Biology

:
 Formational ⑥ rroouuppss
-

- - -
-
- -
- - - -

↳ 77
essppeeiiaallkyyeoommmmonnoonness
"
phosphate group in nucleotides
↳ amino
group in amino acids

↳ Carboxyl acid group in amino acids

↳ R amino acid
groups on

Organic molecules

4 covalent bonds CO2 not organic

*=
CQ
,

4 valence electrons
only bonded
=/ not few atoms
usually organic when to a

ffonnettiioonnaallggrrouuppssaaddddtto.ec#ooaadddd prrooppeerrttiieess
acid
↳
polarity ,
, basic
- I 2 ,
\

* • Cass ti*i¥
Iff µ 11¥ ¢
-

#⇐ ¥bb$ • rr
,

'
✓
l s
y
-

aammiinno * eaarrbbooxxiyl → aammiinnoaaeiidd ,

acid
eaarrbb *
pphhoosspphhaattet-nn.ir#rroorggeennoouu$ base → nucleic
-

rest of
usually C
" "
-

R >
-

the bio molecule a

smaller -

monomer
%>
repeated polymer -

dehydration synthesis ↳ hydrolysis

↳ water removed bonds
→
breaking
↳ created as a product →
with water
↳ new bond reactant

phospho sidic linkage

carbohydrates
C it 0
I
not
always a
polymer
2
monosaccharide
1 : :
carb
single →

↳ ribose ,
glyceraldehyde polymer →
polysaccharide
not always linear *
starch
storage plants
-
in
orientation of hydroxy animals
glycogen storage in
-

offoc C matters
cellulose - structural component of cell wall

Disaccharide -
formed by dehydration with Hao as a product
↳ glycosidic
linkage
 Functional Group Examples Properties
- - -
- -
- -

µ Polar ,
organic
Hydroxyl Alcohols molecules dissolve
alcohol can bond w/
-

OH other molecules
organic
through dehydration synth
carbonyl Aldehydes buildingblocks of carbs

Ic=O
ketones ✗ supply energy

Carboxyl carboxylic -
acidic properties to
organic
0 acids molecules
BOH readily releases
=
( At
-

IOH ionized ionized

*converts non -

to

base accepts H+
Amino Amines Organic ,

in Hao
H
-
N
/
p non -

ionized to an ionized
\H
Phosphate organic react as weak acids / OOH
f- Phosphates groups readily lose H
p
-

-
o -
-

o
"
o 8D
Sulfhydryl Thiols
convert into covalent
linkage
sit loses Has it binds
P
-

Methyl Methylated non-polar , can alter

gene
"^ds
=¥=H
"MP expression when cytosine
"
is methylated
H
-
Kipp;#
Lipid structure 3 types
↳ C , H, 0 Neutral -

aaettqss-fuuee.lt source
ssttorreeeenneerrggyy
↳ not necessarily repeating units nnoottehnaarrggedd
uussuuaatkyinnssodobblee-tats-sseemm.is#
,
Kidd aattbbiotfeemmpp
↳ fatty acid and triglycerides are motif lipids oils -
1- iqquuiidd
insolube Dehydration synthesis
11-20 33 ffaattttyyaacciiddss triglyceride ester linkage
- -

hydrophobic
↳ forms 3 Ha 0
non-polar more hydrocarbons mates it less soluble

eaannbbemmooddiffiieddbbyyffounnettiioonnaal ggrroouupss no double bonds sat

mono on sat
=

1 double bond
mmoosgttlyymmaaddee app 00€ ooffff ¢ aanndd #
=

man double bonds =

polyunsaturated
Double bonds glycerol + fatty acids

creates Kinks ← non-polar

↳ disordered ,
more fluid

4 types of bonds formed by less than

dehydration max amount
of
Hydrogen
↳ all covalent ← polar
↳ between 2 carbs -

glycosidic
H

Ph¥¥¥¥a
H -
o -

2 monosaccharides . .lt phosphate

non polar polar
↳ between 2 nucleotides phosphodiester
-

↳ can ionize

hydroxyl -

hydroxyl ↳ weak acid

↳ can interact with Hao

framework for biological membranes due to

their
ability to Orient so Hao
stays
from inside
away

steroids
↳ 2 amino acids -

peptide decorated with

4 carbon be
rings may
-

carboxylic amine
Polar polar additions
-

non
acid or -

group
N of
C Function ↳part bilayer
- -

↳
glycerol and fatty acid acid -
↳ hormones

OH carboxyl chole#-
-

,
fluid
,
COO It
the membrane
Hao released ,
C -
O keeps
 ppotlaarrittyy
ñnoreéiectro
- *
covalent bonds
negative electronegative
-

less
0 It share electrons
N C

H ÷ It
,
c÷ it ,
c-:c
,
0 :-O t In Chem

non-polar covalent
↳
=\
1-1
due to =
electronegative of both elements
each joint is

C ,
and must
it -
:O attached to
be

¥-8 2
hydrogens
4-
H 11-+8

↳ polar covalent bonds

-
Bbiioehheemmiisttrrgy
-
- - - -
-
-
-
-

É
matter
protons
matter -

mass and takes space \

/
atom
-
neutrons
Element -

pure substance w/ distinctive properties

\ electrons
Atom -

smallest unit

Atomic # -

# of protons in nucleus Atomic # 1

Isotope -

diff form w/ same # of protons but diff # of neutrons

Atomic
H
Atomic mass # how much
-

an atom weighs
mass # I

* Nucleus is dense and pos .

Energy levels regions

-

of space within an atom around

byd.is#
the nucleus where electrons are .

Orbital -

space where an e- occurs most frequently shape is influenced from

and of others
nucleus
proximity
valence refers to outmost level and its electrons
energy
-

↳ when it's full (8) it's stable

•
an atom will
give up or accept e-
creating an ion

↳ charged particle
Nt CI
-

CI Xe Xe
-

Ci
repel attract neutral
 moving levels because the e- farther from
up energy increases
-

energy
are

the attraction of the positive center .

Ionic -

attraction between oppositely charged atoms due to

gain
/ loss of e-

force multidirectional , distances

↳ is
strong long
↳
strength depends on environment and other charges
↳ ssaattts -

usually a cation and anion

covalent -2 atoms share unpaired valence e-

④
↳
atoms have diff ability to pull e- ( electronegativity ) r
shared
• difference to
non-polar determines polar or
even
sharing
-

non-polar
polar -

uneven
sharing
diff
•
huge can

electronegativity mean ionic

-

measure of
tendency to
• 1 or 2 -
ionic
attract e-
•
more - covalent
0 is
very electronegative
semi
negative
-

C and H and low

are
equal o > w>
sat P
semi -

positive
\

H bonds -
a chemical linkage not bond a real
↳ attraction between a
partial positive and partial negative
↳
collectively strong individually , weak
↳ w/ H2O .
.

Van der Waals brief stickiness between of molecule

regions a
-

↳ electrical attraction over short distances

↳ can
collectively stabilize proteins
RR @ -

polar covalent bond , multiple bonded by H bonds

↳ solvent for charged molecules

Polar and non-polar :

solubility
surrounding
non
-

polar molecules dump together to reduce SA to a polar

?⃝
?⃝
 When ions disassociate they form spheres of hydration around ion

↳
It bonds create
•

organization
•

high specific heat

•

high surface tension -

cohesion

Hao becomes Ht and OH goes

-
-

back and forth

increases H+ -

acid aka proton donor Bases have lower pH

and accept
decreases H+ base aka proton acceptor
-

pH acidity or basicness pH log [ H+ ]

- = -

concentration of Itt ions

Proteins
•
regulate & proteins have
same

• chemical signals and receptors multiple domains which

•
structural support have different structure
•
catalyzing chem reactions

Protein structure
-

every protein
has a carboxyl and a
nitrogen / amino

of acids linked
by peptide bonds
primary -

linear
sequence amino .

bonding diff acids in of

Secondary H between amino a
segment amino
-
-

within a
polypeptide
coiling / folding chain ,

3D structure of the polypeptide

Tertiary CONFORMATION or
-

✗ helical and p strand secondary structure segments PLUS

-
-

disulfide linkages H bonds PLUS It

,
-
-

attractions on side groups

and polar or non-polar associations .

↳ allows for shapes

•
when only a
single polypeptide chain comprises a functional protein tertiary -

•
multiple polypeptides or
tertiary structures -

quaternary
 chaperone proteins help make the
tertiary structure
•

Amino Acids of proteins ⑨

⇐µt
-

monomers

PAAN -
C -

COOH
side
determine
R e-
groups
H
the shape depending on

the order and # of them

•
functional group
differs from
every amino
•

Peptide bonds carboxyl group gives OH

-

a up an another amino

acid
gives up
the H from it's amino
group forming H2O and ,
the C bond
to N ,
covalent

N-terminal end always bonds to C terminal end

Peptide bond

/
-

Polypeptide

¥:
-

Protein -

Monomer
ii. -

a-
single unit

Hadlee ice Ateiiddss

-

DNA and RNA

DNA -

deoxy ribonucleic acid

-

twisted ladder
RNA ribonucleic acid
-
-

more variable

f nucleotides
↳
ATP and GTP chemical energy regulate
-

, activity
D¥I stores hereditary info for all cells blueprint
-

R#A hereditary info storage for viruses

↳ translates between DNA and proteins

acids to
↳
brings amino ribosomes
 Nucleotides -

monomers of nucleic acid -

phosphate group 1-3

•

↳ joined
together by phosphodiester bond Nitrogenous base ATCG
-

ribose/
5 carbon
sugar
-
-

Nitrogenous bases deoxyribose

purines -
2
rings
-

A.C
PyramidInes 1
rings -1,46
-

-
-

Nuclear SIDE is part of a

nucleotide not , phosphorylated
and base
just sugar nitrogenous
•

"
oÑ CHA
0
Nitrogenous base

/ \ 1
-

s
" .

1- 1%
"
'
It .

% %/ OH in (ribose )
OH yµ ( µ in (deoxyribose)

•
RNA be many shapes or linear
can

DNA always in double helix unless

being transcripted
•

DNA shape
-

2 strands held together by H bonds between nitrogenous bases -

held together by phosphodiester bond

the back bone 5C
sugar phosphate group
- =
-
-

complementary base pairs

-

2 A ?A T bond -

C G -3 H
-

bonds ÷
-

RMA A- U
=
-

shape facilitates its replication

'

5 C is
holding
anti -

parrotlet alignment phosphate

3 C
'

holding
' '
is
3 - s

¥É¥/z
hydroxyl
gives up hydroxyl
↳
,
g. and bonds to phosphate
C EN
equal
H
N =

EN
0
highly
-

-
 aqueos
MMemmb.br Mess exterior phosphate 0
•
11
-

cell membrane is mostly proteins and lipid ←

hydrophobic
R p -
OH
•
lipids are
mostly phospholipid some sterols
\o/ \ OH
-

aqueos
interior

sterol -

prevent close
packing of -

charged and releases

_y
phospholipid Ht so it's considered
acidic

① a
Fluidity
nytrooii fluidity important
"
"
membrane is
-

for cell
necessary growth motility
-

steroid Conde ) sterol surface stresses

decreases cold
fluidity in
-

at
hightemp reduces fluidity ,

at low temp , prevents hydrophobic

tails from and

packing crystallizing
Proteins are the mosaic
↳ react with hydrophobic and hydrophilic parts of membrane
has channel to let small
particles
•

in
hag doma.mg ,
wn , ,n ayow for d, ftp.ope.me,

>
Transport selectively permeable
-

channels
allow polar molecules and ions to pass
↳ cell cell-

recognition
-

identify as
"

self
"
or
"

foreign
"
.

facilitate cell
linking bind to ECM , and link it to cytoskeleton
↳ receptor proteins recognize -
,

and bind signaling molecules

'
↳ cell-cell junctions bind cells
tightly together (
gap / tight junctions
-

↳
enzymatic -
-

allow chemical reactions to occur .

Glycoproteins Integral
-

in the membrane
cell-cell
recognitions Peripheral outside membrane
-
Concentration Gradient
-

allows the
right amount in and prevents toxicity
-

non-polar / uncharged particles can

get through pretty easily

-

small particles

"
non-polar

simple -

small ,
along
gradient , non -

polar

facilitated -

polar / charged
H2O
sugar , transport
, amino ,

protein

Active from
anything low
-

to
high conc .

Sodium Potasiom pomp moves +

gradient
-

again
seat ↳ active
] Nat n
+ Nat

#
Kt
eventually loses positive charge
-

put
2kt
requires ATP to push
against gradient
-

__

P
when
breaks
one

off go.FI#go--p-o-R ✗ 3
-

lot of
negative
,

released → d- charge
energy
is
they repel
-

each

Used for out

pushing ions other
-

⇐
nneerrggyy /
anabolic -

building things up

catabolic -

breaking things down

+16
endergonic taking in
energy
-

exergonic
spontaneous
non -

spontaneous
 Energy
of
-

kinetic result its movement

energy
-

↳ due to constant motion

Potential energy -

stored as a result of its position or location

↳
enthalphy '
"

↳ arrangement of atoms and bonds

* If one
part sofa
system object being studied reacting system
-

is

)
↳
usually open / matter and energy exchanged
,
getting more ordered ,

another part will be

-

total disorder of a
reacting system getting more disordered
Entropy
A
increases

disorder Laws of Thermo

use to ① conservation
Enthalpy
① If reactants have more predict [[ ② total disorder increases
⇐ spontaneity
potential energy products than
it be spontaneous
may
more complex bonds than product
Gibbs free
-

energy
②
Entropy AG =D It TGS -

R R
If products have more
entropy R , p
it

If
may be spontaneous
products are

""
becoming disordered ☒ñÑ°° oÉ¥¥¥?Ñ%%yy÷YÉ
Reactants "

yY° "
Dd Products ↳ If its c- ) free energy decreases
,

spontaneous
µ
Products
↳ If its ( t ) free
energy decreases
reactants non -

spontaneous

exergonic endergonic
AG
energy investment
-
-

+ AG

Metabolism -
chemical reactions of a
living thing
catabolic chemical released broken down Glucose +16
energy is
-

,
-

Anabolic -

something is built , biosynthetic -

-16
 ☒FP -

adenosine triphosphate
3 phosphate

ATP t Hao → ADP + Pi

you couple the energy released by
can the
A- 6 -7.3 kcal exergonic hydrolysis of ATP to other cell
=

processes through phosphorylation

Enzyme activation needs to do

ene_rgy this , but + AG →

Heat speeds
everything
-

They hold the reactants in a

more
energetically favorable
phosphate group is
way +

They don't
change 16 transferred
-

They themselves don't

change so 46 is
-

neg
-

sometimes have a cofactor

 ⇐* •mm 22
fee ☒ -

basic unit of life

Tissues -

combos of cells with common function

Organ -

several tissues

Organ system organs working cooperatively

-

Organism The Whole Shebang -

Common Components of ALL_ cells

↳ Plasma membrane ↳ Prokaryote -

lack membrane
↳ Cytoplasm enclosed internal compartments
↳ DNA cell wall has
peptidoglycan
-

↳
Ribosomes ( RNA +
protein) first cells
-

in the domain Archaea and

mitochondria
-

bacteria
-

site for conversion of stored

energy →
Eukaryotes
-

membrane bound
-

organelles
Nucleus , mitochondria , ER golgi
;
,

Sun
y Gps ADPT

(
P

%sp ration
photosynthesis
,

✓AÑf

AATTPP
heat
CO2 1- Hao

photosynthesis -

low
energy
e- from water are pushed to higher energy
levels

by absorbing light energy

Then the reduce Coa
forming carbohydrates such as glucose and
•
e-
, ,

other molecules
organic
Oa is released as
•
a byproduct
cellular Respiration -

glucose and other

organic molecules are oxidized
removal of
by higher energy electrons
•
the removal of higher energy e- releases
energy ,
some of which is
 used to synthesize ATP from ADPT phosphate Glucose -

high
① -6C glucose pyruvate free low entropy
glycolysis
→ 3C energy ,
② pyruvate
processing + CAC / Krebs?
↳
pyrvate oxidation → Acetyl CoA → CO2 substrate level phosphorylation -

③ oxidative phosphorylation a phosphate from something is

↳ e- move
through a transport chain transferred to ADP from ATP .

Electron flow
•
Redox
Oxidation loss of more positive 0-12 RIG
• -

e-
,

Reduction Gain of

p.gg#isog--
e- more
neg "
• -

"
.

o-i.at
→ →

* Getting energy from glucose → ATP

glucose is oxidized
02 is reduced
GR 6611-1206 +602 -76002 + 6 Hao t ATP
* weaker
-> ↳
moved from covalent bonds
e- are 02 gains hydrogen
glucose
to 0 reduced have more

oxidized potential chemical

Electron Transport -

to from
dehydrogenase -

move e- carrier
glucose
↳ nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide ( NAD )
HAD Re
+

Ox -
-

NADH

Glycolysis
-

Qyro
for first 5 steps
glucose + MAD + co Require energy
-

2 + MADH
d- 2nd 5 steps release more
-

a-

it
energy
2 ATP
Bano 02 required 2 NADH

Pyruvate oxidation .

occurs in the mitochondrial matrix ,

actively transported
in

oxidized to Acetyl CoA Pyruate + Coat NAD& → acetyl-CoA + NADA +1-1++02

 ↳ includes enzyme driven reactions that turn into fully oxidized CO2
-

produces energy ATP -

reduces NAD + and FAD + 2C end up

in Acetyl CoA
1 acetyl CoA + 3 NAD + 1 FAD + IADP + IP +2Hao → and the last
202+3 NADA + I FADH 't IATP +311-1-1 CoA one is CO2

citric acid
cycle
.

}
glucose has been fully oxidized
to CO2 and loaded up e- electrons

Oxidative phosphorylation
1st step that requires 02
-

all the NADH and FADH release +

e- to the
oxygen =H@@
-
this movement powers ATP synthase

ETC has -

integral proteins in the inner mitochondrial membranes

assisted inter
by complex shuttles
-

from
many proteins taking high
-

These complexes of the ETC are made up of ,

en .
e- carriers
-

Each complex has t free energy ,

R
affinity for e-

02 is at the end of the ETC

energy released
from this are used to pump Ht
 Cell Respiration

glycolysis first 5 steps

require ATP but last 5 step
-

,
( 3G)
pyrvate create ATP
through
6C glucose { substrate level
phosphorylation
pyruafeczc)
high potential µy
the#
in
energy
bonds Pyrvate oxidation
"
NAD Acetyl CoA
tdA-p
*
citric acid
cycle
Acetyl-CoA $0022

µfggf/ / µ
EI
-

oxidative phosphorylation
%¥ADt
-

e- move to 02 to make
Hak Hao from carriers v LATP

:÷÷÷÷÷:÷÷_
NADH
-

provides & the proton

protons get pushed

into ATP synthase
come in as
-

combines ADP + p
NADT and FADT
and are reduced
µ°sÑÑÉ+H%
p ATP
more
electronegative
synthase
-0-8-0-0=>-7
- -

§ O -
-
-
complexes
in the membrane

FADH2o+t2H+→
N
App + P
-
ATP
NADH NAD + + H+
finaadcepfor
>
02
¥ ctronegatwe
 BBaaetterrxaalltrraannssffoorrmmaa#on
Experiment 1
"

" "
-

1 strain of bacteria causes pneumonia S virulent has a capsule

" "

1 strain of bacteria causes

nothing R non virulent no capsule
-
-

Injected mice

① lives cells 2 Live R cells -

Anything could have been

dead
alive transferred
5 cells in no R cells
blood in blood

They thought it was

probably
-

③ heat killed S cells ④ heat killed S cell not protein because the heat
killed the S
+
alive
live R cells cells and the protein
lives cells
denatured
no

in blood
dead would have
live s cells in blood
living R cells can be -

figured it couldn't be carbs and

converted to virulent lipids

tmnt
5 with some factor
from Dead S cells

break down that

The
enzymes component
-
concluded that it was
① A batch treated with protein enzyme DNA because when DNA
virulent S
destroyed
lost its
" "

was S
② A batch treated with DNA enzyme virulence
Non virulent S
-

③ A batch treated with RNA emoyme

Virulent 5

F-22
Phage kills bacteria
-

virus DNA RNA plus a protein shell

-

or
-

Hershey + Chase

labeled DNA with sap -

labeled
"
s Infected had
-

protein with bacteria no s

but it had radioactive P
 ssemmiieonnsserruuaattiiuvemmoddeel
-

each new double helix has one old and one new

Messel son and Stahl experiment

ccoonnsserruuaa#wee mmooddell

one
daughter cell with completely
new and one with old

☒HAA RReppkie.cat/-iiann
-

DNA replication occurs from DNA not RNA because DNA is safer .

DNA → DNA =
replication
DNA → RNA transcription
=
→
new RNA is polymerized
RNA →
protein =
translation

mRNA =

complementary to DNA molecule

Genetic code is a 3- letter code

-

Only I amino acid per codon

-

has start and stop signals

Transcriptions begins
-

The promotor of a
gene includes info that
-

will cause
gene expression
Transcription Factors -

proteins that bind to DNA for specific things

-

occurs when positue regulators are present

-

negative regulators are removed

Transcription
TF 's and RNA strand Finer
Initiation RNA polymerase start making a
complementary
-

RNA chain while the DNA unwinds

Elongation RNA Poly 11 , moves
along the
gene extending the
-

Termination -
Once transcriptions ends and the RNA molecule and polymerase are released
Enzyme
unwinds
Helicase -

DNA
Topoisomerase deals with onderwindind of DNA
-

DNA polymerase
-

replication
RNA polymerase transcription -

ligase
-

connects Okazaki
fragments
RNA primers
exonuclease -

removes
Primase adds the primer to replication
-

.
Reading Frame
-

refers to which nucleotide starts the codon

Translation -

happens immediate in cytosol for prokaryotes

must be edited in
eukaryotes
-

pre mRNA will be capped for ribosome to

'
5
cap recognize
-

↳ a reversed nucleotide
polyadenylate d tail on 3 side
'
will be
given a
-

50-250 A 's in a row

prevent degradation
-

may be spliced to remove

regions that do not encode proteins
↳ spliceosome ( intrans )

-RNt_
75-90 nucleotides

arranged in a clover
redundancy only 1*2,

4- double helix bases really matter

1 leaf anticodon pairs to codon
-

1 leaf connection to amino acid

-

Amino actuation attaches an amino acid to tRNA

sent to ribosome ( ribonucleoprotein )
3 functional sites
A- aminoacyl Tr RA enters -

with Met
p= peptidyl -

poply peptide elongates guanine

tr '

F-
pnopnate
=

exit -

3 steps
9
again
Init ion
machinery to
translate starts at start codon
? GTP is
-

Elongation acids to form polypeptide hydrdyed

-

joining amino a

Termination
-

dissambly of ribosome complex y+, fee,

-
The start codon binds to a ribosomal subunit
and forms a complex
 peptidyl transferase forms -

a peptide bond between amino acids

Then
folding will happen with the help of proteins later

terrors aanndd # outta# •nn$

mutated Factors
cuu → cub -
enTnmnt
same amino acids -

food
substitution -
-

smoke
UV
insertion
- -

] change
-
the frame -
frameshift mutation
deletion -

Errors can occur

during replication If A- T , C- 6 has been
-

1) proofread violated
2) mismatch pair
? to ✗ Exonuclease removes and replace
/
-

3) excision pair nucleotides

Mismatch Repair
-

involves replaces a whole chunk of replicated DNA

Thymine may bind together instead of to A

binding
↳ Thymine
Wild type : most common form Dime

⑥eennee Regulation
.

operon cluster of genes that will be transcribed together

-

elements control expression of genes

EE
↳
regulatory
5- Promoter -

marks where transcription should start

oÉ Operates stretch of DNA that can be bound by proteins on / o

2
- -
-

off switch 1

of [ Repressors gene off

-

E- { Activators gene on -

transcription
 ÷
binds
to operator
obstructs
transcription
-

prevent transcription
-

some
¥80

needs lactose
to become
inactive
operator leff
-

unobstructed
 humans don't use operons Is the transcription factor
DNA >
-

Gene expression around ?

① Translation can it access promoter
② Transcription

It
But Why ? ? ?
DNA
methylation -
silences Histones associate with DNA
-

DNA , prevents transcription in the nuclease to condense

by adding a methyl group to into chromatin

the code DNA
C's in
genetic -

hug
be merited inactivates transcriptions
-

↳ can

epigenetic
↳
phenomenon
-

acetylated
If histone is

post-Transcriptional editing prevents close binding of DNA

-

pre -
MRNA → mRNA
'
5 cap
-

recognized by ribo
poly A- tail -

prevents degradation
diff exons
splicing Use
-

the
changes
↳

not all DNA

protein created This is how is
of the
change the
stability expressed
mRNA
↳ controls how
long mRNA
available

Post
transcriptional regulation
↳
prevents translation

Post-translational modifications -

to proteins
i
>
phosphorylation
↳ can make an inactive form
and becomes active after
it is cleaved

↳ life of protein can be

regulated
 E- * •mm 33
All aassmmidd
° "
→
Beta -

galactosidase 2> Blue

promoter -
-
on

of interest could
gene
anti biotic
could not inserted
get
or
-

resistance

gene

① ② ③

☒ I
⑥ 0*0 t to
survive antibiotic
blue Die with survive
antibiotic antibiotic -

White
Genes
Copying
cutout region of interest restriction endonuclease
-

join pieces
-

ligase
copy -

DNA polymerase

Bacteria can be used as

gene cloning factories
↳ use plasmids to insert DNA into
↳ a circular chromosome

→ A bacteria takes it up into cytoplasm and copies of interest when

gene
it replicates

needs sticky ends to attach Eco RI makes cut and

zigzag
-

new insert to make recombinant plasmid

gene can
↳ can become a expression
vector when a cell expresses it
PEAR you need
need to amplify or replicate DNA in a soln -
DNA

Add DNA and Primer Primers for target

-
-

Taq Poly
-

i ; ; ; ; ; iii Iii ! Ii it till 111111¥ -

Thermo cycler

Denaturation ( 96°C ) repetition

f
-

'
l
'
111
f
l l l 1 11
'

l l
l
' ' l l l l l l l
'
l l

11 / I 1 I 1 1 11 i I 1 i r 1 I 1
, I 1 ! , I 1 , 111

Primer annealing 155°C)

y
'
l
'
111
f
l l l 1 11
'

l l
l
' ' l l l l l l 1
'
l l

Primer is added
to tube specific to want
1111 11 11 11 r r I , / / ! ,ii<-
,
region you
copied
i , , ,
, ,

Primer extension 172°C)

4
I%t ¥ "
Taq polymerase
in i ii-ri' -

After one
cyle DNA has doubled
( exponential)

repeats about 35 times

CCRRTISSPPRR
-

program able , RNA guided originating tool

in bacteria
-

Clusters of Regularly Interspersed Short Palindromic Repeats

•
orRNA binds to another RNA molecule and then the RNA set
pairs with a Cas9 protein to form a functional unit

Cas 9 has a DNA

binding domain which
along with
SgRNA
can edit DNA
↳ then you sticth remain pieces
g
?⃝
Rtheeeommbbiinnaanntt Blass mmiidd

glthl
NO
→ creates Restriction
site
Iacz
gene

R
amp origin of
B- galactosidase gene replication

→
^
{
sticky
ends

restriction site
-

, an

area
recognized by ☐a§¥¥
a restriction enzyme →

'
Bacteria does not

take up DNA
always 1111

If dont
they
Then lactose
lxgal)→ take up plasmid ,

is to the they'll die

given
bacteria If the
.

bacteria has beta galacotsidase

-

it is not recombinant , lace is

intact
 control
•

Quality mechanisms
-

see if it survived Reverse transcriptase

-

add lactose
-

see what color it turns Transcripts from cells

are taken and RT is

Gene
therapy used to turn into DNA

take cells out of Put those cells Reintroduce back

patient where → and into patient

in a
gene →
disease is introduce a
piece Hope cells endure
of DNA or
resupply
stem cells
-

undifferentiated ,
divide over and over

toti potent -
ANY cell multipotent -

becomes 1 of a type
pluripotent -

nearly any cell

Induced pluripotent -

cells reverted to stem cells

DNA
profilingtestsusing PCR and Get
Agarose to solve crimes
-

or
paternity .

Choose 20 places count how

many
→ STR's
to check there are and → compare
then check if DNA
is hetero or homo
limitations
-

probability
"
random match
"
-

don't have to
alwaysmatch
-

all arrested individuals are

required to
give sample

Blastocyst embryonic development-

,
with Toti potent
-
 →
transcripts
KMMRRNYAAD
t
mRNA > DNA RReewerrssettrraannsserrippttaas.se
sseedd
.

come ☒☒At
↳ DNA multiplied FB
→
PPCCRR uusseedd y

nnsserrtteedd
i.
iinnttoplaassmmiidd

)
Uussinnggaarresttrriiettionn
eennzzyymmeeltoolimneaarri#

←
survived
#Y
"% 80011
eoonnttrrool
ampicillin treated
P
X gal is added to
-
-

dish
see if it can be

broken down
-

turns blue if it

is broken down
-
blue mean B-galac.is
intact → non -

recombinant

Antibiotic resistance express proteins enable them

genes
→ →

to survive exposure to specific antibiotics

Amp gene → bae resistant to antibiotic ampicillin

Ensure proper plasmid formation and transformation

-
 £00333.4
AHH Ccoommmmuvnniieaattiioonn
-

cell-cell¥%¥i¥z
Direct contact
requires channels

eeH-%e4uiarggdfbapjunction.in
,

ions or small molecules

-

membrane bound
animal cells tunnels
,

Electrical synapse -

ions pass from neurons

Plasmodesmata -

plant cells
cell-cell between immune cells '

recog
-

docking lock +
Key match (Imvnecells)
-

cAMP cyclic adenosine

monophosphate
-

ligands -

non-polar ,
to
get through
membrane
•
need
ligand
Local must be received
signaling
•

Receptors are specific

-

signal is released and received

autocrine -

same cell Reception

-

paracrine between cells , molecules diffuses

-
-

Transduction -

cascade
through ECM and binds to another cell of chemical reactions
↳ chemical synapse neurotransmitter -
from where it's received
to where it's used

long distance
signalingused
-

Response
circulatory system to transport /diffusion)
-

or
↳ lipid or protein based carrier protein for
protection

Protein kinases catalyzes phosphorylation

of another in the cascade
Phosphorylation cascade
↳
target protein

Amplification -

increases
magnification of of
each step
the next
↳ one kinase can
phosphorylate a lot kinase
 Adenyly Cyclase
- -
-
-
-
-
-
GPCR
-

ligand binds to receptor

-

og -
associated WI G protein
-

hydrolyzes GTP producing

energy
-

activates adenylyl
&
cyclase
-

ATP
CAMP ( 2nd
messenger)
-

IP 3 → cat
phospholipase
-

-
C
DAG and Cat → kinases
-

Ctdenyly / cyclase) -

1st messenger → receptor → G protein →

associated w/ intracellular effector →
protein kinases →
target protein
6 protein →
hydrolyzes GTP
( GTP -
GDP) which activates
effector enzymes
Effectors produce 2nd messengers (adenylyl cyclase phospholipase c)
→
,

RTK can associate with 6 protein → cross talk .

Ligand
Autocrine
Paracrine
Hormone
Gap Junction
chemical synapse
CAMP
Adenylyl cyclase -

effector enzyme -

phospholipase
Intracellular
Extracellular
Plasmodesmata
kinase/phosphatase K adds phosphate , P removes it

receptor
 Old genetics
Kennett nominates sperm

/
$
-

contained fully
formed
genotype genetic sequence little
"
-

,
alleles "
people
phenotype -

measureable observable
heritable trait
character specific Blending inheritance
- -

different versions of a character

Trait
offspring were the
-

hybrid mixed traits result of across

-

, average between both

parents .

Mendel father of
-

genetics ( peas ]
↳
great choice ! !
mature fast ! !
short gem
Dichotomous traits
of
-
has 2
types
the character

Monoecious male -

and female in one

Mendel crossed peas with

different traits
p: parent
ft : first finial
gem from siblings
-

f2 : second finial from 2ft

gem
-

f- 3,4 , 5-
proceeding 1

homo
True
breeding parent are
-

always produce
same traits .

↳ f2 : 3 : I ratio

Independent assortment mono hybrid crossing a male

-
-

traits of diff characters

.
hybrid for one character w/
were distributed to
offspring a female that is hybrid for 1

independently character
sseggrreggaattiionnaannddAAssssoorrttmme.hn#
genes on
separate chromosomes assort independently

Punnet squares off diff for Mendelian

shows
probability crosses
-

crosses

Test cross -
finds whether it's homo or hetero
Double character cross -

to see if diff traits are independent

Aa Bb ✗ AABB
If
they were dependant the ratio equal
pgen=
,
is

Exceptions to Mendel F,
gen
Incomplete dominance diff -

versions of gene ,
no dominance
Fagen
red + white Truebreeding
/
trait
\

pink
Gene
codominance both -

are dominant / Present Allele

Blood types -

mm Hipple attendees Recessive

Is A Phenotype
B Heterozygote
::
•
Phenotype
AB Dominant

0 0
Homozygote
Epistasis multiple genes affect the
-

phenotype ,
still discreet

Not discreet phenotypes hair of

range
-
-

Polygenic many genes work together

-

Pleiotropy expressed
-

in multiple cells , many observable characteristics

 É¥%EE¥
aqueous energy 02 waste removal
Cell needs : Apical -

, , ,

favorable conditions ↳ topside ext

simple ,
layer
/
-

Basal
stratified multilayer
-

↳ -

Epithelial •

under ,

lumen
flat squamous
(
↳

[ elongated Tetterton
-

cube -
cuboidal inside tube
> -

columnar
-

absorption
Glands
exocrine release ducts
using
- -

vessels
endocrine
secreting stuff that is taken
by blood
- -

↳
long distance
Dendrites

¥¥É¥¥
Nervous axon terminal
↳ neurons
2)
glia nuaeas

communicate via %"ody

director local
-

synaptic cleft
-
neurotransmitters

connective tissue
Muscle -

↳ smooth -

along organs digestive ,

,
blood vessels
↳ skeletal
voluntary on bones eye motor
-

> ,
↳ cardiac -

heart, connected by gap junctions electrical ,

"

E/ actin
-

¥1 myosin
-

-
All tissues work
together to do a function -

Organs
!!

- we - -
bone,blood , adipose CNS enteric blood vessel , lining of

muscles nervous organs / glands, resp and

loose ,
cartilage pus
system digestive tract linings

not
reallyconnected cardiac anchor
-

gap Junctions ,
chemical
tight and/or
anchoring
smooth
gap synapse
-

varies
collagen
-

glycoproteins fluid ,
-

Fibroblasts, Chondro
6" "
osteo , adipo , erythro muscle fibers
Ieuko neurons
%
¥
£
as
A-nnimmaal Hattori # $0M
Herbivores
Omnivores
Carnivores
needs
↳
vary
Fluid feeders liquids w/ or go molecules
ingest
-

suspension feeders
ingest small organisms that are suspended
-

in water -
bacteria etc, . . .
-

filtered through mucus

Deposit feeders ingest particles of matter from solid

organic
-

material they live in or on -

worms
Bulk feeders -

consume sizeable food items

Nutrition -

process by which food is

ingested digest
, ,
absor

Ingestion
-

feeding methods
Digestion of complex molecules
splitting
-

Essential nutrient essential but can not be synthesized by org

-

↳ fat soluble store in lipids, adipose tissue -

↳ water soluble
gets excreted , storage is limited
capacity
-

Minerals elements for life

inorganic
-

Amylase -

breaks down starches

lipase breaks down fats produce 2x as much
energy
-
-

Nuclease digest nucleic acids

-

Protease -

hydrolyze proteins ←
mechanical

'
anemia
glycogen animal starch
-

↳ proteins used for nutrition

leads to muscle wastage
coenzymes non-protein organic sub-units
-
Digestive sac

and crindarians digestive

Flatworms sac
gastro vase cavity
-
=

/ for intake and waste

opening
•

Mostly intracellular digestion

Digestive tract
most inverts and Vert tubular -

digestive
extracellular in lumen
steps_
-

Mechanical processing
-

secretion of enzymes and other digestive aids

-

enzymatic hydrolysis
-

absorption
elimination anus
-

via

Route of food
mastication and chemical
-

digestion via the saliva

to the anus

stomach stores -
food and digestive
secretions
pg 1066
mucosal layer gastric pits
-
-

with
gastric glands
-

when the stomach stretches

it releases gastric juice

Chief ↳
pepsinogen
IS parietal ↳ HCl
82 Mu coos
L stomach
↳
lubricating mucus

chyme -

partially digested food + stomach juices

↳ moved the
through pyloric sphincter to the small intestine
by
peri stalls
→ smooth muscle
 Small intestine
DJ illeumrn
duodenum
jejunum
ileum

folded
lining is

↳ creates extensions

✗ intestinal villi D
↳ the epithelial cells
themselves have a

brush border
↳
plasma membrane
large intestine
has microvilli
there's a sphincter that brings food
from small to
large
cecum small pouch at junction appendix
-
-

↳ can have bacteria to break down

with colon to make an upside down U
merges
-

-
then the rectum and anal sphincter
does less absorption and digestion
-

Layers_
?
Mucosa -

absorption
submucosa -

neuron networks All parts of the

Muscular is circular and longitudinal layer whole tract
)
-

serosa -

epithelium ,
lubricates

chemical Digestion
salivary amylase starches to disaccharide maltose
Bolus is swallowed
HCl in lumen of stomach
Protein breakdown from pepsin breaks peptide bonds
PHI
-

delivered to SI lumen from

accessory organs
-

liver
] share a duct into SI
-

pancreas
-
 ↳ broken down into

monomers

Epithelial cells
lining the lumen
↳
Disaccharides break maltose
lactose , and sucrose into individual
monosaccharides

↳
Aminopeptidases hydrolyze small

peptides to individual amino acids

↳ Nucleotidase -

break nucleic acids /

liver , gall,
into nucleosides pancreas a
snare
duct

↳ lllocleosidases -

convert nucleosides to
nitrogenous bases ,
5C
and phosphates
sugars ,

* absorbed across brush border

Intracellular -

endocytosis ,
a vesicle with food combines with
lysosome
↳ contains hydrolytic enzymes

cells
Extracellular outside
body in a
pouch or tube
-

where enzymes are secreted to digest food

liver secretes bicarb and that fats

bile salts
emulsify
-

pancreas -
most of it is an exocrine
gland but some of it
secretes insulin and
↳ exo -

for lumen
glucagon
bicarb
,

↳ endo for rest of

body glucagon and insulin
-

,
n
,

Digestive material need acid to break it apart but bicarb is

-

needed to neutralize after because the mucosa in the stomach

may
not be enough to protect the lining from the

acidity

chylomicrons
-

packaged fat particles

micelles -

diffuse, endocytosis into cells

Thyroid -
Rtheessppiirraaftoorryy ssiysstteemm
medium -

air or water The surface is

-2 >
environmental source for 02 epithelial cells
↳ where CO2 is sent 02 absorbed
CO2 released

/
;÷-"
thin
needed
-

I
high surface area
-

to
→
a
for best I -

Wet
diffusion
ventilation flow of respiratory medium over external side of resp surface
-

perfusion -

flow of blood or other body fluids on internal side of

respiratory surface
-

helps keep 024 and coat

medium
Respiratory
water holds less O2 than affected and solutes
air
by temp
-

takes significantly more

energy to move

need to allow ventilation while not

Air
drying out
-

Gills > Hao and exits under Operculum

through mouth
-

countercurrent way flow

of
exchange -
one Hao
opposite way blood flow
maximizes exchange
-

02 diffuses from Hao to blood across entire

respiratory surface

when blood circles back it has a low conc .

02 flows down
gradient has a lot of 02
,
Coming in
-

deoxygenated blood goes from

8660
680 ⇐d p
favorable body to gills
blood low 02 be it is
gradient is in
-

A
Used
100 → 680 02 to blood
by cells
water
-

CO2 m -
.
Kang§
motion that forces air
positive pressure
breathing gulping
-

into the
lungs
filled ,
negative pressure breathing stretching they are stores
-
as

which can be released

to expel air , ur chest expands
energy ,

lowering pressure allowing air in

-

when 02 demand increases air is expelled forcefully

by contraction of abdominal wall and intercostal muscles
to
chest
cavity volume

A- ar Raa#to
mmoouutthh
air → → Throat/ pharynx
Mosse
moistened
warmed
filtered

larynx
cartilage/ f
tubes
[ trachea

-
epithelial
cells
µ f ,

" ÷
/→ 1
(
,
' .

'
I .
1
ngs→ '

e-
ueno veins? -
-
-
=
 Brainpregions
Medulla and PONS
breathing control
-

↳ Medulla -

changes
senses pH in or CO2 content ; regulates
rate depth of breathing
gets info from and peripheral
receptors receptors dorsal resp -

in carotid and aortic bodies

for
inspiration
neurons

↳ DONS smoothens
breathing
-

ventral -
for insp
and expo but not
Breathing can be conscious or unconscious
during quiet breath
-

Partial
high pressure
=

high concentration Poa =

pressure of
02

high
Yo hemoglobin
'
Don
-

•
protein with quarterany

I
Has 4 heme
groups
•

each has an iron atom

that combines , reversibly
oa
rich with 02

with
02 combining
-

HG decrease Po , in plasma
so more 02 to enter the blood from
alveoli
has lost 02
↳ netl.me structure • Most of the 02 in blood is

carried by HG

capillary bed

curve
changes by pH Boar effect

I
-

t affects rate of d.ssac .

iation with 02
at lower pH , high acid,

gÉ low pH 11-6 more readily releases

←
""e
body tissues 02 , reduces affinity for 02
G. have less Oa they
Awed, accept
+% Do , can it
CO2 can
change pH
diffuses out of cells into capillaries
because oxidative reactions
acidity increases release
CO2
↳ CO2 H2O
+ →
HaCOs
↳ which dissociates into
there Ht and
-

↳ is a Hcoz
bicarbonate transporter increases H+ cone .
in erythrocytes
which pulls HCO 3- out

↳ CO2 , if not converted to Hacoz

can also bind to HG

In
lungs
↳ Bicarb transporter pushes HCO -5 into cells which turns

Ha COs →
Hao + CO2
a-

get's pushed into alveolar where it

-

↳ air

↳ Coa also is expelled

released from HG

of air
Tidal volume
entering and leaving the
volume
lungs
-

during inhalation and exhalation

increases as bodies
-
needs increase

circulatory system
blood
aorta and vena cava are
highways
capillaries
-

slow speed limit side streets

and
Ventricles push blood at high
velocity to arteries
-

it slows down at muscle tissues

semi lunar valve

- -

between ventricles and arteries

 cytokines can

diffuse across
brain barrier

Blood volume -

Erythrocytes red blood cells

-
↳
Regulating Strength and
Leukocytes white blood cells rate of HB
-

↳
neutrophils
↳
Lymphocytes ↳ Barocreceplors -

project
↳
Monocytes to medulla
↳
Eosinophils ↳ chemoreceptors -
aorta

platelets -

and carotid arteries

Blood pressure -

↳ how hard the heart pumps

size of blood vessel
f sympathetic division of
↳ autonomic nervous
system
↳ how much blood ( and endocrine system
arteries can be dilated by smooth

the vessels
muscles
lining
Epinephrine -

has receptor
diversity
 →.
"

Iii
.

P
coat

oxygenated p coat
P
02 A
 mmoouutthh
air → → Throat/ pharynx
Mosse
moistened
warmed
filtered

larynx
cartilage/ f
tubes
[ trachea

-
i -

i
-

:÷÷
.

÷
.

÷
/→ 1
(

91
if capacities
/
(
.

I
\

=¥ungs→
"

' ' T
verno
I -
-
-

j%bod
cell respiration

www.oa "" "

] cells
Roar
+ Hao
Royd
mane bicarb which
used
is in
digestive "
system
"

① ①
pulmonary
lungs

oxygenated p coat
ATP from Respiration used in
digestive system
food → oral
cavity -

salivary amylase break down starches

secreted by EsaHua .

salivary glands mastication

↳ lysosome kills bacteria

<
É
← chyme
small intestine stomach esophagus
-

moved
by pharynx
(duodenum)← muscular sac more chemical by contractions
absorbs secretes dig em Processing
n
mucus
,
.
.

nutrients mucus moistened tube

Ha ,
pepsinogen
secretions
cecum
liver bile
/ store
-

can
food while
✓ other food is
gallbladder -

concentrates bile

digested pancreas proteases, amylases, lipases nuclease

-

intestine
large
concentrates feces
absorbs water
and nutrients

trectum
expulsion of feces
 * AM §
Osmolarity
metabolic water -
Hao produced during respiration

↳
Animals keep their intra and extr cellular fluids Isosmotic

Osmo conformers osmolarity matches

-

enviro
differs
Osmo regulation regulate concentration within a
range that
-

Urinary system
blood to
Renal
artery kidney
-

Renal vein -

blood to heart
Ureters connect renal pelvis of
-

kidney to the bladder

tubules
kidneys have
excretory nephrons
-
-

Urethra -

connects bladder to ext enviro

bladder -

stores urine

Nephrons anything that fits goes

-

through non selective

,
→
↳
excretory tubule 1

Filtration water enters

-
ÉÉ
proximal end of excretory Et
tubule

Reabsorption stuff moves out

]EÉ
µ
-

of tube

secretion -
stuff moves
back into tube

Excretion -

urine released
 Glomerular Filtration
by BP from blood vessels
Hao + solute move in the
glomerulus
-

to the Bowman 's capsule

↳
glomerular capillary have pores
Big enough for Hao
-

small enogh to not let blood out

reuptake valuable substances from the
Peri tubular capillaries -

proximal
tubule loop of Henle distal tubule
, ,

Glomeruls proximal tubule

→

↳
Nak pumps ions out of tubule
↳ Ct ions are drawn along with + ions

↳
glucose or amino acids are reabsorbed
↳ Hao moves out Caquaporins)

loop of Henk
Recapture water ( descending) passive osmosis
-

then reabsorb salts ( ascending) no

aqeeaporins
-
-

duets concentrate
collecting urine
-

more water is reabsorbed in distal convoluted tubule

Bhagat •* onn

kidneys need to maintain BP water balance

-

,
osmolarity pH , ,

3 systems
Auto of glomerular filtration rate
regulation
-

Hormone system RAAS

¥÷☒
1
-
-

do
Hormone system 2- AD #
- -

* sympathetic
+ pressure

kidney Renin Al >

-f ATE All
-

+ Nat
delivery
to distal tubule

t
Nat & Hao

f retention Angiotensinogen

i Blood volume
arterial
cardiac
output → A pressure C- SVR
 Glomerular filtration rate ( GFR)

keeps filtration rate constant of how much

↳
regardless
blood is
pushing into capillaries

1) Vascular control of BP
high BP , stretch of afferent arteriole detected
↳ smooth muscles contract
lining the arteriole
amount of blood to the
↳ slows
coming glomerulus
↳ vasodilation
/
G loments

2) feedback from distal convoluted tubule par t of excretory

tubule -

nephron
(JA) Juxta
glomerular apparatus detects

[
changes in salt conc . in the distal afferent -
a rival

convoluted tubule

high GFR → excess salt in

distal tubule

> sends
signal to afferent
arteriole to contract

RAAS -

Renin -

angiotensin -

aldosterone system
↳ Nat crucial for function ↳ Nat
regulates cone neuron is
necessary
-

for electro ahem

A
sweating ,
vomiting gradients
to diet

① Matt or BPL -

JA releases Renin
② Renin cleaves Angiotensin ogen ( precursor? by liver
③ makes
Ang I
④Angiotensin converting enzyme CACE ) turns Angl into Ang 11
⑤ Receptors everywhere for Ang 11
Ang11 constricts blood vessel tell
-

,
the hypothalamus to
drive water -

seeking behavior ,
tell the adrenal
gland to
make Aldosterone and tells post pit to make . .
ADH
Aldosterone -

stimulates thirst and drives Nat reabsorption

-

when you don't have enough Nat

ADH increases Hao reabsorption
-
theorems 3kt →

2 Nat ←

CNS and PNS charge potential

¥¥¥É☒
enteric nervous system f due to gradient
includes neurons and glia £, sodium potassium

integration of info
sensory pump
regulates organ system inside Mkt
negative
-
is more in

Kt channels negative
"

leak out leak keeps

"
can
- -

→
onnv
resting
-

Equilibrium potential channel

ligand gatedchannels
-
reversal potential voltage gated special -

has V
range
specific to an ion
-

electrical gradient =
chemical concentration gradient
Nernst equation Eion =

equipotential
61 constant
6£ 109€
=

E ; on =
z valence of ion
=

Ci (o =
conc of ion in ex .

C; conc of ion in intr

=
. .

Membrane permeability change

Depolarization -1 in
charge between inside and outside
decreasing -

neuron Mt

9-
hyperpolarization
"
eh neron 4-
increasing
-
-

an action potential is an electrical impulse

1) Pos
charge into cell

a) cell reaches threshold

3) faster of + charges
entry
4) drop in membrane
pot past .

resting.

Membrane potential is dominated by the ion its

most permeable to
 Nat crowd
Nauoltoge
Pg_#
Kr open
gated
µ :

¥÷
:

;É%§
Vp
Klara at
" :#
9¥ d
:

g¥Ñ* ✓
o -

t
"
mu

hyperpolarization
-

¥÷÷÷
n

vagand
.
.
• • .
+ 65 •

""
-
'

Resting
i.
-

9 Nat
.
. .

passive

r propagate
> -
if nochannels openKt
-

an action potential has to then it will continue

at terminal to
arrive axon
( bouton )
get higher till it reaches
equilibrium potential for Nat
synaptic

myelin conduction
→
saltatory
Axon terminal
neurotransmitters
↳ vesicles
containing
influx of Nat at
with the , depolarization arrives axon terminal
which then open Cav
↳ more abundant outside
↳ Ca sensors on vesicles
↳ These vesicles fuse out and exocytose out the neurotransmitters
into the
post-synaptic cell with receptors
*

TÑ*
song

?€÷¥¥¥*÷÷
""
E-•
iegandgated
channel
"
" open up
" Abundance +. . .
"
some ¥!
at

- ,

pre
↳

{÷÷ v%aa+
synapse _zgq <
→+
causes
"
¥8

Post

.÷÷É÷((
6 -

ca binds and tells vesicles

to fuse out

Synaptic exocytosis
CC / / channel
neurotransmitters
?⃝
?⃝?⃝?⃝
EPSP excitatory post synaptic potential
- -

If NT depolarizes the post-synaptic neuron

↳
towards the threshold ( Glutamate Acetylcholine )
,

IPSP
inhibitory post synaptic potential tf Nl hyper polarizes the post synaptic neuron
-

away from threshold aminobutyric) ,

↳ ( Gamma -

The location of where the hits the neuron has an effect

charge
on the neuron
reaching action potential

EPSP and IPSP can

"
sum
"
to cause a response

Dendritic arbor dendrites of the neuron

-

all the
ionotropic receptor receptors for ligand gated ion channels
-

metabotropic receptor all the other receptors pg 914

-

"
Ca -

interacts with
synaps in which allows it to be released

snare complex
-
-

NUNC 18 -

Synaptogamin
Neuromuscular junctions and contractions
Muscles -

interact with cartilage

↳ smooth
↳
cardiac
↳
skeletal -

bundles of elongted
-

,
multi nuclei cells ( muscle fibers)
↳ contain fibrils
myo
contains myosin -2 subunits head -

moves ,
tail double helix
-

→ ↳ thick filament

contains actin ↳
troponin 3 sub-unit globular protein → ↳ thin filament
-
-

↳ connected to tropomyosin -

elongated fibrous
motor neuron can send signal to muscles
 acetylcholine causes

muscle to release
cat from
sarcoplasmic reticulum
"
-

Ca binds to troponin

tropomyosin blocks
-

the
myosin binding
sites
-

it moves so that head

of can interact
myosin
with actin
ATP
myosin requires
-

to bend back and snap

power stroke
-

point used by to determine homeostatic response

set
integrater
-

stimuli sensed
by sensor in
neg feedback loop
-

Feedback mechanisms
Homeostasis -

a balance in BP nutrients for fuel 02 not too much waste

, , , ,

enough H2O , right temp

controls can be local or include many organs
regulate or conform
"

livable
"

by varies species can

-

range
Negative Feedback
stimulus -

trigger
sensor
-

detects stimulus
↳
chemoreceptor, Osmo ,
Mechano , Baro

integrator
-

receives
signal from sensor and compares to setpoint
effector -

carry out response ,

mobile or
long reaching ,
fix system
BP
regulation
cardiac output of blood vessels how much
can
regulate size
-

,
,

blood

cardiac output changes due to baro receptors in cardiac

muscle muscle , aorta, and carotid arteries
-

project to medulla BP high >

-

brain tells heart to contract

lightly
①a content detected
by chemoreceptors

Blood vessel Diameter

dilation / constriction received by smooth muscles lining the vessels
-

Immune $yyssiteemm
distinguish self from non self , defend clean tissue
damage
-
- -

Pathogen disease causing structure

-

↳ extracellular virus -

Defense mechanisms
↳ physical barriers + mucus
layers
↳ innate immune
system standard non-specific
way
-

↳
Adaptive immune
system slow
high specified response , keeps memory
-

Identifying Pathogens
pathogen may have pathogen associated molecular patterns
-
-

recognized by receptors
Toll like receptors &

↳ found in cell surface and within the cell on membrane-bound

compartments

Immune Response
Redness pain
swelling heat hemokines
→
, , ,

cytokines activate immune cells

-

Activate mattes leukocyte releases histamine > -

↳ dilated vessels so fluids go to body tissue

inflammation -

can kill
pathogens
activation of adaptive immune
system

g!÷÷n¥!÷÷te
Monocytes / Macrophages
e)developed
plasma cells and
-

into

for bone marrow

EÉÉ p÷e¥d
(
pathogen specific )

gÉ /
o
through
-

bloodstream

pathogen recog receptors

[
☐ " + Helper -1 cells Bee
" "

antigen
-

release in fl by innate immune cells

amatory signals
Dendritic cells
C. D8 t
cytotoxic T cells "
see
"

antigen presented cells

infected w/ that
circulate through bloodstream
a virus or
↳
have become cancerous
1411-011 f-
antigen presenting Activate and differentiate
•

myeloid innate
-

lymphoid -

adaptive

T-cells CD 4 + help B cells into plasma release

cytokines
- -

,
↳ activated
by antigens MCH_#
-

cD8t by MCHI
cytoxic cells sense
antigen presentation
-
-

↳
performs
↳ cause apoptosis

B- cells -

plasma cells make antibodies , which can

bind to
antigen on
pathogen
-

they can inhibit the

antigen ,
which neutrophils
can eat