Topic: Nutrition in Humans

Specific Learning Objectives:

By the end of the chapter, you should be able to:

• Describe the functions of main regions of the alimentary canal and the associated organs:
mouth, salivary glands, oesophagus, stomach, duodenum, pancreas, gall bladder, liver,
ileum, colon, rectum, anus, in relation to ingestion, digestion, absorption, assimilation and
egestion of food, as appropriate.

• Describe peristalsis in terms of rhythmic wave-like contractions of the muscles to mix and
propel the contents of the alimentary canal. (describe action of circular and longitudinal
muscles)

• Describe the functions of enzymes (e.g. amylase, maltase, protease, lipase) in digestion,
listing the substrates and end-products.

• Describe the structure of a villus and its role, including the role of capillaries and lacteals
in absorption. (glucose, amino acid actively transported, fatty acids & glycerol recombine
in epithelial cells and enter lacteal only)

• State the function of the hepatic portal vein as the route taken by glucose and amino acids
absorbed from the ileum.

• State the role of the liver in

o Carbohydrate metabolism
o Fat digestion
o Breakdown of red blood cells
o Metabolism of amino acids and the formation of urea
o Breakdown of alcohol

• Describe the effects of excessive consumption of alcohol: reduced self-control, depressant,

effect on reaction times, damage to liver and social implications.

Page 1 of 11
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 Human digestive system
Why Digestion ?
to convert / argetood particles into smaller food
•

particles , sottertood particles toreqsier swallowing

•
large Molecule →
small molecules
[ chemically inert] I
CAN beolbsorbeol

Food substances
-

tortheuelltooxidise
and release energy

Bongs
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glycosidic -
o -

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Esterlinkages F
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O -

peptides
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p,
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c- N -

,
H

• Human digestive system consists of the alimentary canal and its associated organs

o Alimentary canal is a continuous tube starting from the mouth and ending at the anus
▪ mouth, oesophagus, stomach, duodenum, jejunum, ileum, colon, rectum and anus

o Associated organs: salivary glands, pancreas, gall bladder and liver

salivary Processes involved in human nutrition

Amylase intake ottood
• Ingestion: the process in which food is taken into the body (feeding)
istaroh → maltose]
chemical breakdown
Breaking down physically &onemioaHY
of complex insoluble
• Digestion: chemical digestion is the hydrolysis of large, insoluble food molecules, into
moleoyletoasmaller
insoluble molecule smaller, soluble molecules by enzymes; physical digestion is the physical breaking down
of food into smaller pieces (no chemical reactions or enzymes involved), which increases
the surface area to volume ratio of food, so that enzymes can digest the food more
Mouth : efficiently. Tongue :/20111009 into a bolus to swallow
1340091
cavity
o food needs to be digested as only small and soluble molecules can be absorbed into
the blood stream of the intestines.
o E.g. of small molecules are glucose, galactose, fructose, amino acids, fatty acids,
teeth
ohewto
glycerol, water, alcohol, mineral salts.
mechanically Moving Digested nutrients intothec.eu
breakdown • Absorption: the process which small and soluble molecules move from the lumen of the
food substances
intestine into the blood stream of the intestine.
tromlarger pieces
to
smaller pieces makedigesteanutrientspartotcell
• Assimilation: the process where absorbed food molecules are used to create new
protoplasm or used to release energy
o Occurs at the liver. (e.g. carbohydrate metabolism, detoxification of alcohol)
Removaltorunaigestedtood
• Egestion: the process where undigested food (reject: wastes) known as faeces is removed
L from the body t
=/ Excretion o faeces is stored at the rectum, and egested at the anus Even harmless
it has nothingMouth
substances
todowithfaeces can become toxic
'

Its the removal of when accumulated Page 2 of 11

toxic metabolic CYM/Notes/IP Bio/Nutrition in Humans
ihlqrge amounts
chan_yu_mun@nygh.edu.sg (email me if you spot errors)
wasted
catabolic
anabolic ] reactions
 • Physical digestion
o chewing of food by teeth, physically breaks down food into smaller pieces.
o smaller food pieces have a larger surface area to volume ratio, which allows the
enzymes to digest the complex food molecules quickly

• Chemical digestion
o Salivary amylase catalyses the hydrolysis of starch into maltose.
o Optimal pH of salivary amylase: 7.0 (neutral pH)
o Optimal temperature of salivary amylase: 37 C (close to body temperature)

• Salivary glands secrete saliva (which contains salivary amylase)

• Tongue functions to mix food with saliva and shapes it into balls called boli (singular bolus).

FOOD OUT Of nose

Ring of muscle
Not considered
entirely digestive organ
t
9150 ft
respiratory let food go down

Anterior,
in front tube

Pharynx it food
gets into the lungs, it would start to rot → cause inflammation
• Both food and inhaled air must pass through the pharynx, which is the throat region
o food bolus enters the oesophagus
o inhaled hair enters the larynx and subsequently the trachea
r Flaps downwards to close opening to trachea when you swallow
• Epiglottis functions to prevent swallowed food from entering the trachea (reject: windpipe)
1. Oral Phase by closing the opening of the trachea and prevents choking.
-

Moistened
13014s swallowed
'

2. Pharyngeal phase
swallow reflex
-

Tactile receptors
activated
The tongue
'

blocks oral cavity spaces

'

soft palate
blocks nasopharynx ) above
the
V0 cat folds
'

close pharynx
Epiglottis
-

covers the pharynx

I 1

Entry into the

lungs → life
threatening

Oesophagus

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 lumen narrower lumen -

circular muscles
•

longitudinal Ciro -
relaxing
muscles contracting longitudinal
relaxing muscles

_--✓
contracting
Buccal stomach
cavity -

straight
• Oesophagus is a muscular tube that connects the pharynx to the stomach. >

tneconraotion
Direction Oftoodbolys
relaxation looks
like waves
:
• Rhythmic wave-like contractions of the muscles to mix and propel the contents of the
alimentary canal is called peristalsis.

④
peristalsis
o longitudinal muscles (outer side)
peristaltic
o circular muscles (inner side) %2f.9.mn#-na9rt00db0Mstromb0cc9lcavitYt0
Movement
1
oiromuiaitemusaestne stomach
I
• Chemical digestion of starch by salivary amylase continues to take place at the pharynx
Brought about and oesophagus.
by contraction
& relaxation Ofa yinthewakeoftoodbolyt
narrowing
poirot antagonistic
opposite
muscles

only
to
/ longitudinal contracts
contraction oneset '
v
'

& contract,
relaxation another
set
relax "
widening
circular muscles lumen
"
n

-,

rhythmic :-. relax

V. opposite direction
wave
-

opposite arrangement contractions

of muscle fibres

-
End Of
CAN 9150 be found in
eosphogas
① external intercostal muscles cervix
-

/
-

internal intercostal muscles helps ribcage move in Females

Stomach •

n-ciroularringotmusc.ie
① circular muscles '

4549119 found
rgaiqmusaegjmlriswntrolspnpilsit.ee intubelikestrnyune
✗
• Muscular bag that can be stretched or expanded '

contracts openly men

:

pupils o functions in temporarily storage of food, where Relax :

close lumen
-

DILATE it can stretch and accommodate food

CONSTRICT o functions in carrying out digestion
'

• Physical digestion: peristalsis or churning of the

-

completely
MECHANICAL stomach causes food to break down into even
smaller physical pieces. inactive pepsinogen
movements
o churning also mixes the food with gastric juice canbecovertedinto
o mixture of ingested food and gastric juice is active pepsin
known as chyme
-

-
Hceinstomach
to
1=009130145 → Chyme -1M Ore fluid ]
Htionsneededtor
• Gastric juice is secreted by the stomach contains * active site
hydrochloric acid and the inactive pepsinogen. mm
protein → polypeptides
o pepsinogen is inactive, as it prevents the
@f@Breaks peptide
pepsin !
* stomach cavity protease from digesting the cells that secrete linkages
=/ Lumen the enzyme (171-157)
u
Enzyme :

Aotiveonlyinstomauhaoid ! pepsinogen
•
=
Hydrochloric acid serves a number of functions -
"
hen
"
usually inactive
ttheendoftnenameis .

something
o kills bacteria ingested with food with protein
-

pep :
to do

not breaking o (denatures)proteins in food, causing them to unfold, which exposes their peptide bonds
Peptide linkages
just bye
for protein digestion
intramolecular
toroesotaltraution
o activates inactive pepsinogen into active pepsin
o creates an acidic environment (pH), which is the optimal pH for pepsin
DNA o acidic pH denatures salivary amylase, so starch digestion stops in the stomach
transcription -
-

put
mRNA
translation
• Pepsin is protease enzyme that catalyses the digestion of proteins into polypeptides.
protein Small intestine
Iv
AAE modification
& repackaged]
v1
secretory
Page 4 of 11
vesicles
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why ?

t-orexouytosisitmsionotcenmembraneavesl.ge membrane
-

mcaseaotivepwle.in/enzymesstartdigestingthece1l
-
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 • Main function of digestion and absorption of food.
o most chemical digestion occurs at the duodenum (start of the small intestine)
o absorption of digested food occurs mainly at the ileum (end of the small intestine)
o mixture of digestion and absorption of food occurs at the jejunum (middle portion of
the small intestine).
MOYttoodhasbeehdigeste.cl
• To store and concentrate bile.
• To respond to intestinal hormones (such as
-
cholecystokinin) to empty and refill its bile
stores.

• Chemical secretions in the duodenum longest • To contribute to regulating the composition

'

of bile (the percentage of water, bile salts and

more)

o pancreatic juice (containing pancreatic enzymes) by pancreas • To control the flow of bile into the small
intestine.

o intestinal juice (containing intestinal enzymes) by cells of the duodenum

o bile (not an enzyme), produced by liver and temporarily stored in the gall bladder 9
Greenish :Bileis greenish yellow
• Secretions from pancreatic juice, intestinal juice and bile are alkaline.
o} bicarbonate ions are present in secretions
HW
-

m m

o neutralise the acidic chyme from stomach

o pepsin no longer functions (as pH is not acidic/optimal) in the duodenum
o alkaline environment provides the optimal pH for maximum activity of the enzymes
working int the small intestines

Chemical digestion in the duodenum

ntestinal amylase present
• carbohydrate digestion: starch → maltose → glucose
A
maltase needed
• protein digestion: protein → polypeptide → amino acids
proteases peptidases
• fat digestion: large fat droplets → small fat droplets → glycerol + fatty acids
Bite lipases
Cnotanenzyme)
'

Emulsification

Alohoho/ Emulsion test

can
digest tats, + Alcohol dissolves fats
but process is Physical digestion of fats in the duodenum + water
inefficient Bilirubin present
> snake
f • Bile functions to emulsify fats (emulsification of fats) •
A white emulsion forms
people
who have o bile is not an enzyme, it is not involved in chemical digestion, only physical digestion
gallstones o physical digestion of fats occurs when large droplets of fats are emulsified into
>
>
high cholesterol small/tiny droplets of fats (not a chemical reaction)
high bilirubin
>
o increases the surface area to volume ratio of fats, which speeds up the digestion of
Emptying process
fats by the enzyme lipase (from pancreatic and intestinal juice).
of bile from
9911 ↳ largersurface reaexposedtotneautionsottheiipas.es
bladder is
incomplete • Bile is produced by the liver, and stored in the gall bladder
[ toilet , crystal storm ] o During digestion, bile stored in the gall bladder is released when food enters the small
intestine. * liver produces bile
gallbladder RELEASES bite
Note: as bile is not an enzyme, boiling bile will not affects its function.
Absorption of nutrients in the ileum
wnyoavityoudigestamealhighintat
if you have gallstones ?

•
Avoidmealshighinfat content
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Eatingsmaliermeqlscreducestressoniiver)
•

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 §ÑBp
microvilli
1=01909 membrane of the

My villus
epithelia / cellontneside
tacingtnelumen

cells with
membranes thrown
consists
inpomqnyfoiqg-tnesidestaoingthemmenofthes-I.it
many
i. :
intestinal
" "

epithelial

÷ one
cell
thick
energy
efficient ,
not

My
energy
projects demaning
into rims
-

(
,

the lumen ptvili

Of the small Folds
intestine
increasesAtovratio , increasing speed ofabsorplion
• Various structural adaptions allow the small intestine to carry out absorption efficiently.

structural adaptation function

large total surface area present for
absorption, its length also allows
small intestine is very long (6m)
wnatcellsneed
sufficient time for the absorption of
includes duodenum ,i1eum&jejUMm
- nutrients
Glucose many folds on the surface of the small villi versus microvilli
①
•

' Nutrients intestine

> villicanspotmicrovilliontop
large surface area to volume ratio of the
•

oxygen presence of villi (singular villus), which are

② finger-like projections
> looklikeqcomplete
doesn'tstructure, which increases absorption
Rig cell ? rate of digested good substances
③ individual epithelial cells of the villi have this one cell
-

↳ villi
-

urea , microvilli think

Wd epithelium
short distance for digested nutrients to
thin membrane shortens the
travel, thus shorter time required for distance for
7 epithelium of villi is one cell thick absorption of nutrients – increases rate digested
iayerot epithelial cells of absorption of digested food nutrients to
substances travel, and
shorter
small intestine has a rich network of capillaries absorbed nutrients are quickly absorption
transported away from the digestive time
tgrpen.es/9rteriesbranchinHcapillariesinoqpiygrybeq system, which helps to maintain a steep
concentration gradient between the
and veins
presence of blood capillaries and lacteal in villi
cannot allow
lumen of the small intestine and its blood
for nutrients
supply
exchange :

walls are too

thick
The SEM image on the left shows the transverse
cross section of the small intestine, with the villi visible
as finger-like projections.

The presence of villi further increases the total surface

area of the small intestine, which enhances absorption
speed.

• Nutrients are absorbed by the process of diffusion and active transport.

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 cannot be transported away by blood , INSOLUBLE

o Glycerol and fatty acids enter the epithelial cells

during absorption via diffusion, and are subsequently
Blood has transported away via the lacteal.
a heavy content
water : o Glucose and amino acids enter the epithelial cells via
active transport, and are subsequently transported -
epithelial
stytftobe cells
transported have
away via the blood capillaries.
helps move
to be soluble
liver a things
• Capillaries in the villi combine to form the hepatic portal
vein which transport blood rich in nutrients from the
small intestine towards the liver. lacteal
capillaries

→ →
lower
blood
Large intestine glycerol
levels
[ in
blood
out / higher
glycerol levels

Absorption of water and mineral salts takes

place in the colon
o no digestion takes place in the colon
o as the surface area of the small intestine
is larger than the colon, in reality, majority of the
water and dissolved mineral salts are absorbed
in the small intestine

• Faeces (reject: waste), which are

undigested food, are stored temporarily in the
rectum.

Peristalsis

• Definition: rhythmic wave-like contractions of the muscles to mix and propel the contents
of the alimentary canal.

• Begins in the oesophagus, continues in the stomach, small intestine and ends in the large
intestine.
o peristalsis in the oesophagus, small intestine and large intestine function to propel the
contents
o peristalsis in the stomach results in churning where gastric juices are mixed with
ingested food

• The longitudinal and circular muscles of the alimentary canal are antagonistic muscles.
o the actions oppose each other
o when the longitudinal muscles contract, the circular muscles of the alimentary canal
will relax and vice versa

• The contraction of the circular muscles of the alimentary canal causes the lumen to
become smaller.

• The contraction of the longitudinal muscles causes the length of the alimentary canal to
shorten, thus increasing the lumen size at the same time.

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 allergen
A

%""*
> SLE
> nips

> rheumatoid
Arthritis
 region circular muscles longitudinal muscles
W contract relax

longitudinal muscles circular muscles

Chemical digestion in the alimentary canal

pH
Organ Chemical digestion Enzyme
conditions

Mouth starch → maltose salivary amylase 7.0

Oesophagus starch → maltose salivary amylase 7.0

proteins → polypeptide
2.0
Stomach pepsin
(starch digestion stops as salivary (acidic)
amylase is denatured by HCl)

carbohydrate digestion: pancreatic amylase,

starch → maltose → glucose intestinal maltase

protein digestion: pancreatic trypsin,

protein → polypeptide → amino acids intestinal proteases /
peptidase
Small 7.4
fat digestion
intestine bile to emulsify fats, (alkaline)
large fat droplets → small fat droplets
→ glycerol + fatty acids pancreatic and
intestinal lipase
(pepsin from the stomach is denatured
by the alkaline conditions by
bicarbonate)

Large No chemical digestion occurs.

intestine
(colon) Absorption of water and mineral salts (also occurs in small intestine).

Hepatic Portal Vein

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• The blood capillaries in the villi of the small intestine will merge to form a larger blood
vessel known as the hepatic portal vein.

• The hepatic portal vein is a blood vessel (vein) that functions to transport blood rich in
nutrients (glucose and amino acids) from the small intestine (mainly ileum) towards the
liver.

Functions of the liver (Assimilation)

1. Blood glucose regulation

• The liver functions as a carbohydrate store, storing excess glucose in the form of glycogen.
Glycogen is insoluble, thus will not affect the water potential of cells.

Scenario 1:
• After a meal rich in carbohydrates, carbohydrates like starch are digested into its subunit
glucose.

• Excess glucose absorbed from the small intestine is stored as glycogen in the liver and
muscles.

Scenario 2:
• After fasting / intense exercise, blood glucose levels will drop as glucose is the raw material
of respiration.

• This results in low blood glucose, and stored glycogen in the liver is converted into
glucose which is released into the blood stream, thus raising blood glucose levels.

2. Deamination of excess amino acids

• Absorbed amino acids are used by the body for growth, repair and the synthesis of various
proteins (e.g enzymes, antibodies).

• The excess amino acids cannot be stored in the body.

• Excess amino acids are converted into urea, during the process of deamination.

• Urea is transported dissolved in blood plasma from the liver to the kidneys.
o urea is excreted in urine at the kidneys

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3. Fat digestion

• Liver produces bile, which emulsifies fat.

• Bile produced by the liver is stored in the gall bladder.

• The emulsification of fat is the physical digestion of fat, where large fat droplets are broken
down into smaller fat droplets.

• This process increases the surface area to volume ratio of the fat droplet, allowing lipase
to hydrolyse fats (triglycerides) more efficiently into fatty acids and glycerol.

4. Detoxification of harmful substances

• Detoxification is the process of converting harmful substances into harmless end products.

• E.g. alcohol (toxic) is broken down into acetaldehyde by liver enzyme alcohol
dehydrogenase, and subsequently into harmless substance acetate.

• E.g. hydrogen peroxide (toxic) is broken down by liver enzyme catalase into water and
oxygen.

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5. Breakdown of red blood cells

• Worn out red blood cells are broken down in

the spleen.

• Haemoglobin is then transported and broken

down in the liver.
o iron in haemoglobin is stored in the liver.
o bile pigments are formed from the
breakdown of haemoglobin.

Effects of excessive consumption of alcohol

• Reduced self-control
o may make choices that he/she may regret after alcohol wears out
o poor judgement, tends to drive and speed, resulting in traffic accidents

• Effect on reaction time

o reaction time increases
o reaction speed slows down

• Depressant
o breathing and heart rate slows down.
o slurred speech, blurred vision
o poor muscular coordination, clumsy, unable to walks steadily

• Damage to the liver (alcohol is a toxin)

o liver cirrhosis, leading to loss of liver function
o ethanol is a carcinogen, which may result in liver cancer after many years of excessive
consumption

• Social implications
o may become dependent and addicted to alcohol (alcoholic)
o unable to stop drinking, and constantly drunk
o neglect work and families, exhibit violent behaviour
o crimes committed under the influence of alcohol

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