may be employed. In
broad terms the 'top drive' rigs tend to be less powerful, but faster in operation than the
'chuck driven' variety. In both cases, however, the rock core is obtained via a core-barrel.

There are a number of different types of core barrel, but typically double tube core barrels of
the type shown below are employed.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3VQeqw2wWWY
(YouTube video: Core drilling)
Advantages:
• Only practical method of obtaining rock core at depth.
• Cores obtained are suitable for laboratory testing (uniaxial compression
or point load).
• Using impression packers*, the orientation of the fractures and bedding
can be determined.
*Impression packer used to make an impression of the sides of a borehole wall
on a wax-covered paper or compressible rubber; used to determine the location
of discontinuities in the strata at different depths.
Disadvantages:
• Method is relatively slow and expensive.
• Careful interpretation of recovered core is required.
• Not suitable for drilling in soil.
• Contamination by drilling fluids can occur.
3. Sampling methods
The prime concern of the engineer is to ensure that the samples taken during the ground
investigation are representative of the material under consideration. Whilst relatively
standard methods of sampling can be formulated, it is important that engineering judgement
is used to ensure that appropriate samples are obtained.
3.1 Disturbed Samples

As the name implies, disturbed samples are bags (or small jars) of soil taken from the trial pit
or borehole. Such samples may be used for identification purposes and classification tests.
They are not usually suitable in establishing the engineering properties of the soil. The size of
the sample will depend on the nature of the material and the tests that are to be undertaken.

3.2. Undisturbed Samples

The most common method of obtaining 'undisturbed' samples is the 100mm or 38mrn
diameter open drive sampler. The smaller diameter samplers are usually driven by hand often
within trial pits or hand augered boreholes. The 100mm diameter sampler is generally used
in light percussive boreholes and is driven using a sliding hammer with sinker bar.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YXWp79UKZf4
(YouTube video: obtaining disturbed and undisturbed samples – hand auger)
3.3 Water sample

Samples of groundwater should be taken in clean watertight containers from each
investigatory location. Care must be exercised to ensure that the samples are not
contaminated in any way.
3.4 Standard Penetration Test

The standard penetration test is used to assess the engineering properties of granular soils.
The basic arrangement of the test is shown below:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FgEWzjfJXQs
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xcNlDdcF8Hc
(YouTube video: SPT Rig)

In broad terms, the split spoon sampler is driven into

the soil using a standard 63.5kg hammer falling
through 760mm. The sampler is seated into the base
of the borehole by driving it through distance of
150mm. Then the number of blows to drive the
sampler through 300mm is recorded the as SPT ‘N'
value.
4. Cost of Site Investigation
Cost varies enormously depending on the nature of the project. However, the principle of any
site investigation is that it is continued until the ground conditions are known and understood
well enough for Civil Engineering work to proceed safely. Ideally, this principle should be
applied almost regardless of cost. A doubling of the site investigation budget will only
normally add < 1% to the project cost.
Typical site investigation costs

Project % Total costs % Foundation costs
Buildings 0.05–0.2 0.5–2
Roads 0.2–1.5 1–5
Dams 1–3 1–5
After an inadequate site investigation, unforeseen ground conditions can, and frequently
do, raise projects costs by 10% or more:
• One third of construction projects are delayed by ground problems.
• Unforeseen ground conditions are the main cause of piling claims.
• Half of over-tender costs on roads projects are due to inadequate site investigation or
poor interpretation of the data.
• Hence, you pay for a site investigation whether you have one or not.
5. Number of boreholes required and example borehole log
How many boreholes, How deep?

Spacing: Building 10–30 m apart
Road line 30–300 m apart
Landslides at least 5 in line for profile
Depths: 1.5 x foundation width, below founding depth, plus at least one
deeper control hole to 10 m below foundation unless rockhead found;
3m below rockhead to prove sound; rock probes to 3–10 m to locate
rock cavities.

Session: 2
Seepage – flow nets

Contents:
1. Flow nets
1.1 Seepage flow beneath water retaining structures
1.2 Pore-water pressure – flow nets
1.3 Instability due to seepage
2. Earth fill dams

2.1 Construction of basic parabola
2.2 Upstream details
2.3 Downstream details
3. Tutorial question
Learning outcomes:
• Appreciate how water plays a major role in influencing geotechnical design, i.e. the
consideration of effective stress parameters and the use of seepage analysis.
Specific text:
Author/ Editor Craig, RE.

Title Craig’s Soil Mechanics – Chapter 2: Seepage
Edition 8th
Publisher Taylor & Francis
ISBN 9780415561266

1. Flow Nets
1.1 Seepage flow beneath water retaining structures
• Water seepage can take place beneath dams, cofferdams (temporary dam e.g. sheet
piling driven into the ground).
• The flow path beneath or through such structures can be sketch as shown.
i). Flow lines follow impermeable boundaries
Flow lines represent the path of the water particles as they flow from points of high head to
points of low head – infinite number of lines but to construct a flow net use 4 to 6 lines.
As the water passes along the flow lines it experiences a continuous loss of head – thus
points of equal head loss can be connected to form equipotential lines.
ii). Equipotential lines follow permeable boundaries & open water

H
H = head loss
Dh =
14
14 0
14Dh 1Dh
13Dh
12Dh 3Dh 2Dh 1
13 2
12 3
11 4
10 9 8 7 6 5
Element 1 Element 2
If the flow lines are evenly spaced such that the quantity of water flowing between the lines
is constant, then there will be a constant head loss between equipotential lines.
Consider two elements from the follow net:

Element 1 Element 2
where:
Dq = rate of flow through each element (constant for both elements)
DH = head loss across each element (constant for both elements)
b = length of the element
a = area of flow
Darcy’s law states that q = Aki

where
q = rate of flow
A = area of flow
k = coefficient of permeability
i = hydraulic gradient (ratio of head loss to length of flow)
By substitution it can be shown that the rate of flow through each element is:
∆𝑯 ∆𝑯 𝒂 𝒂
∆𝒒 = 𝒂𝟏 𝒌 𝒃 = 𝒂𝟐 𝒌 𝒃 or ∆𝒒 = 𝒃𝟏 = 𝒃𝟐 = 𝒘
𝟏 𝟐 𝟏 𝟐
Thus, the flow net will be formed by quadrilaterals – same width to length ratio, w, for a
given permeability.
iii). Flow lines are at right angles to equipotential lines – forming ‘square blocks’
H
H = head loss
Dh =
14
14 0
14Dh 1Dh
13Dh
12Dh 3Dh 2Dh 1
13 2
12 3
11 4
10 9 8 7 6 5

If there were Nf flow paths within the completed flow net, then the total flow through the
flow net would be:
q = Nf Dq
If there were Ne equipotential lines (lines of equal head loss) then the total head loss across
the flow net would be:
H = Ne DH
H may also be defined as the total head of water causing flow.
)* *
from: Δ' = 𝑎( 𝑘 +#
and Δ𝐻 = ,$
-# .*
it can be shown that: Δ𝑞 = +# ,$
Multiply through by Nf and substitute a1/b1 for w:
𝑁/
Δ𝑞 𝑁/ = 𝑞 = 𝑤𝑘𝐻
𝑁0
If the flow net is constructed using a square grid, then w = 1. Thus, if k is constant:
𝑁/
𝑞=𝑘𝐻
𝑁0
where:
q = rate of flow/m run
k = coefficient of permeability of the soil
H = total head loss = total head of water causing flow
Nf = number of flow channels
Ne = number of equipotential intervals
Using the above equation, the rate of flow through any flow net may be estimated, provided
that the flow net is constructed in accordance with the following rules:
• Areas bounded by equipotential & flow lines must be as near square as possible.
• Flow lines & equipotential lines must intersect at right angles.
• No flow can take place across impermeable boundaries.
• Equipotential lines must meet impermeable boundaries at right angles.

How to draw a flow net:
Method 1: Total head is constant

a) Draw problem to scale.
b) Consider the boundary conditions:
– Flow lines follow impermeable boundaries.
– Equipotential follow permeable boundaries.
c) The shapes of the other flow lines must be between the
Adjust to make
boundary conditions – 4 to 6 lines: squares
– Flow lines at right angles to permeable boundaries.

– Equipotential lines at right angles to impermeable
boundaries.
d) Adjust the flow net – squares.
Method 2:
a) Draw the first flow line & hence establish the

first flow channel.
b) Divide the first flow channel into squares. At
first the use of compasses is necessary to
check that in each figure B = L
c) Project the equipotential lines beyond the
first flow channel, which gives an indication
of the size of the squares in the next flow
channel.
d) With compasses determine the position of
the next flow line; draw this line as a smooth
curve & complete the squares in the flow
channel formed.
e) Project the equipotential lines & repeat the
procedure until the flow net is completed.

Examples:

Worked example 1: Calculate the rate of flow under the dam shown below assuming that
the coefficient of permeability, k, for soil is 7.2 x 10-3 mm/sec (ignore the point marked X at
this time).

Worked example 1 (calculation space):

1.2 Pore water pressure – flow nets
The pore water pressure at any point within a flow net can be established using:
æé f ù ö
up = çê H ú - z ÷g w
ç N ÷
èë e û ø
where:
up = pore water pressure kN/m2
f = the number of the equipotential interval, counting from the ‘low head’ side to
the point in question i.e. for the above example f = ______
Ne = the total number of equipotential intervals i.e. for the above example Ne = _____
H = total head loss or total head of water causing flow
Z = depth to the point in question (note: -ve value below water table)
gw = density of water = 9.81 kN/m3
Note: if pore water pressure is required at any point between equipotential lines, then a
value for f must be interpolated.
Example 2: In the flow net established in Example 1, calculate the pore water pressure at
the point marked X.

Pore-water pressure acts equally in all directions. Thus, the water pressure acting on the base
of the dam can be estimated. By calculating the pore water pressure at various points along
the base of the dam. The pressure at points a to e could be established, taking z to be the
depth to the base of the dam.
H
8 0
7 1
6 5 4 3 2
H
fa = 6 fb = 5 fc = 4 fd = 3 fe = 2
8 0
7 1
6 5 4 3 2
kN/m2
Uplift pressure
distribution
a b c d e

1.3 Instability due to seepage
(YouTube video showing piping failure: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sfZf3VwB1bU)
If the pore water pressure at any point within a flow net exceeds the weight of material
water above that point then instability or piping failure could occur. This is more likely to
occur on the downstream side of a dam.
Factor of safety against piping failure will be:
𝑑𝑜𝑤𝑛 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
𝐹121234 =
𝑢𝑝𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
‘Down weight’, W, is the effective weight of the soil in the prism a, b, c, d:
D
W = (g sat - g w )D ´
2
Upward force = seepage pressure, us, on the base of the prism multiplied by the width of the
prism, b–c. Where us is the average pore water pressure measured between points b & c.
𝐷
𝑈𝑝𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 = 𝑢5 ×
2
and
u p at b + u p at c
us =
2
by substitution
F piping =
(g sat - g w )D
us

Example 3: in the flow net established for Example 1, calculate the factor of safety against
piping failure. For your calculations you may assume that the saturated density of the soil is
18 kN/m3. If it is thought that piping failure will occur, sketch methods of improving the
stability due to seepage.

Piping failure examples:
2. Earth fill dams
2.1 Seepage flow through earth fill dams
When considering flow beneath a sheet pile or impermeable dam, the seepage flow is said to
be confined. However, flow through a permeable structure, such as an earth fill dam, is
unconfined. Therefore, before sketching the flow net, the water surface profile, or phreatic
surface, through the dam must be established. This can be undertaken using the 'Cassagrande
parabola' method. This method presumes that the phreatic surface is parabolic, with modified
end conditions.
A parabola is a curve such that any point along it, is equidistant from both a fixed point, called
the focus, and a fixed straight line, called the directrix.

2.1.1 Construction of basic parabola
Assume D = start point and F = focus
1. Draw an arc with its centre point D & a radius of DF

2. Draw a horizontal line from the start point, D, to intersect the arc, at point E.
3. Draw a vertical tangent from point E to intersect a horizontal line passing through F
at H. This vertical line is known as the directrix.
4. All points on the parabola are equidistant from the directrix & focus, F.
5. Therefore, point G is equidistant from F & H, and is the point where the parabola
intersects the horizontal line through F & H.
6. Other points on the parabola can be established by striking an arc of known radius
from the focus, F, & measuring the same horizontal distance from line E-F. The
parabola passes through the intersections of these lines.
In the case of a dam, the horizontal line through F, G & H represents the impermeable
boundary between the dam & underlying soil.

2.1.2 Upstream details
Like the flow net, the water surface should intersect the face at right angles. Therefore, on
the vertical surface the point D requires no modification. It is situated at the intersection of
the water surface with the dam. However, on sloping face the upper part of the parabola
must be modified.
Where coarse ‘rip rap’ or filter materials covers the face then the water surface will be
horizontal at the intersection between the water and both the coarse filter and dam
construction.
2.1.3 Downstream details

Where a horizontal toe filter is employed the focus, F, is taken at the inner end of the filter
& no correction to the basic parabola is required.
NB a suitable filter should always be constructed at the discharge surface within the dam – water
seepage out onto the downstream slope would result in gradual erosion of the slope.

If the toe filter is not horizontal, then the parabola needs to be corrected such that the water
surface intersects the filter at 90o.
Da
a
If the basic parabola cuts the exist surface of the dam, e.g. if no drainage blanket were
employed, a correction would be required.
Da a
b 30 60 90 120 150 180

Da/a 0.36 0.32 0.26 0.18 0.1 0
Examples:

Example 4 An earth fill dam has been constructed and the permeability of the soil forming
the dam is 5x10-5m/s. By sketching the flow net, calculate:
1) the seepage rate through the dam
2) the pore water pressure in the centre of the dam point X

Worked example 4 (calculation space):
Summary
Flow nets are used to:

• Estimate seepage losses from water retaining structures - predict the yield from
pumped wells.
• Assess the stability of the soil in certain critical regions.
• Calculate the uplift pressures on the base of structures.

3. Tutorial question:
The figure shows a cross-section through a concrete dam founded on a dense sand. The sand
has a coefficient of permeability of 1.2 x 10-4 m/s, dry density of 18.6 kN/m3 and a saturated
density 21.4 kN/m3. By constructing a flow net, determine:
i) The steady-state seepage loss per metre run per day
ii) The upthrust force per metre run beneath the dam
iii) The exit hydraulic gradient and the factor of safety against piping.
iv) State two methods by which the seepage loss could be reduced.

Session: 3
Geological mapping

Overview:
Contents:
1. Direction and angle of dip

2. Structure contours
3. Worked examples
4. Tutorial questions
Learning outcomes:
• Interpret geological maps
Specific text:
Author/ Editor Bennison, GM., Olver, PA. & Moseley, KA.

Title An Introduction to Geological Structures and Maps
Edition 8th
Publisher Hodder Education Publication
ISBN 9781444112122

1. Direction and angle of dip
In most cases the strata will be dipping at some angle between the vertical and horizontal.
There are two aspects to the dip of a plane, which are:
1. Direction of dip
2. Angle of dip
2. Angle of dip: from 0o

1. Direction of dip: the
for horizontal bedding
direction that water
to 90o from vertical
would flow if poured
bedding, measured
onto the surface,
using clinometer
measured using a
compass
Figure 1: Direction and angle of dip
To record the dip of a plane two numbers recording direction and angle of dip are used.
Hence, 140/38 is a plane that dips at 38o in the direction 140oN
Apparent dip:
A cutting made through geological strata would unlikely be in the same direction as the true
dip hence apparent obtained.
Figure 2: True dip and apparent dip
Strike line – Line at rights to Apparent dip – a

True dip – maximum
the true dip (all points on a smaller slope values in
angle the bed makes with
strike line are the same other directions as the
the horizontal
distance above Ordnance direction moves round
Datum, thus are also known towards the strike
as structure contours) direction.

2. Structure contours
• The height of a geological boundary is known where it crosses a topographical contour

line. Therefore, a series of structure contours can be drawn, which will show the
direction of the strike.
• If the strata forms a simple inclined plane, the structure contours will be parallel and
equally spaced.
• The true dip of the strata is at right angles to the strike lines, so its direction can be
assessed and the angle of dip may be calculated using simple trigonometry.
Figure 3: Structure contours
3. Worked examples
Worked example no. 1

a) Deduce the dip & strike of the coal seam which is seen to outcrop at points A, B & C.
b) At what depth would the coal seam be encountered in a borehole sunk at point D?
c) Complete the outcrop of the seam.

i. Join with a straight line the highest point on the coal seam (A = 700) to the lowest
point on the coal seam (B = 300).
ii. Divide this line into equal parts 700-300 = 400, 400/4 = 100m drop between strike
lines.
iii. Construct the first strike line e.g. Point C=600 and point 600 on line A-B.
iv. Construct other strike lines at the spacing determined in step ii parallel to the first
strike line.

Worked example No. 2:

The map below shows the locations of three vertical boreholes drilled in order to assess the
geological conditions in the area shown. The thicknesses of the various strata encountered in
these boreholes are as indicated.
1) By constructing strike lines (stratum contours) for the geological junctions and
assuming that the beds are evenly dipping, of constant sedimentary thickness and are
neither folded nor faulted, derive the surface geology so far as it may be safely
predicted.
2) Show the topographic profile for line XY on vertical profile and utilising the strike lines
constructed on the map, draw a vertical geological cross-section for line XY.


Tutorial question 1
For the figure below, assuming the coal seam to have constant strike and dip:
i). Deduce the direction and angle of dip of the coal seam which is seen to outcrop
at points A, B and C.
ii). Complete the outcrop of the seam.
iii). At what depth, below ground level, would the coal seam be encountered in a
borehole sunk at points D?

Tutorial question 2:
a) Deduce the dip and strike of the coal seam which is seen to outcrop at points A, B
and C.
b) At what depth would the coal seam be encountered in a borehole sunk at point D?
c) Complete the outcrop of the seam.
d) Would a seam 200m below this one outcrop within the area of the map?

Tutorial question 3:
This figure overleaf outlines a level site intended for the four-story office
development. The logs of boreholes drilled at the marked locations are as shown on
the figure. Using this information, the client has asked you to:
i) Determine the heights above datum for all the junctions recorded in the
boreholes (work to an accuracy of 0.5 m).
ii) Use a strike line construction to calculate the direction and angle of dip.
iii) Using the strike lines and borehole data draw a geological cross-section for line
LM and determine the vertical thickness of the limestone.
iv) Describe any significant features of the ground conditions that you would take
into account in the design and construction of various types of foundation
appropriate for the four-storey office building, defined by the plan area PQRS.

FOUR-STOREY OFFICE BUILDING

(Level site at 120m above datum)
P Q
L B F D M
E
S R
N
0 10 20 30 40 50m
c
Borehole logs (Top of each hole at 120m above datum)

Session: 4
EC7
Design Introduction

Contents:
1.0 Background
1.1 Implementation
1.2 Philosophy
1.3 General procedure
2. Design Approaches
3. UK National Annex (NA) – partial factors
3.1 Actions (A)
3.2 Materials (M)
3.4 Design resistance (Rd)
4. Summary
Learning outcomes:
• Undertake limit state design calculations
Specific text:
Author/ Editor Frank, R, Bauduin, C, Driscoll, R, Kavvadas, M, Krebs Ovesen, N

Orr, T, Schuppener, B.
Title Designers' Guide to EN 1997-1 Eurocode 7: Geotechnical
Design - General Rules
Publisher Thomas Telford
ISBN 9780727731548

Title Craig’s Soil Mechanics
Edition 7th
ISBN 9780415561266

• BS EN 1997-2: 2007 Eurocode 7 — Geotechnical design —
Part 1: General rules.
• NA to BS EN 1997-1:2004. National Annex UK National
Eurocode 7 – Geotechnical design – Part 1: General rules.
• BS EN 1990:2002 +A1:2005 Eurocode – Basis of structural
design (for Table 2, i.e. 𝜓 values).
Essential ü
URL http://libguides.leedsbeckett.ac.uk/resources/databases

Eurocode 7 (EC7)
1.0 Background
The Eurocodes are a set of ‘design’ rules for civil engineering and building works that are
applicable across the European Union. There are ten of these Eurocodes with Eurocode 7 (EC7)
being the one that is applicable to geotechnical engineering.
EC7 is divided into two parts:

1. Geotechnical design – Part 1: General rules
2. Geotechnical design – Part 2: Ground investigation and testing
There are two National Annexes (NA), one for each part of EC7, within which are contained the
specification and procedures to be adopted in that particular member country.
1.1 Implementation
EC7 was adopted and implemented across Europe in 2010. Up until this point UK national
codes were used alongside EC7 but from 2010 all geotechnical design, site investigation and
testing are required to be undertaken using EC7 (as supplemented by the NA). As permitted
by the NA some the UK standards will still continue to be used but any clauses which conflicts
with EC7 will have to be revised or removed.
1.2 Philosophy
It is, as with all of the Eurocodes, a Limit State Design philosophy that is adopted within EC7
as opposed to the traditional UK approach of the factor of safety (FoS) being equal to the
resisting forces divided by the driving forces i.e. what is commonly referred to as a “lumped”
FoS approach.
With a Limit State method, the design force (Fd), correctly termed action, is overestimated,
such that there is very little chance that the actual force will be greater than this value.
Likewise, the design resistance (Rd) under the worst-case scenario is underestimated, such
that there is very little chance that the actual resistance will be less than this value – both
being factored conservatively using partial factors. Hence, the formation of the equation of
inequality which is used throughout the Eurocodes, i.e.:
𝐸! ≤ 𝑅!
where: 𝐸! = the design effects of actions
𝑅! = the corresponding design resistance
To satisfy the limit state, the over design factor, G, must be 1 or over. Alternatively, the degree
of utilisation, D, should be as near to 100% as possible.
Rd
Γ cu = !!
G = design factor: Ed D = degree of utilisation: ∆=
"!

If G is less than 1 the limit state is not satisfied but if G is significantly greater than 1, the slope
is overdesigned. Thus, for example the slope angle could be increased, or height of the slope
increased, alternatively the imposed load on the slope increased.
Note on actions: A direct action is a set of forces or loads applied to a member. An indirect action is a
set of imposed deformations or accelerations caused, for example, by temperature and moisture
changes. Also, an action can be favourable (stabilising) or unfavourable (destabilising) and would have
some partial factor associated with it.
The effect of actions is a term used to denote the resulting internal forces, moments, stresses and
strains in a structural member.
1.3 General procedure
Within EC7 the two sub-set of limit state are:

• Ultimate Limit State (ULS): considers states associated with collapse, structural
failure, excessive deformation or loss of stability of the whole of the structure or
any part of it.
• Serviceability Limit State (SLS): considers states that correspond to conditions

beyond which specified service requirements are no longer met.
EC7 adopts five distinct ULS that should be sufficiently improbable:
1. EQU – Loss of equilibrium (tilt or rotation):

Edst:d ≤ _Estb;d + Td
A loss of equilibrium of either the structure or the supporting ground, denoted
as EQU, generally taken as overturning of the structure. With this limiting state
the design values of the effects of the destabilising actions (Edst:d) must be less
than or equal to the sum of the design values of the effects of the stabilising
actions (Estb;d) together with any additional affect from the resistance of the
ground around the structure (Td) being considered. NB contribution from the
resistance of the ground (Td) around the structure is normally very small and
the vast majority of cases is usually taken to the to be equal to zero.
2. STR – Internal failure or excessive deformation (strength of structural material is

significant):
Ed ≤ Rd
This limiting state is concerned with the failure or excessive deformation of the
structure, where the strength of the structural material provides a
significant resistance. This limiting condition is deemed to be satisfied if the
design effect of the actions (Ed) is less than or equal to the design resistance
(Rd).

3. GEO – Failure or excessive deformation of the ground (strength of soil or rock is

significant):
Ed ≤ Rd
This limiting state is applicable to the failure or excessive deformation of the

ground in situations where the soil provides, or is expected to provide,
significant resistance. The limit state in this case will be satisfied where the
design effect of the action (Ed) is less than or equal to the design effect of the
resistance (Rd).
4. UPL – Uplift or buoyancy:
Vdst:d ≤ Gdst:d + Rd
This is concerned with the loss of equilibrium of either the structure or the
supporting ground due to vertical uplift as a result of water pressure, buoyancy or
other action. The sum of the design permanent and variable destabilising vertical
actions (Vdst:d) must be less than or equal to the sum of the design stabilising
permanent vertical action (Gdst:d) together with any additional resistance to uplift
(Rd).
5. HYD – Hydraulic heave, erosion or piping:
Udst:d ≤ _δdst:d or Sdst:d ≤ _G’dst:d
This limit state relates to hydraulic block heave, piping and or internal erosion due
to water flow and relates to pore water pressure such as may be found at the base
of excavation, downstream of dams, etc. Check that the design pore water
pressure (Udst:d), or the seepage force (Sdst:d), at the base of the soil column being
considered is less than or equal to the total vertical stress (δdst:d) at the bottom of
the same column (or is less than or equal to the submerged unit weight (G’dst:d) of
the same column if using seepage forces).
Of these five limit states the ones that are most likely to be needed for any geotechnical
design are EQU, GEO and STR, however for the design of retaining walls and foundations it is
likely that the limit state GEO by itself will be the overriding limit state. Examples of ULS for
pile foundations are shown below:
Limit State GEO

Compression/Tension/Horizontal
Limit State STR

Compression/Tension/Horizontal
Limit State GEO/STR

Buckling/Shear/Bending

2. Design Approaches
EC7 allows for the limit states to be checked by one of four different means, these are:
1. By calculation
2. By prescriptive measures
3. By the use of experimental models and load tests
4. By an observational method
Despite EC7 giving greater emphasis to determining resistance from testing, in UK the
majority of designs are based on calculations.
It should be noted that although EC7 offers advice and some examples it does not specify the
method of calculation that should be used. As an example, when considering the stability of
a slope EC7 will give the partial factors to be used but will not specify whether the method of
calculation used should be the Swedish method of slices or the rigorous Bishop method.
Within EC7 three design approaches are permitted when checking the GEO and STR limit
states these being designated as:
• Design Approach 1:
Combination 1: A1+M1+R1
Combination 2*: A2+M2+R1
*Except for the design of axially loaded piles and anchors, where Combination 2:
A2+(M1 or M2)+R4
A1+M1+R2
A1 or A2 +M2+R3
Design Approach is related to location and application:

Foundations Slopes Retaining walls

Also, which partial factors and in which combination they are used is dependent on the design
approach adopted. The values for each of the partial factors for use in the different design
approaches, together with those for EQU, are contained in EC7 as modified by the NA.
3. UK National Annex (NA) – partial factors
The UK has adopted Design Approach 1 (DA1), which requires two calculations based on
different combinations of partial factors:
Combination 1: A1 + M1 + R1 BS EN 1997-1:2004
Combination 2: A2 + M2 + R1 Clause: 2.4.7.3.4
NB the “+” sign above implies that the partial factors are to “be combined with”. A = Actions
or effects of actions; M = Materials (soil parameters); R = Resistances (from the ground).
In combination (or set) 1, partial factors (>1) are applied to actions and small factors to
resistance, while ground strengths (when used) are left unfactored.
In combination (or set) 2, partial factors (>1) are applied to resistances with smaller factors
applied to variable actions, while permanent actions and ground strengths (when used) are
left unfactored.
Note:
• Where two combinations of partial factors are permitted under the design approach both
of these combinations should be used to check the limit state unless it is obvious that one
of the combinations will dominate.
• Representative or characteristic values of various parameters such as loads and soils shear
strength values are modified by applying the relevant partial factor to determine what are
known as the design values.
• Design values are then used to arrive at a solution for the geotechnical problem that does
not exceed the relevant limit state(s).
• Design values of the actions (forces or loads), the geotechnical parameters and the ground
resistance must all be found to enable the limit states to be checked.
3.1 Actions (A)

The design values for the actions (Fd), these are the forces or loads that are being considered
in the design, are found by multiplying the representative values (Frep) by a partial factor, γF.
According to EC7 actions are classified as either:
• Permanent (G) – these can be either favourable or unfavourable: 𝛾"
• Variable (Q): 𝛾#
• Accidental (A)
• Seismic (AE)

3.2 Materials (M)

Material (soil) properties are included in EC7 as characteristic values (𝑋. ) with a prescribed
probability of not being exceeded in a hypothetically unlimited test series. Characteristic
material properties (𝑋. ) are converted into design values (𝑋6 ) by dividing by an appropriate
partial factor (𝛾7 ):
𝑋.
𝑋6 =
𝛾7
Note on characteristic strength:

The strength of materials, such as concrete, often follow a normal distribution:
The lower or inferior characteristic value F𝑋.;9:; G is defined as the value of 𝑋 below which 5%
of all results are expected to occur. That is, there is a 95% probability that 𝑋 will be greater
than F𝑋.;9:; G. This value is used where overestimate the magnitude of a material property
may be unsafe. Typically, this is the norm, and as such 𝑋.;9:; is shorten to 𝑋. . However, in
certain situations it will be unsafe to do this and 𝑋.;<=> should be employed. For example, the
force acting on a retaining wall should be designed to withstand the upper estimate of the
weight density F𝑋.;<=> G as this would result in the worst-case scenario.
3.4 Design resistance (Rd)

The ground design resistance (Rd) is found by considering both the design values of the actions
and of the ground parameters. The design resistance (Rd) can either be taken as equal to R or
to a reduced value of R, which is derived by divided by a partial factor, gR.
Numerical values of partial factors are given in the table below:


4. Summary:
Inequality equation:
𝐸! ≤ 𝑅!
where: 𝐸6 = the design effects of actions

𝑅6 = the corresponding design resistance
Gcu = design factor Rd Gm = design factor on moments Rd

Γ cu = Γ cu =
Ed Ed
A = Actions (loads or forces = F)

M = Materials
R = Resistances
UK Design Approach 1:
Combination 1: A1 + M1 + R1
DA1
Combination 2*: A2 + M2 + R1
*Except for the design of axially loaded piles and anchors, where Combination 2:
A2+(M1 or M2)+R4
Characteristic values (k) have not had partial factors applied to them.
Design values (d) have had partial factors applied to them.
Subscript:
G = permanent Q = variable
C = compressive i = denotes the sum total
g = partial factors: to EC7 or EC7 UK-NA

Session: 5
EC7
Slope Stability Design
x = R Sin a
o W
R b
a
T

Contents
1. Introduction
2. Rotational slips
3. Causes/Preventions of slope failures
4. Method of analysis
4.1 Total stress (undrained) analysis
4.2Effective stress (drained) analysis
5. Design examples
5.1 Example 1
5.2 Method of Slices
5.2.1 General (slice)
5.2.2 Fellenius (slice)
5.2.3 Bishop Simplified (slice)
5.2.4 Fellenius’ Equation (total stress)
5.2.5 Fellenius’ Equation (Effective Stress)
5.2.6 Bishop Simplified Equation
5.3 Selection of Slices
5.4 Sudden Drawdown
5.5 Computer Method of Analysis
5.6 Example 2
Learning outcomes:
• Undertake complex design calculations for slopes stability analysis.
Specific text:

Edition 8th
ISBN 9780415561266
http://www.bgs.ac.uk/discoveringGeology/hazards/landslides/world.html

1. Introduction
All slopes, natural or engineered (cutting, embankments, etc), have an inherent tendency to
degrade to a more stable form – ultimately horizontal. There may be gradual movement due
to such factors as erosion, but the movement examined here are potentially more extreme,
often being catastrophic. If the shear stress from gravity exceeds the shear strength, along
the slip surface, then shear failure will occur. Hence, with slope stability problems you
compare shear stress with shear strength along the potential slip surface.
Potential
slip surface
Mass movement can take many forms, but the four main categories are given below. Whilst
all of the modes of failure are important, analysis will only be undertaken for simple rotational
cases.
2. Rotational slips (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mb4O7YDX7N8)
Rotational failures are probably the most common mass movement of homogeneous
(cohesive) soil or soft rock. They may be shallow, near surface, features or deep-seated
failures. In both cases movement takes place along a curved shear plane, with rapid failure
generally occurring.

3. Causes/Preventions of slope failures Preventions of slope failures:

• Flatten the slope
Causes of slope failure: • Lower groundwater level
• Unsuitable geometry • Provide some form of buttress (e.g. low-
• Change in ground-water regime height retaining wall, etc.)
• Presence of weak planes, bands • Use ground anchors, rock bolts, etc.
or layers • Incorporate reinforcement into the soil, soil
• Progressive deformation nailing
• Increase in effective slope • Enhance the strength of the soil, by
height drainage, ground treatment, etc.
• Additional imposed loading • Incorporate stiffeners, e.g. sheet piles,
across the problem zone
• Weight the toe
• Provide surface protection, e.g. vegetation
4. Method of analysis
If the slope material (and the ground below the slope) is all slow-draining soil then an
undrained analysis can be used (temporary slopes, slopes in permanent condition, critical
stability of soil beneath an embankment, etc.)
However, undrained analysis (cu and fu) cannot be used to predict the shear strength when
the pore-water/groundwater regime changes. Also, for free-draining soils an effective stress
analysis must always be used and account taken of pore pressures.
4.1 Total stress (undrained) analysis

• The shear strength parameters are only strictly relevant at the time of testing and thus
the field situation must also be related to time.
• Slope stability using undrained shear strength (cu and fu) parameters will provide the
short-term condition.
• Thus, it is intended to give the stability of an embankment immediately after
construction.
• This method of analysis is only appropriate to rotational slips, which have a circular
failure surface.

4.2 Effective stress (drained) analysis

• Drained analysis = effective shear strength parameters (c’ and f’).
• More complex because pore pressures must be estimated or known.
• Drained shear strength test or undrained shear strength test with pore-water pressure
measurement.
• Suitable for long-term stability calculations.
5. Design examples
5.1 Example 1
From Example 1 below, reanalyse the slope for limit state design.

Limit state design: NB ultimate limit state is determined from the inequality equation,
comparing resistance moment to that of the disturbing moment:
!" ≤ $"
where: !" = the design effects of actions
$" = the corresponding design resistance
&0 Wd
." = &/ 23 Overturning moment (Mo)
&1
1 )* ).
!" = !" = )-!), -+01 Resisting Overturning
moment (Mr) moment (Mo)
&'( &+* /
'( + 456 =
!7898:9;< =5=7;: (?@)
$" = $ ,* Resisting moment
BC7@:D@;9;< (Mr)
=5=7;: (?5)
)*(
$5676879: ;3;598 (=>)
234 =
@A5>8B>979: ;3;598 (=3)
Rd
Gcu = design factor: Γ cu =
Ed
Rd
Gcu = design factor: Γ cu =
Ed
1 *$ ,
+ -#
'() '#$
∴ Γ#$ = '
'. / 12
'0
∴ULS verified, however G is significantly greater than 1, thus the slope is overdesigned
Where the partial factors have been obtained from the table below:

5.2 Method of Slices
O XA
å
XB
Re sisting Forces XC
F=
å Sliding Forces
R
å
A
t dl R B
= dWA
å dWx D
C
dWB dlA tA
E dWC
F dlB
dlC
dl = dependant on size of slice tB
dW = dependant on size of slice tC
x = dependent on size of slice
t A dl A R A t B dl B R B t C dl C RC
F= + + + ...........
dW A X A dW B X B dWC X C

5.2.1 General (Slice)
b E2
X1
E1 X2
W
T
a
N
E1, E2, X1 and X2 are not known since the

vertical faces are not failure surfaces.
5.2.2 Fellenius (Slice)
W
T
a
N
Shear strength can be represented by total (undrained)

approach or by effective stress approach
t = cu + s n tan f u

5.2.3 Bishop Simplified (Slice)
b E2
E1
W
T
a
N
Increased accuracy of method requires proper, fundamental
approach to shear strength – thus use effective stress analysis
t = c'+s n ' tan f '
5.2.4 Fellenius’ Equation (Total Stress)
FOS = F =
å Re sisting Forces = TR
å Sliding Forces Wx
x = R Sin a
o W
R b
a
T

W = weight of slice
b
x = (LEVER ARM) b
L=
Cos a
L
T = shear force at bottom of slice 1
a Sec =
Cos
T = cL+ N tan ff (TOTAL STRESS)
L = b Sec a
cL = cohesion x length of slice
cL = cu b Sec a N = W Cos a
a
N = W Cos a W
W sin a
\F =
åc u b Sec a + åW Cos a Tan f u
åW R Sin a
5.2.5 Fellenius’ Equation (Effective Stress)
x = R Sin a
o W
R b
b
a
T
u
a
N
ub Sec a

Disturbing Force, W R Sin a, is unchanged.
Resisting Force is now in effective stress terms, ie

T= c’ L + N’ tan f’
where N’ = N-ub Sec a
T = c’ b Sec a + (N –ub Sec a) tan f’
N
a
å c' b Sec a + å (W Cos a - ubSeca ) tan f ' W
\F =
åW R Sin a
5.2.6 Bishop Simplified Equation
b E2
E1 ru
W
T
a
N
F=
å ma [c' b + W (1 - r ) tan f ']
u
åW Sin a ru =
ub
sec a W
ma =
æ é tan f ' tan a ù ö ru = pore pressure ratio
çç1 + ê ú ÷÷ estimated from flow nets
è ë F ûø
assume F=1

5.3 Selection of Slices
• Change of slice where the failure surface passes from one material to another (in
terms of shear strength parameters).
• Change of slice at the vertical through the centre of rotation.
• Use 5 to 8 slices approximately
5.4 Sudden Drawdown
When water impounded by a dam is lowered rapidly the permeability of the soils forming the
valley sides of the reservoir and in the case of an embankment the dam itself, may be low
enough to result in initially high residual pore pressures. These excess pore pressures reduce
the stability of the valley sides and the upstream slope of the embankment dam – analysis is
in terms of total stress since instantaneous drawdown is assumed.
5.5 Computer Method of Analysis
As the analysis of slopes is an iterative process it is necessary to analyse many potential slip
surfaces. This would be extremely time consuming and is best undertaken using computers.
There are many commercial software programs available, the programs used by the
University include: Oasys Slope, GeoStudio Slope/W and Itasca FLAC/Slope.
5.6 Example 2 below, analyse the slope using Bishop Simplified Equation for “lumped” FoS
method and then by limit state design (EC7):

Example 2

Limit state design – EC7 (Example 2):
Inequality equation: 𝐸! ≤ 𝑅! where: 𝐸6 = the design effects of actions

𝑅6 = the corresponding design resistance
O XB
XA
$% ∑ )% $ XC
Gm = design factor on moments: Γ" = =

&% ∑ *% $ Sin a
R A
B
dWA
C
dWB dlA
D
E dWC
F dlB
dlC
F=
å ma [c' b + W (1 - r ) tan f ']
u
åW Sin a
sec a
ma =
æ é tan f ' tan a ù ö
çç1 + ê ú ÷÷
è ë F ûø

&'( ) 0123′' *' sec >

! "# = ! = + 6 − 9) .
*+, *.( *+, *5( *7 0123′' tan >
1+ *+, *5(
A B
./
∑ "# = ∑ "'() * = ∑ +, - '() *
.0
Assuming that the strength parameters are characteristic values.

NB with specified partial material factors, there is no need for iteration.
For Design Approach 1 Combination 2 (combination 1 should also be checked) the partial factors
are:
;<= >
#' ) +* , 123 45* (* B=
! = #$ % A= + % − 9: ?@
ABC6+* DEF G
#( (-. (/+ (-. (6+ (7 7-. 76+
gG and Re = 1, therefore it can be omitted from the above equations

Example 2: DA1, LC2
For Design Approach 1 combination 2 the partial factors are:

Civil Engineering
𝛾# %!"& '()*+! $ ,-. /

𝑊 = 𝛾! 𝐴 A=$ "
+$ '𝐴 $! − 𝑢𝑏+ B= )*+'"! ,-. /
#$ $& #$ $'" ( 01
Dr Martin Pritchard
𝛾$
(#$ ('"
% %
𝛾? = ________; 𝛾@ = _________; 𝛾A = ________; 𝛾B = 1.0; 𝛾C0 = _______
Slice W a W sin a c'b c'b/g c' tanf'k /g f' ub A B Ax B
1 428.0 -5 -37.3 100 80 0.33 350.91 105.63 1.035 109.28
2 555.3 4.5 43.6 100 80 0.33 349.84 148.35 0.977 144.94
3 492.4 80 261.00
4 683.2 15 176.8 100 80 0.33 280.11 214.08 0.949 203.15
5 749.8 23 293.0 100 80 0.33 194.96 264.58 0.949 251.22

Geotechnical Engineering
6 633.5 31 326.3 100 80 0.33 76.01 265.45 0.969 257.20
7 300.0 40 192.8 120 96 0.33 0.00 195.80 1.016 198.92
8 641.0 -20 -219.2 0 0 0.00 0.00 0.00 1.064 0.00
å å
Overdesign factor on moments = ∴∆!=
Page 75
Level 6
Tutorial 1: A proposed cutting is to have the dimensions shown below (dimensions in

metres). Determine the factor of safety against rotational failure on the slip surface indicated
if the soils has the following properties: cu = 15 kN/m2, fu = 15o, g = 19.3 kN/m3 (Fellenius –
traditional method).
Slice a W W sin a W cos a tan fu cu b sec a W cos a tan fu + cu b sec a

Slice a W W sin a W cos a tan fu cu b sec a W cos a tan fu + cu b sec a
2 -13 424.6 -95.51 110.85 76.97 187.82
3 12 590.58 122.79 154.79 61.34 216.13
5 62 236.43 208.76 29.74 111.83 141.57
å 236.04 250.14

Tutorial 2: A canal is cut through a clay of saturated unit weight 20 kN/m3 as shown below
(dimensions in metres). The effective stress parameters of the clay are c’ = 20 kN/m2 f’=23o.
For the long-term condition estimate the FoS against rotational failure of the slip surface
indicated (Bishop Simplified Method – traditional method).


ma ma x [c'b + w(1-ru)
Slice a W W sin a c'b w(1-ru) tanf' c'b + w(1-ru) tanf'
(assume F=1) tanf']
1
Civil Engineering
2 4.5 555.32 43.57 100 87.22 187.22 0.97 181.6
Dr Martin Pritchard
3 12 492.44 102.38 80 98.24 178.24 0.94 167.55
4 15 683.17 176.82 100 171.09 271.09 0.8 216.87
6 31 633.5 326.28 100 236.64 336.64 0.93 313.07
7 40 300 192.84 120 127.34 247.34 0.96 237.45
8 -20 641.03 -219.24 0 0 0 1.06 0
å å
Page 80
Level 6
ma ma x [c'b + w(1-ru) ma ma x [c'b + w(1-ru)
(assume F=1.8) tanf'] (assume F=1.94) tanf']
1.02 135.35
Civil Engineering
0.98 183.48 0.97 184.6
Dr Martin Pritchard
0.97 172.89
0.97 262.96 0.98 265.56
0.99 332.17 0.99 332.17
1.02 343.37 1.03 346.74
10.9 269.6 1.1 272.07
- 0 - 0
å 1564.47 å 1536.49
Page 81
Level 6
% %
𝛾? = _________; 𝛾@ = __________; 𝛾A = ____________; 𝛾B = _________; 𝛾C0 = ____________
Slice W a W sin a c'b c'b/g c' tanf'k /g f' ub A B Ax B
1 428.0 -5 -37.3 100 350.91

Civil Engineering
2 555.3 4.5 43.6 100 349.84
Dr Martin Pritchard
3 492.4 12 102.4 80 261.00
4 683.2 15 176.8 100 280.11
5 749.8 23 293.0 100 194.96
6 633.5 31 326.3 100 76.01
7 300.0 40 192.8 120 0.00
8 641.0 -20 -219.2 0 0.00
å å
Overdesign factor on moments = ∴∆!=

Tutorial 3: Repeat tutorial 2 now using EC7 – combination 1 partial factors:
Page 82
Level 6
Session: 6
EC7
Bearing Resistance Design

Contents:
1. Introduction
2. Bearing capacity/resistance
3. Choice of shear strength parameters
4. The UK Design Approach in EC7
4.1 Undrained
4.2 Drained
4.3 Example
5. Tutorial question
Specific text:
Author/ Editor Barnes, GE,
Title Soil Mechanics: Principles and Practice
Edition 3rd edition
Publisher Palgrave Macmillan
ISBN 0230579804
Recommended for Purchase
Author/ Editor Frank, R, Bauduin, C, Driscoll, R, Kavvadas, M, Krebs Ovesen, N

Orr, T, Schuppener, B.
Title Designers' Guide to EN 1997-1 Eurocode 7: Geotechnical
Design - General Rules
Publisher Thomas Telford
ISBN 9780727731548

• BS EN 1997-2: 2007 Eurocode 7 — Geotechnical design —
Part 1: General rules.
• NA to BS EN 1997-1:2004. National Annex UK National
Eurocode 7 – Geotechnical design – Part 1: General rules.
• BS EN 1990:2002 +A1:2005 Eurocode – Basis of structural
design (for Table 2, i.e. 𝜓 values).
Essential ü
URL http://libguides.leedsbeckett.ac.uk/resources/databases

1. Introduction
A foundation is that part of a structure which transmits loads directly to the underlying soil
(see figure below).
Foundation design to British Standards was based on the derivation of an Allowable Bearing
Pressure, which is equal to the Ultimate Bearing Pressure divided by an appropriate factor of
safety (FoS). The FoS used here was generally quite high (usually around 3.0) largely to allow
for the uncertainty of the calculation and to prevent excessive settlement of the foundation
(SLS failure).
Eurocode 7 (EC7) adopts quite a different, i.e. for it to perform in a satisfactory way, the
foundation must be designed to meet two principal performance requirements (known as
limit states – see figure below), namely:
1 Its capacity or resistance is sufficient to support the loads (actions) applied (i.e. so that
it does not collapse – ULS).
2 To avoid excessive deformation under these applied loads, which might damage the
supported structure or lead to a loss of function – SLS.
When designing a foundation, the first thing the designer must consider is the possibility of
collapse. If the foundation collapses, there is no point in analysing the likely settlements. If the
foundation does not collapse but there may be limits on the allowable settlements, the designer
then has to estimate the expected settlements to check that these are acceptable.

2. Bearing capacity/resistance
Bearing capacity, qult, is the pressure applied to the soil by the foundation to produce general
shear failure. Whereas, bearing resistance, R, is the force applied to the foundation of area A,
to produce the same failure criterion, and is referred to as the ultimate limit state (ULS).
Three main types of bearing failures are:
1. General shear
Characteristics
• Well-defined continuous slip surface reaching ground level.
• Heaving occurs on both sides with final collapse and titling on one side.
• Failure is sudden and catastrophic.
Typical soils
• Low compressible soils
• Very dense sands
• Saturated clays (fast loading)
2. Local shear
Characteristics
Typical soils
• Well-defined slip surfaces only below the foundation, discontinuous either. side slip surface
• Moderate compressible soils
reaching ground level.
• Medium dense sands
• Large vertical displacements required before slip surface appear at ground level.
• Some heaving occurs on both sides with no titling and no catastrophic failure.
Typical soils
3. Punching shear
• High compressible soils
Characteristics • Very loose sands
• Well-defined slip surfaces only below the foundation, •nonePartially saturated clays
either side.
• • Peats
Large vertical displacements produced by soil compressibility.
• No heaving, no tilting or catastrophic failure.
3. Choice of shear strength parameters
• Foundations on clay, use undrained shear strength (total stress):

o Soil will have a low permeability
o Construction finished before drainage has occurred
o Settlement and strength increase with time

• Foundations on sand, use drained shear strength (effective stress):

o Soil will have a high permeability
o Soil will drain during construction
o Settlement and strength increase finished by the end of construction
However, with EC7 a full design check requires both sets of strength parameters to be
considered.
4. The UK Design Approach in EC7
EC7 requires the designer to calculate for each loading combination considered:
• An Overall Design Effect, Ed, due to a combination of design Actions
• An Overall Design Resistance, Rd
𝐸! ≤ 𝑅!
Sometimes written as E £ R for short
The type of ULS failure that should be considered include GEO and/or STR failure. The UK uses
Design Approach 1 (DA1) when considering a GEO or STR failure. DA1 requires that the
following 2 load combinations are checked:
• Load Combination 1 with Partial Factors: A1+M1+R1
• Load Combination 2 with Partial Factors: A2+M2+R1
Table below details the relevant partial factors:

BS EN 1997-2: 2007 Eurocode 7 — Geotechnical design — Part 1: General rules, Annex D

(informative) details the equations below to be used for bearing resistance:

4.1 Undrained:
R/Aʹ= (π+2) cu bc sc ic + q
where: R/A’ is the foundation Resistance divided by the effective foundation area (R here is a force)
cu is the soil undrained cohesive strength
bc is a base inclination factor
sc is a foundation shape factor
ic is a load inclination factor
q is the total vertical stress at foundation level (i.e. gb x depth of soil)
with the dimensionless factors for:

DE
bc = 1 − (GHD)
sc = 1+0.2(B’/L’) (Bʹ/Lʹ) For a rectangular foundation
sc = 1.2 For square or circular foundation
( *
ic = D P1 + R1 − J% A S with H ≤ Aʹ Cu
&
• B’ and L’ are the effective foundation dimensions and H is the horizontal load applied to
the foundation.
• Note that the final criterion in the ic equation is required as a check against foundation
sliding.
Notation used:
Load eccentricity,
e = Moment (m) / Vertical load (V)
Therefore, B’ = B – 2e
and L’ = L -2e

4.2 Drained:
R/Aʹ= cʹ Nc bc sc ic + qʹ Nq bq sq iq + 0.5 γ’ Bʹ Nγ bγ sγ iγ
Where the symbol b refers to base inclination factors, s to shape factors and i to load inclination factors.
The required parameter values are obtained using equations:
Bearing Capacity Factors:
𝑁𝑞 = ep.tanf’ tan2 (45 + f’/2)
𝑁𝑐 = (𝑁𝑞 − 1) 𝑐𝑜𝑡 𝜙ʹ (where cot 𝜙ʹ = 1/ tan 𝜙ʹ)
𝑁𝛾 = 2 (𝑁𝑞 − 1) 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜙ʹ (assuming that d ≥ 𝜙’/2)
Nq = Is due to surcharge applied around the foundation, Nc = Is due to shear strength of

the soil, Ng = Is due to self-weight of the soil
The final requirement in the 𝑁𝛾 equation stipulates that the base of the foundation must
be rough in order for this equation to apply.
Base Inclination Factors:
bq = bγ = (1 – α tan 𝜙 ʹ)2
bc = bq − (1− bq)/(NC tan 𝜙 ʹ)
Shape Factors:
𝑠𝑞 = 1 + (𝐵ʹ/𝐿ʹ) 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜙ʹ For a rectangular foundation
𝑠𝑞 = 1 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜙ʹ Square or circular foundation
𝑠𝛾 = 1 −0.3 (𝐵ʹ/𝐿ʹ) For a rectangular foundation
𝑠𝛾 = 0.7 Square or circular foundation
𝑠𝑐 = (𝑠𝑞 𝑁𝑞−1)/ (𝑁𝑞−1) All foundations
Important note: A strip footing is actually a rectangular foundation where B/L = 0 because L is
theoretically infinite.

Load Inclination Factors
These apply where the foundation is subject to a horizontal Load, H;
𝑖𝑐 = 𝑖𝑞 −(1−𝑖𝑞)/ (𝑁𝑐 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜙ʹ)
𝑖𝑞 = [1−𝐻/(𝑉+𝐴ʹ𝑐ʹ𝑐𝑜𝑡 𝜙ʹ)]m
𝑖𝛾 = [1−𝐻/(𝑉+𝐴ʹ𝑐ʹ𝑐𝑜𝑡 𝜙ʹ)]m+1
Important note: if H = 0; iq = 1.0, ig = 1.0 and ic = 1.0
Values of m are given as follows:
Where the horizontal load is parallel to side B (i.e. perpendicular to side L); HB and m is mB
m = mB = [2+(Bʹ/Lʹ)]/[1+(Bʹ/Lʹ)]
Horizontal Load for mB condition
Where the horizontal load is parallel to side L (i.e. perpendicular to side B); HL and m is mL
m = mL = [2+(Lʹ/Bʹ)]/[1+(Lʹ/Bʹ)]
Horizontal Load for mL condition

4.3 Example no. 1:

Carry out an EC7 check on the suitability of a 3 x 3 m square pad footing located at a depth of 1.2
metres in a clay soil for which:
cu = 40 kN/m2 fu = 0 gb = 20 kN/m3
c‘ = 3 kN/m2 f‘ = 21o
The foundation is to carry a total permanent vertical load of 1000 kN including the dead weight of the
foundation and soil placed above it and is to be subject to a bending moment of 25 kNm acting
perpendicular to one of the sides.
The water table is approximately 5 metres below the base of the foundation and the base of the
foundation is itself horizontal.
The full design check requires:
1. Undrained analysis for Design Approach 1 load combinations 1 and 2:
[DA-1 LC1 and LC2 – Undrained]
2. Drained analysis for Design Approach 1 load combinations 1 and 2:
[DA-1 LC1 and LC2 – Drained]
The full check is set out on the following pages, considering first the undrained analysis and then the
drained analysis.

The first stage is to determine the design parameters as shown in the Table below:

M2


A2
M2


5. Tutorial question no. 1:

Repeat class example no. 1 (as detailed on page 10), but now it is to also carry a 150 kN horizontal
load acting in a direction parallel to the bending moment, as shown schematically below:
Answer:
Undrained:
• Combination 1: Ed < Rd (1350 < 2014) \ ULS is verified
• Combination 2: Ed > Rd (1000 < 1489) \ ULS is verified
Drained:
• Combination 1: Ed < Rd (1350 < 2655) \ ULS is verified
• Combination 2: Ed < Rd (1000 < 1603.2) \ ULS is verified

Session: 7
Settlement
A B
1m
3m
2m 1 4m 2.5 m
2m 2 silty CLAY (mv = 0.15 m2/MN)

5m 8m
2m 3
7m
2m 4

Contents:
1. Introduction
2. Settlement of a foundation
2.1 How to measure settlement
3. Settlement calculations
3.1 Immediate settlement
3.1.1 Semi-infinite thickness
3.1.2 Finite thickness
3.2 Consolidation settlement
3.2.1 One dimensional consolidation test
3.2.2 Interpretation of results
3.2.3 Rate of settlement
4. Tolerable differential settlement
6. Various charts
7. Appendix
Learning outcomes:
• Undertake design calculations in relation to settlement.
Specific text:
Author/ Editor Barnes, GE.
Edition 3rd edition
ISBN 0230579804

Edition 7th
ISBN 9780415561266
Author/ Editor Whitlow, R.

Title Basic Soil Mechanics
Edition 4th
Publisher Prentice Hall
ISBN 9780582381094

1. Introduction
A foundation is that part of a structure

which transmits loads directly to the
underlying soil.
When designing a foundation, the first

thing the designer must consider is the
possibility of collapse (ULS, e.g. bearing
resistance is verified). If the foundation
collapses, there is no point in analysing
the likely settlements.
If the foundation does not collapse but there may be limits on the allowable settlements, the
designer then has to estimate the settlements to check that these are acceptable (SLS).
Note on EC7: While making many statements about the need to ensure that an SLS is not
exceeded, the code says very little about how to calculate settlements and deformations. For
checking a SLS settlement design, design values of actions and of material properties will
normally be equal to their characteristic values, that is the partial factors will be equal to 1. It
should be appreciated that it may not be appropriate to adopt the same characteristic value
of strength in both ULS and SLS calculations. To do so, may result in unreasonable estimates
of forces and moments in the SLS.
Case study: The bell tower of the Cathedral of St

Mary of the Assumption in Pisa, Italy (colloquially
known as the ‘Leaning Tower of Pisa') is arguably the
most famous example of a structure suffering from
excessive tilt.
This occurred due to differential settlement in the

highly compressible soil beneath the tower. The
foundation system can definitely be classified as
having failed to meet serviceability criteria (i.e. SLS
is not verified), as construction of the upper levels
had to be modified to prevent further tilt and the
structure now has a distinctive curve.
Stabilisation was achieved by geotechnical

engineers carefully removing soil from beneath the
higher side of the foundation, causing the tower to
rotate back towards vertical such that the tower is
currently at 4° to the vertical (a tilt of approximately
1/15). Ref: Craig’s Soil Mechanics 2011
http://madridengineering.com/case-study-the-leaning-tower-of-pisa/
https://scholarsmine.mst.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2604&context=icchge

2. Settlement of a foundation
One of the most difficult of the problems that a designer is asked to solve is the accurate
prediction of the settlement of a loaded foundation.
The problem is in two distinct parts:
1) The value of the total settlement that will occur.
2) The rate at which this value will be achieved.
When a soil is subjected to an increase in compressive stress due to a foundation load the
resulting soil compression (or settlement) consists of:
1) Elastic compression/deformation or immediate settlement

• Occurs immediately & is recoverable
• Only a small amount of settlement
• Assessed by Young’s modulus of soil
2) Primary compression/deformation or consolidation settlement
• Decrease in volume of voids
• Only recoverable to an extent - reduction in overburden pressure
• For foundation design
3) Secondary (plastic) compression/deformation or secondary consolidation
settlement
• Lateral flow of soil particles
• Not recoverable
• Difficult to determine
4) Creep settlement
• Collapse of fibrous matter
• Organic soils e.g. peat
• Difficult to determine
Of these four types of compression, the greatest contribution to the settlement of a

foundation is generally consolidation settlement. Immediate settlement is generally
comparatively small and can usually be assessed using Young’s modulus of compressibility for
the soil, values of which are published. Secondary consolidation and creep are difficult to
evaluate and are not considered during this module.
2.1 How to measure settlement:
• Cohesive soils use oedometer consolidation for both immediate and consolidation
settlement (as detailed in Section 3.2.1).
• Granular soils difficulties in obtaining an undisturbed sample.
• Oedometer test neglects the influence of lateral deformation, which occurs in sands.
• The settlement of granular soils cannot therefore only be predicted in the laboratory,
and really need to be measured in-situ using one of the following penetration tests:

(1) Plate loading test - pushing a plate into the ground
(2) Standard Penetration Test (SPT):
• SPT pushing rod into ground

– Metal rod (20mm to 80mm)
– dropping a 63.kg hammer
– through 760mm
– number of blows (N) for a penetration of 300mm
– from ‘N’ settlement of foundations constructed on
granular soils can be calculated
– A number of methods of analysis can then be used
to obtain immediate settlement values, the most
suitable two are: D’Appolonia et al. (1970) and
Parry (1971).
3. Settlement calculations
The total settlement is given by:
s = si + sc
where:
s = Total settlement
si = Immediate settlement
sc = Consolidation settlement

3.1 Immediate settlement
There are various methods of computing the immediate settlement. The most widely used
are the Schleicher’s method and Jambu, Bjerrum and Kjaernsli’s method.
3.1.1 ‘Semi-infinite thickness’ – no depth (H) given:

In Schleicher’s Method the settlement at the corner of rectangular loaded area at the surface
of a semi-infinite medium of a homogeneous and isotropic soil mass is given by:
𝑞𝐵(1 − 𝑣 # )
𝑠" = .𝐼
𝐸$
where:
si = Immediate settlement
q = Load on foundation
B = Smaller dimension of the loaded area
u= Poisson’s Ratio
I = Influence coefficient
Eu = Modulus of elasticity
The value of the influence factor I for a semi-infinite soil can be obtained from table below:
Shape of Loaded Flexible Rigid

Area
Centre Corner Average
Circular 1.00 0.64 0.85 0.79
Rectangular (L/B)
1.0 1.12 0.56 0.95 0.82
1.5 1.36 0.68 1.20 1.06
2.0 1.53 0.77 1.30 1.20
3.0 1.78 0.89 1.52 1.42
5.0 2.10 1.05 1.83 1.70
10.0 2.52 1.26 2.25 2.10
100.0 3.38 1.69 2.96 3.40

Rigidity correction – A flexible foundation provides no resistance to deflection and will settle
into a dish-shaped profile, e.g. an unreinforced embankment over soil. A heavily reinforced
concrete raft foundation will settle the same at all points.
Flexible Clay Sand
Rigid
Therefore, a rigidity correction can be undertaken by multiplying the flexible settlement

obtained from the equation above by a Rigidity Factor of 0.8, i.e.:
sRIGID = 0.8×sFLEXIBLE
Depth correction – A foundation placed at the surface will settle more than a foundation
placed at a certain depth, especially so for deep foundations (z > B) the calculated immediate
settlements are more than the actual ones. To account for this, Fox (1948) has given a chart
for depth factor (a reduction factor).
Embedment depth (z)/Breath (B)
However, most foundations are shallow and although this reduction can be allowed for when
a layer of soil is some depth below a foundation, the settlement effects in this case are small
so it is not customary practice to reduce them further.

Example 1a: A flexible foundation 6 m x 2 m, uniformly load of 2500 kN, infinite thickness
of saturated clay, E = 30 MN/m2, find immediate settlement beneath a corner and centre.
Example 1b: Using the question above now calculate the immediate settlement beneath
the corner if the foundation is classed as rigid.

3.1.2 ‘Finite thickness’ – depth (H) given:

𝑝𝐵𝐼
𝑠! =
𝐸"
where:
si = Immediate settlement (mm)
p = Foundation pressure (kN/m2)
B = Breath of foundation (m)
I = Influence factor (no units) where I = µ0 ´ µ1
Eu = Modulus of undrained elasticity or Young’s modulus (MN/m2)
Eu difficult to determine in laboratory tests – derived from Poisson's ratio together with the
results of consolidation testing, typical values are:
Soil type Eu (MN/m2)

Soft clay 2 –5
Firm clay 4 –8
Stiff clay 7 – 20
Sandy clay 30 – 40
Silty clay 7 – 20
Loose sand 10 – 25
Dense sand 50 – 90
Dense sandy clay 100 – 200
Description Poisson's Ratio

Sand 0.15 - 0.4
Dense 0.2 - 0.4
Course 0.15
Fine 0.25
Silt 0.3 - 0.35
Clay 0.1 - 0.5
Saturated 0.4 - 0.5
Unsaturated 0.1 - 0.3
Sandy Clay 0.2 - 0.3

To find I use influence charts by Janbu, Bejerrum & Kjaernsl (1956), where: I = µ0 x µ1

Example 2: Calculate the immediate settlement beneath the centre of the 2 m square
spread foundation.
𝑝𝐵𝐼
𝑠" =
𝐸$

3.2 Consolidation settlement Load or

pressure
Consolidation in a fully saturated soil:
Consolida)on se,lement
• Apply a load
• Increase in PWP
soil
• Pressure increase is gradually taken
soil
by the soil particles
Total stress Eﬀec*ve stress
The piston and spring analogy
For soil which has been rapidly loaded the piston and spring analogy, as described by Terzaghi,
can be used to illustrate how the stresses are distributed in the soil with increasing time.
• When a saturated soil is • Load is carried by the

loaded (F) water – spring will not
F" deform
• The increase in load causes an
increase in total stress (σ) • The size of the valve
represents the
• Which initially results in an permeability of the soil
equal increase in pore hence the rate of
pressure (uw) dissipation of excess uw
• As pore water is squeezed out • Dissipation of excess u =

from the soil the increase in!!!!!!!!!u load transferred to spring
load transfers from the pore w!
water to the solid particles • Soil takes the complete
(the spring) F" load = no load taken by
the water = soil is
• Eventually all of the load stronger
transfers to effective stress
(σ’) • The change in height is
referred to as
• At all the time the relationship
σ = σ’ + uw is maintained σ ! consolidation settlement
Transfer of stress involves movement of pore water therefore settlement – the rate of
transfer depends on permeability of the soil:
• High Permeability soils (e.g. sands & gravels) settle quickly & increase in effective
stress occurs over a short time period.
• Low Permeability soils (e.g. silts & clays) take a long time to settle or consolidate
(years) thus the increase in effective stress is slow.

Sketch the relationship of between σ’ and uw in respect to time:
Eﬀec%ve' Water'
stress' pressure'
(spring)' 'kN/m2'
'kN/m2'
Time'(permeability'of'soil)'
Consolidation in partially saturated soils will be almost immediate, as it is air that is being
expelled. However, when an increase in load is applied to a fully saturated soil the resulting
increase in pressure is first taken by the pore water and is then gradually transferred to the
soil particles over a period of time. As has been discussed previously, the rate at which this
transfer of load occurs will depend upon the permeability of the soil being consolidated.
In high permeability soils, such as sand and gravel, the transfer of pressure from the pore
water to the soil skeleton will occur very quickly, thus consolidation will be rapid.
Unfortunately, it is not possible to measure such movements in the laboratory as it is difficult,
if not impossible, to obtain an undisturbed sample of sand or gravel. Moreover, the speed at
which the pore water pressures dissipate would not permit valid measurements to be taken.
Consequently, settlement of granular soil is generally evaluated using the results of in-situ
tests which are undertaken during the site investigation.
In clay and silt the transfer of pressure from the pore water to the soil skeleton will be slow
as the permeability of these soils is low. Moreover, the cohesive nature of the soil would allow
specimens to be prepared for laboratory testing. Consequently, it is the consolidation testing
of cohesive soils which will form the subject of the work which follows

3.2.1. One dimensional consolidation test
The Oedometer Test (BS 1377: Part 5:1990), assesses the two important features related to
consolidation:
1. The magnitude of consolidation settlement • 75 mm dia. 20 mm thick
• cored from a lager sample using a
2. The rate at which this settlement takes place
cutting ring - undisturbed & 1-D
• thickness compressed
• X-area is unaltered
• top & bottom of sample capped
with porous plates
• immersed in a water bath (fully
saturated)
• loaded vertically
• vertical settlement recorded
Application of load:
• Load sample at 5 increments
• each increment maintained until
sample is fully saturated (24hrs)
• each load is double the previous one
• initial pressure = effective
overburden pressure
• load applied via lever arm 10:1 ratio
• after finial increment of load & 24
hrs consolidation all the loads are
removed
• sample swells for 24 hrs
• moisture content taken
Recording the settlement (Oedometer test)
The two pieces of information normally required from this test are:
1. Magnitude of settlement
– amount of vertical settlement at the end of each period of loading (24hrs) &
final figure after swelling
2. Rate of settlement (& permeability)

– reading of settlement against time, normally at 0.25, 0.5 1, 2, 4, 8, 15 & 30
mins then 1, 2, 4, 8 & 24 hrs after the application of each load

3.2.2 Interpretation of test results
From the Oedometer test the coefficient of compressibility ‘mv’ and the coefficient of
consolidation ‘cv’ can be derived (see Appendix).
• The mv value represents the volume change per increase in effective stress. The units
are the inverse of pressure, i.e. m2/MN. It is used in the following equation to calculate
the amount of consolidation settlement in a soil layer:
𝑠# = 𝜎$ . 𝑚$ . ℎ
where: sc = consolidation settlement (mm)

h = thickness of layer (m)
mv = coefficient of compressibility (m2/MN)
sv = vertical stress at depth z (kN/m2)
Design load (p)
Sand
h mv sv Compressible layer (e.g. clay)
Sand
NB accuracy is improved the thinner the layer as stress change is significantly

over a thick layer.
Design load (p)
mv1 sv1 h1
mv2 Clay
!"!" =
= $$%&
% .. (
'%&%.. ℎℎ& + $%+. (%+. ℎ+ +…… sv2 h2
mv3 sv3 h3
Total consolidation settlement = average settlement calculate for each layer
Total settlement = the sum of average calculated for each layer

Example 3: Estimate the consolidation settlement of the layer of soft silty CLAY beneath
the 2 m square foundation shown below:
P = 150 kN/m2
1m
1.5 m
0.75 m so. CLAY mv=0.8 m2/MN

Fadum’s chart:
s = IzP
B
n=
z
L
m=
z

3.2.3 Rate of settlement
• The cv value is used in the Time Factor (Tv) equation (which is a dimensionless
number) to estimate the rate at which settlement takes place:
cvt
Tv =
d2
where: t = time (in days); d = length of the drainage path
Typical values of coefficient of consolidation, cv

2 Rate of
Cv m /yr Description
Settlement
<0.5 slow Clay - about 20 yrs for 90% consolidation
0.5-2.0 moderate Csandy clays
2.0-5.0 fast Clayey sands and clayey gravels
5.0< rapid Consolidation complete during construction
Degree of consolidation versus time factor
Case 1 = wide or extensive

applied pressure compared to
thickness of the soil layer, e.g. an
embankment and lowering the of
the water table.
Case 2 = applied pressure over a
small area such as a foundation.
Case 3 = self-weight of soil
forming an embankment
Strip or spread loads take case 2

Example 4: A layer of clay 5 m thick with a bulk unit weight (gb) of 20 kN/m3 overlies a sand.
The clay is in turn overlain by a 3 m thick layer of sand (g = 18.3 kN/m3). Consolidation tests
reveal the clay to have a coefficient of volume change (mv) of 4 x l0-4m2/kN and a coefficient
of consolidation (cv) of 5x10-8 m2/s. A structure is to be erected quickly, ultimately imposing
a uniform stress of 150 kN/m2 on a raft foundation 8 m square, the base of which is located 2
m below the surface of the upper sand. Stress changes at the mid-height of the clay may be
regarded as being representative of the whole layer. Construct a time settlement curve for
the foundation due to the consolidation of the clay for a period of 3 ½ years.
8m
8m
2m 150 kN/m2 SAND

g = 18.3 kN/m2
sv


Tabulate
Years 1/4 1/2 3/4 1 1 1/2 2 2 1/2 3 3 1/2
Days (t) 91.25 182.5 273.75 365 547.5 730 912.5 1095 1277.5
Tv 0.06 0.13 0.19 0.25 0.38 0.50 0.63 0.76 0.88
U from graph 0.125 0.25 0.35 0.46 0.59 0.70 0.79 0.84 0.88
dx u 21 42 60 78 100 119 134 143 150

4. Tolerable differential settlement
Angular distortion limits for building structures

1/100 Floor drainage may not work, stacking of goods dangerous
1/150 Structural damage of general buildings expected
1/250 Tilting of high-rise buildings (e.g. chimneys and towers) may be visible
Cracking in panel walls expected
1/300
Difficulties with overhead cranes
1/400 Design limit value for low-rise housing
1/500 Limit for buildings in which cracking is not permissible
1/600 Overstressing of structural frames with diagonals
1/750 Difficulties with machinery sensitive to settlement
1/2000 Difficulties with high racking in warehouses
1/5000 Maximum limit for machine foundations (e.g. power station turbines)
Example 5: From the values obtained from Example 1a (flexible foundation, 6 x 2 m) calculate the
differential settlement:
Differential settlement = si CENTRE - si CORNER
= 18.8 mm – 9.3 mm
= 9.2 mm
%.'×)*"#
This gives an angular distortion = = 3.1x10-3
+
Which equates to: 1/325
Hence, from the above table:
NB for Example 1b you would also need to take into account the rigidity (E and u) of the foundation.

Tutorial question no.1: Calculate the immediate, consolidation and total settlement values
beneath the centre of the following spread foundation. Note this is the same problem
considered in the Pdisp computer workshop. Do you obtain the same values?

Tutorial question no. 2: Two foundations as shown below situated on an 8 m thick layer of
silty CLAY (mv = 0.15m2/MN). Calculate the primary consolidation under the centre of
foundation ‘A’ due to its load and load carried by foundations ‘B’.
1000 kN 1000 kN
2.5 m 4m 2.5 m
2.5 m A B
X

6. Various charts
Janbu immediate settlement coefficients:

Fadum’s (vertical stress distribution) chart

Civil Engineering
Dr Martin Pritchard
Case 1 = wide or extensive

applied pressure compared to
Degree of consolidation versus time factor
thickness of the soil layer, e.g. an

embankment and lowering the of
the water table.
Case 2 = applied pressure over a
small area such as a foundation.
Case 3 = self-weight of soil
Page 125
Level 6
forming an embankment
Strip or spread loads take case 2
Boussinesq’s influence factor (equation/chart) for a point load

(needed for tutorial question no.2)
-
For vertical stress 𝜎, = 𝐼,
,$
where Iz (influence factor)
3 1
Iz = 5
2π
(1+ [r z] ) 2 2
Alternatively, Iz can be read from the following chart

Iz

7. Appendix
A consolidation test has been undertaken on a specimen of brown slightly sandy CLAY and the
following data was obtained:
• Initial dry density of specimen 1.60 Mg/m3
• Particle density 2.65 Mg/m3
Calculate the voids ratio after each loading cycle, determine the coefficient of compressibility
mv , plot the e vs log s’ and determine the consolidation settlement sc
Increment Pressure Sample Thickness Void ratio after change in void ratio new void ratio
No (kN/m2) (mm) each loading (dH) (de) = dH x 0.0867 (e) = 0.656-de
0 0 19.1 0 0.000 0.656
1 75 18.711 0.389 0.034 0.622
2 150 18.495 0.605 0.052 0.604
3 300 18.206 0.894 0.078 0.578
4 600 17.823 1.277 0.111 0.545
dH (1 + e) dH (1 + 0.656)
de = \ de = = dH x 0.0867
H 19.1
The initial void ratio, at

the start, of the test may rs 2.65Mg / m3
eo = - 1 \ eo = -1 = 0.656
be estimated from the rd 1.60 Mg / m3
following:
Coefficient of compressibility mv
1 DH 1 De
mv = . or mv = .
H Ds 1 + e DP
1 (0.656 - 0.545) = 1.1x10-4 m2/kN

mv = .
1 + 0.656 (600 - 0)
= 1.1x10-4 m2/kN x 1000 = 0.11 m2/MN
mv = volume change per increase in effective stress

(m2/MN) inverse of pressure

Void Ratio vs Pressure (e vs s')

De e - e1 0.700
Cc = =
D log s ' log æ s '1 ö
ç s '÷ 0.650
è ø
0.600
e
0.625 - 0.520 =0.105 0.550
\ Cc =
(
log 1000
100 ) 0.500
0 200 400 600 800
s
consolidation settlement:
Cc æs ' ö Void Ratio vs log Pressure (e vs log P)
sc = log ç 1 ÷ H
1+ e è s 'ø Compression index
0.700
Cc - slope of the linear
portion of the e vs log s plot
( )
0.105 0.650
\ sc = log 1000 ´19.1 0.625
1 + 0.656 100
0.600
e
=1.21mm 1.27mm
0.550
0.520
NB actual stress range and 0.500
thickness of clay layer can be 1 10 log s' 100 1000
used to determine consolidation
settlement of insitu soil
Preconsolidation Pressure
A normally-consolidated clay has not been subject to a stress higher than its present-day
overburden stress, whereas an over-consolidated clay has (in the past) been subject to
greater stress.
Maximum effective stress acted on
the soil in the past - melting of ice
sheets, erosion of overburden
pressure or rise in the water table
A D 1) Produce back the straight
line part (BC) of the curve.
e
2) Determine the point (D)
of maximum curvature on
B the recompression part (AB)
of the curve.
3) Draw the tangent to the

curve at D and bisect the
angle between the tangent
and the horizontal through D.
C
4) The vertical through the
point of intersection of the
bisector and CB produced
gives the approximate value
s c
Log s of the preconsolidation
pressure.

Root time method

normally used to determine state at U=90%
(U=degree of consolidation)
Draw a line down from the liner portion of the graph
Construct horizontal line AC such that ratio AC :

AB is 1.15 : 1
Settlement
or void ratio e.g. AB = 8.62
or dial
gauge AC = 8.62 x 1.15 = 9.91
U=90% 0.848d 2
cv =
t90
A B t90 time
A C k
cv =
mvg w
See worked example
Log time method

U=0%
normally used to determine state at U=50%
dH A (U=degree of consolidation) Initial compression
dH A 1 (parabolic curve)
B 4
B 0.196d 2
cv =
U=50% t50 Primary
consolidation
Dial gauge where d = half the thickness

of the specimen
Secondary
consolidation
U=100%
t50 Log time

Intersection of 2 linear
Pick any two points A and B on the portions is U = 100%
parabolic portion of experimental
curve so that B-B : A-A is 4:1 (NB Midway point U=50%
time values not log time values) plot
dH above A-A U=0% k
cv =
See worked example mvg w

Worked example showing both ‘root time’ and ‘log time’ methods

References:
D’Appolonia, D.J., Poulos, H.G. and Ladd, C.C. (1971). Initial settlement of structures on clay.
Proc. ASCE, 97, No. SM10, pp. 1359–1377.
Fox, E.N. (1948). The mean elastic settlement of a uniformly loaded area at a depth below the
ground surface. Proc. 2nd Int. Conf. Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering,
Rotterdam, 1, pp. 129–132.
Janbu, N., Bjerrum, L. and Kjaernsli, B. (1956). Veiledning ved løsning av

fundamenteringsoppgaver. Norwegian Geotechnical Institute, Oslo, Publication 16,
pp. 30–32.
Parry (1971). A direct method of estimating settlements in sand from SPT values. Proc.
Symp. on the Interaction of Structure and Foundation, Birmingham, pp. 29–32.

Session: 8
Earth Pressures
&
Retaining Walls

Learning outcomes:
• Undertake design calculations in relation to retaining walls.
Specific text:
Author/ Editor Barnes, GE.
Edition 3rd edition
ISBN 0230579804
Recommended for Purchase

Edition 7th
ISBN 9780415561266
Contents:
1). Introduction
1.1). Two main types of retaining walls
1.2). Various types of retaining structures are used in civil engineering
1.3). Modes of failure (major types)
1.4) Measures to improve stability
2). Active and Passive Lateral earth Pressures on walls

2.1) Mohr Circle Diagram for Active and Passive Lateral Pressures (granular soils)
2.2). Pressure diagrams
• Example A
• Example B
3). Retaining wall design to EC7
• Example 1 – without water pressures
• Example 2 – with water pressures

1). Introduction
1.1) Two main types of retaining walls

1) Gravity walls (free standing) - stability is due mainly to the weight of the structure;
traditional constructed of masonry or mass concrete but very uneconomic;
reinforced concrete cantilever walls are more economic – back fill acts on base
which provides the dead weight
2) Embedded walls - stability is due to the passive resistance of the soil over the
embedded depth; constructed of steel sheet piling; used when the retained height
of the soil is relatively low; general only used as temporary support
1.2) Various types of retaining structures are used in civil engineering, namely:
• Mass construction gravity walls
• Reinforced concrete walls
• Crib & Gabion walls:

• Sheet pile walls
• Diaphragm walls
• Reinforced soil walls
• Soil nail walls

Modes of failure (major types)
Bearing Capacity
Exceeded
Rotation Point
Bearing Capacity exceeded here
– large settlements result
Deep-seated slip: (fails as a slope) Outward Sliding, i.e. base resistance insufficient
or insufficient passive restraint
Insufficient resistance here
Insufficient passive resistance here
Measures to improve stability

1. Use of stronger stratum at depth
– Piles (bearing)
– Toe ‘key’
– Increase foundation size
– Excavate unsuitable soil
2. Reduction of thrust
– Drainage
– Reduce slope or retained soil
3. Increase passive resistance

– Weighting at toe
4. Increase passive resistance

– Tie rods/anchors

2). Active and Passive Lateral earth Pressures on walls

1) Active 2) Passive
Structure moves away from soil Structure pushes into soil
Active
Earth
Active Pressure
Earth Pa
Retaining Pressure
wall Pa Passive
Earth
Pressure
Pp
sV = Vertical stress
sV sV
sV = Major principal sh= Major principal
stress (acts vertically) stress (acts
horizontally) = Pp
Soil Soil
sH Element sH sH Element sH
sH = Pa = Active
sV Lateral Pressure
sV
Active Wedge
Passive Wedge

2.1) Mohr Circle Diagram for Active and Passive Lateral Pressures (granular soils)
sV = Major principal sV
Shear
stress (acts vertically)
Stress
sH sH
(t) Soil
Element
Strength envelope
f sH = Pa = Active
Lateral Pressure
sV
sV = Vertical stress
sV
sH q sV sV 90-q sH
Vertical Stress (s) Soil
Active earth Element
Pressure Pa = KagH sH sH
Vertical earth Pressure sv = gH

sV
Passive earth Pressure Pp = KpgH sH = Major principal stress (acts

horizontally) = Pp Passive earth
pressure
Coefficient of Active Earth Pressure Ka
Ka can be derived from the Mohr circle (Rankine, 1857)
DC
1-
s OA OC - AC OC - DC OC = 1 - sin f
Ka = H = = = =
s V OB OC + CB OC + DC 1 + DC 1 + sin f
OC
1 - sin f
=
1 + sin f
æ fö
= tan 2 ç 45o - ÷
è 2ø
= Ka coefficient of active earth pressure
σ 1 + sin f 1
V
σ = Kp = =
H 1 - sin f Ka

2.2). Pressure diagrams

Example A:
Plot values of Active Earth Pressure against depth for a retaining wall 9 m high with the following soil
properties: Sand; unit weight = 20kN/m3 angle of friction f = 35o
Active Earth Pressure Pa = KagH (granular soils – no cohesion)

Pa (kN/m2) = Ka x unit weight of soil (kN/m3) x height (m)
1 - sin f 1 - sin 35o

Ka = = = 0.27
Pa = 0.27 x 20 x 0 = 0 kN/m2 1 + sin f 1 + sin 35o
Retaining
or
wall æ fö æ 35 ö
9m Ka = tan 2 ç 45o - ÷ = tan 2 ç 450 - ÷ = 0.27
è 2ø è 2 ø
Pa = 0.27 x 20 x 9 = 48.6 kN/m2
Example B:
Sketch the pressure diagram giving values of pressure at critical points and calculate the active
earth thrust and the position where it acts, for the following problems:
Sand Pa = 0.33 x 20 x 0 = 0 kN/m2

g = 20 kN/m3
6m
f = 300
H/3 = 6/3 = 2m
Pa = 0.33 x 20 x 6 = 40.0 kN/m2
Active Earth Pressure Pa = KagHa
1 - sin f 1 - sin 30 o
Ka = = = 0.33
1 + sin f 1 + sin 30 o
1 1
Force = B.H = ´ 40 ´ 6 = 120 kN per m run
2 2

3). Retaining wall design to EC7
Approximate dimensions for various components of retaining wall for initial stability:

Example 1: Gravity wall – without water pressures

Stability





v v
v v
v v

v v

Example 2: Gravity wall with water pressures

v
v
v
v
v
v
v
v



v
v
v
v
v
v
v
v
v

v v


v
v


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LEEDS BECKETT UNIVERSITY

SCHOOL OF THE BUILT ENVIRONMENT,

© 2022 Leeds Beckett University. All rights Reserved

Dr Martin Pritchard Page 1

Author/ Editor Whitlow, R.

Description British Standards online:

Dr Martin Pritchard Page 2

Main objectives of a site investigation are:

Dr Martin Pritchard Page 3

2. Stages of a site investigation

2.1 Desk study

Possible sources of information include:

Dr Martin Pritchard Page 4

2. Hydrogeological maps: These maps provide information relating to rivers, the

Dr Martin Pritchard Page 5

Year MAP TITLE SUBJECT SITE SURROUNDING LAND

5. Aerial photographs: Stereo pairs of photographs can be used for topographical

Dr Martin Pritchard Page 7

2.2 Site reconnaissance

2. Vegetation: Changes in vegetation on site often indicates a change in the soil

3. Slopes: If trees are not vertical, unstable slopes should

6. Obstructions: The presence of overhead cables, for example, is an extremely important

2.3 Ground investigation

The object of the ground investigation is to:

Dr Martin Pritchard Page 8

These methods of investigation are considered in more detail below.

2.3.1 Trial pits

Dr Martin Pritchard Page 9

Advantages of trial pits as a method of investigation are that:

The disadvantages are:

2.3.2 Hand auger boreholes

Dr Martin Pritchard Page 10

2.3.3 Light cable percussion (shell & auger) boring

Dr Martin Pritchard Page 11

Dr Martin Pritchard Page 12

2.3.4 Mechanical Augured Boreholes

Dr Martin Pritchard Page 13

2.3.5 Rotary open hole drilling

Dr Martin Pritchard Page 14

*Adit is obtained from the Latin word ‘aditus’, meaning entrance. It

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mxDDX_sfEm4 (YouTube video: Rotary Drilling)

2.3.6 Rotary Core Drilling

Dr Martin Pritchard Page 15

3.1 Disturbed Samples

Dr Martin Pritchard Page 16

3.2. Undisturbed Samples

3.3 Water sample

3.4 Standard Penetration Test

Dr Martin Pritchard Page 17

In broad terms, the split spoon sampler is driven into

4. Cost of Site Investigation

Typical site investigation costs

5. Number of boreholes required and example borehole log

How many boreholes, How deep?

Dr Martin Pritchard Page 18

Seepage – flow nets

Dr Martin Pritchard Page 19

2. Earth fill dams

Author/ Editor Craig, RE.

Dr Martin Pritchard Page 20

1.1 Seepage flow beneath water retaining structures

i). Flow lines follow impermeable boundaries

ii). Equipotential lines follow permeable boundaries & open water