Block Diagram and Transfer Function oo0 27

e-(2+s)
-S
-(2 +s) Jo
T0
1
=

- (2 + s)
3
S 2+ s
2-2s
s(s + 2)
Table 2.1. Laplace transform
f(t) F(s)
Impulse function s(t) 1

1
Unit step u(t) = 1

1
t

2
t2

t
-
1
e-at
St a

COS 0t

e 2t sin ot
(s + a) + o
S+a
e-at cos wt
(s+ a) + o

2.2.3. Properties of Laplace Transform

Some properties of Laplace transforms are given below:
1. Linearity: If F(s) = £ f (0)}
and
F,(s) = , (0))
then, £ |a f,() + b fa(t)] = a F(s) + b F,(s)
where a and b are constants
28 oOO Control Systems
2. Time delay: If £f()} = F(s) then
& f ( - 7)} =est F(s)
3. Initial value theorem: This theorem states that
limit f(t) =lim |s F(s)]
t’0

where F(s) = £ {f}

This theorem is useful to find initial value of a function.
4. Final value theorem: This theorem states that
lim ft) = lim [s F(s)]
where, F(s) = £ft)}
This theorem is useful to find final value of a function.
5. Laplace transform of differentiation:

(a) &. = sF(s) -f(0)

=sF(s) (Tf the initial value of function is zero)

(6) E =8² F(s) (If the initial value of function is zero)

dy?
6. Laplace transform of integration:
F(s)
S
for zero initial conditions
7. Laplace transform of eat f(t)
£ {eat f(t)} = F(s + a)
where F(s) is Laplace transformn of f(t)
8. Laplace transform of [t f()]:

£ [t ft)] = ds
-F(s)
where F(s) is Laplace transform of f(t).
EXAMPLE 2.3.
Find Laplace transform of:
(a) f(t) =3+ 8e2t
(b) f(t)=t- sin ot
Solution: (a) £ if()}
= £.{3 + 8e-21
=£ (3} + £ {8 e 2
11s+ 6
3, 8
S S+ 2 s (s + 2)
(b) £ f (t)}=£ {t - sin ot}
=£{t} - £ sin ot}
1 s (1 - o) + o
s(s + o)
 Block Diagram and Transfer Function O00 29
2.3. INVERSE LAPLACE TRANSFORM
The time domain function f(t) can be obtained from its Laplace transform
F(9) by a process called inverse Laplace transform. The symbol used for
inverse Laplace transform is -1,
If F(s) = £FO} then inverse Laplace transform of F(s) is given by
8-1 (F(s)} = 21 [£ f ()}] = f(t)
Table 2.1is useful toobtain inverse Laplace transform. Some illustrative
examples are given below to understand it.
EXAMPLE 2.4.
Find inverse Laplace transform of:

() F(s) = s(s + 2)
1
(ii) F(s) =
$+ 2s+2
1
Solution: () F(s) = s(s + 2)
Using partial fraction
F(s) =
s+ 2

1 2
S S+ 2

Taking inverse Laplace transformn in both sides

2
£1 (F(9)) = . s+2

1
281
s+ 2
=1- 2e-21
1
(ii) F(s) = 2s + 2s +2
1

s + 2s +1+1
1
(s + 1) + 12
Taking inverse Laplace transform
1
2[F(s)] = &
(s + 1) +12
f(t) = e sin t (Refer table 2.1)
 30 O00 Control Systems
Table 2.2. Inverse laplace transform

F(8) f(t)
1 s(t) impulse function
1

1- n > 1
n -1
1
erat

1
pat
S- a

sin ot

S
COS 0t

1
t eat
(s- a)
S+a
e-at cos Mt
(s + a) + o
e at gin ot
(s +a) + o

EXAMPLE 2.5.
Find inverse Laplace transform of
1 1 9
(a) 1+ (b)
s+3 s+4 s+9
2s
(c)
$+16
1
Solution: (a) |1+ s+3 s+4
1 1
= 1]+£1 s+3 g-1
|S+ 4
= s(t) + edt + e-4!
9 3
(b) g-1| = 39-l = 3sin 3t
s +9 s+3
 Block Diagram and Transfer Function o 31
28 = 2g-1|
(c) +16 g +4
= 2 cOs 4t

j2.4. IMPORTANCE OF LAPLACE TRANSFORM

1. It transforms time domain integral and differential equations into
algebraic equation in s domain or frequency domain.
2. Characteristic equation of a system is an algebraic equation.
3. The solution in time domain can be obtained by applying inverse Laplace
transform.
4. Initial value and final value of a function can be easily determined
by applying initial and final value theorem respectively.
5. Transfer function of a control system can only be determined using
Laplace transform.
6. Stability analysis of control system is ascertain by applying different
stability criterion which are all adhere to Laplace transform.
7. Time response of first order, second order etc., can be obtained by
applying inverse Laplace transform.
2.5. APPLICATIONOF LAPLACE TRANSFORM
A control system may pertain to electrical system, mechanical system,
hydraulic system, thermal system etc. These systems are represented by
corresponding differential equations according to the laws of the system.
For a specified input, the output of the system can be obtained by solving
the differential equation of the system.
Laplace transform of differential equation gives an algebraic equation
of s.Hence, using Laplace transform time domain differential equations are
converted to frequency domain algebraic equation.
Again time domain solution is obtained by applying inverse Laplace
transform.
EXAMPLE 2.6.
The differential equation of an electrical system is
di + 4i = 20
dt
Find Laplace transform of i taking zero initial condition.
Solution: (a) With zero initial condition

= s' I(s)
di'
di
=s I(s)
|dt
 32 QOO Control Systems

Taking Laplace transform on both sides of equation

dt
+3 + 4i =£ (20]
d2 dt

20
+3£ +4 £[i] =
d
20
s I(s) + 3s I(s) + 4I(s) =

20
(s + 3s + 4) 1(s) =
S

20
I(s) =
+3s + 4)
EXAMPLE 2.7.
An R-L-C series circuit is shown in
following figure.
i(t)
L

v(t)

Fig. 2.1.
Current i(t) flows in the circuit when a voltage v(t) is applied.
Find the voltage equation of the circuit in Laplace form.
Solution: (a) Using KVL, the voltage equation of the circuit is
di
v(t) = R i(t) + L
dt
Taking Laplace transform in both sides

(o0)= Rit)Lid
:
Vís) = £[Ri)] +&L
L dt
=RI(s)+ Ls I(s) +I(s)
Cs

=R+ Ls + I(s)
Cs

EXAMPLE 2.8. i(t) R L

W
Using Laplace transform method, find the
value of i(t) for the following R-L circuit v
and plot i(t)
Solution: (a) Using KVL, the voltage equation Fig. 2.2.
of the given circuit is expressed as
 Block Diagram and Transfer Function o ) 33

V= Ri(t) + L di
dt
aking Laplace transform in both sides, we get
£{V}= &Rit) +L di
dt
V
= £{Rit)} +L}L di
dt
= R Is) + LS Is)
=(R + Ls) I(s)

Is) =
s(R + Ls)
V 1
R)
L

V1 1 |,L
R
L
V1 1
RIs R
S+ L

i(t) =-l I (s)]

V1 1 1

RIs R
S + +
L

1-e

The plot of i(t) versus t is shown in Fig. 2.3.

i(t)
t
Fig. 2.3.

2.6. TRANSFER FUNCTION

The transfer function of a control system is defined as the ratio of Laplace
transform of output to the Laplace transform of input taking all initial conditions
as zero.
 34 OOO Control Systems

C(s)
G(s) =
R(s)
where G(s) = transfer function
C(s) = Laplace transform of output c(t)
R(s) = Laplace transform of input r(t)
The transfer function represent the input-output relationship of acons.
system. It is Applicable to linear time invariant systems only. The trane
function does not provide any information about the physical nature of
sTstem. An electrical system anda mechanical system governing gam
differential equation, have same transfer function. Different systems havin
Same transfer function are known as analogous system.
Let us consider a linear time invariant system with
output c(t) related by a nth order differential equation input r(t) and
as given below:
d"c(t)
dyn-1 + .. + a,, c(t)
d"r(t) rt)
+ b dym-1 + ... + b, r(t)
dtm
where ao ay..a, and bo b...b,, are constants.
Taking Laplace transform of both side with zero initial
(an s + a, s-l + .. + a,) C(s)
condition we get
= (b, sM + b, sm-l + .. + b,) R(s)
The transfer function of the system is
given by
C(s)
G(s) =
R(s)
+... bm
ao s + a s+... + b,
Case I: If m = n, the transfer function is
Case II: If m > n, the transfer proper
function is improper
Case III: If m < n, the transfer
function is strictly proper
Numerator and denominator of transfer function are
variable s. The highest power of s in the denominator polynomials of
is known as order of the of a transfer function
system.
For examples;
5
(i) G(s) = s+3 IS a 1st order system.
2s +1
(ii) G(s) =
5s + 4s +8 is a 2nd order system.
2.6.1. Properties of Transfer Function
(i) Transfer function is valid
only for linear time invariant
(ii) A initials
conditions are taken as zero while systen.
function. obtaining transfer
(iii) Transfer function does not
depend on input of the system.
 Block Diagram and Transfer Function o 00 35
(iv) Transfer function does not reveal any idea about the physical nature
of the system.
() Transfer function cannot be defined for
non-linear system.
2.6.2. Procedure to Find Transfer
Function
(i) Write the differential equations for the
given system.
(ii) Find the Laplace transform of the differential equation assuming
zero initial conditions.
(ii)Find the ratio of Laplace transform of output to Laplace transform
of input.
iu) This ratio is transfer function of the system.
EXAMPLE2.9.
Find the transfer function of circuit shown in the following Fig. 2.4.
(BTE, Delhi; 2013)
R
W

Fig. 2.4.
Solution: () The differential equations describing the system are to be
written.
This is achieved by applying KVL to mesh (1) and mesh (2).
Applying, KVL to mesh (1) gives:
di
V, =Ri+L
dt
Applying KVL to mesh (2) gives:
di
=

dt
(i)Taking Laplace transform of above equation with zero initial conditions,
we get
V,(s) = RI(s) + LS I(s)
V, (s) = LS Is)
(iii) Transfer functioning is Laplace transform of output to input.
Vo(s)
G(s) = V,()
Ls I(s)
RI(s) + Ls I(s)
Ls.I(s)
(R+ Ls) I(s)
Ls
= R+ Ls
 36 OO Control Systems
EXAMPLE 2.10.
R
Find transfer function of the circuit shown
W
in following figure and determine the order
of the system.
Solution: (a) Applying KVL to mesh (1), we get

Rifide Fig. 2.5.

Applying KVL to mesh (2), we get

Laplace transform of above equation gives

1
V,(s) = RI(s) + Cs I(s)
1
V,(s) = I(s)
Cs
Transfer function = Gs)
1
V,(s) I(s)
Cs
V(s) R I(s) +
1
I(s)
Cs
1
I(s)
Cs
R+
Cs
1
1
Cs
R+
1 RCS + 1
Cs
The highest power of s in denominator of transfer function is one. So,
it is a first order system.

EXAMPLE 2.11.
Find the transfer function of an electric circuit shown in following
figure and determine the order of the system.
R L
W 0000

Fig. 2.6.
Solution: (a) Differential equation obtained by applying KVL to loop ()
and (2) are
di
V, = R.i+L
dt
 bloCk Diagram and Transfer Function o 0 37

Taking Laplace transforms we get

V,(s) = R I(s) + Ls I(s) + 1 I(s)
C&
1
V,(s) = Cs
I(9)

V,(9)
ransfer function G(s) =
V,(9)
1
Cs
I(s)
1
R I(s) + Ls I(s) + I(s)
Cs
1
Cs I(s)
1
R+ Ls + I(s)
Cs

Cs
1
R+ LS +:
Cs
1

LCs + RCs +1
It is a 2nd order system.
EXAMPLE2.12.
Find the transfer function of the given network.
R

Fig.2.7. [BTE, Delhi-2013]

Solution: (a) Differential equation obtained by applying KVLto loop 1 and
2 are

= Ri+ + R, i
dt
di
+R i
dt
Taking Laplace transform of above equation, we get
V(s) = RI(s) + Ls I(s) + R, I(s)
V,(s) = Ls I(s) + R, Is)
Transfer function of network
38 O0Ø Control Systems
Laplace transform of output
Laplace transform of input
V,(s)
V,(s)
Ls l(s) + R, l(s)
RI(s) + Ls I(s) + R, I(s)
(Ls + R,) I(8)
(Ls + R+ R,)1(s)
Ls+ R
Ls+ R+ Ry
EXAMPLE 2.13.
Determine the transfer function of the given network.
R

Fig. 2.8.
Solution: Applying KVL, we obtain

e;= Ri+ Ryi+fidt

The Laplace transforms of above equation are

1
E(s) = R I(s) +Rl(s) + I(9)
Cs

E,(s) = R, Is) +Cs I(s)

Transfer function= E,()
E, (s)
1
Rt I(s)
Cs

I(s)
Cs
1+ R,Cs
1+(R + R,)Cs
EXAMPLE 2.14.
and output y(t) 15 3
The dynamic of a system with input x(t)
by the following differential equation.
 Block Diagram and Transfer Function o00 39

dy,dy + 5y = 3 dx
de? dt + 4x
dt
Findthe transfer function of the systenm.
Solution: The differential equation is
d'y, dy + 5y =
3dx
+ 4r
di? dt dt
Taking Laplace transform of both sides, with zero initial condition, we
get
2 Y(s) + s Y(s) + 5 Y(s) = 38 X(s) + 4X(s)
or (s² + s+ 5) Y(s) = (3s + 4) X(%)
Y(s)
Transfer function =
X(s)
3s + 4

EXAMPLE2.15.
Derive the transfer function of an electric network shown in
Fig. 2.9.

R
e,{t) eo(t)

Fig. 2.9.
Solution: The current in different branches of network are indicated in the
following Fig. 2.10.

HWWe
W
ij R
e(t) Ra e,()

Fig. 2.10.
From the above i=i, t ig .(i)

e,0) - e,() =iR, = dt ..(ii)

e,(t) = R, i+ ...(üi)
 40 oOO Control Systems
Taking Laplace transform of above equations, we get
I(s) = ,(s) + I, (s)
Iz(8)
E,(s) - E, (s) = R, , (s) = Cçs
1
E,(s) = R, + I(s)
Cy8
1
Ro t |Z, (9) +14())
Cg8

Cps (9) +R,Cs lh(s)]

[Substituting of value of I, from
1
equation (o
= |R, + (1 + &CGs) I(s)
Dividing equation (v) by equation (vi), we get
Ei(s) - Eo (s) Rl (s)
E, (s) 1
Ry t (1+ RCs). I (s)
Cos
RC s
(1 + R,Czs) (1 + RCs)
R,C s. E,(s)
Or, E,(s) - B,(8) = (1+ R,Czs) (1 +
RC;s)
E;(s) = R,C, s. E, (s) + E, (s)
(1+ RCs) (1 + RyCs)

E,(s)
(1+ R,Chs) (1 + R,Czs)
E,(9) RC, s+ (1 + RCs) (1 + R,Cs)
(1 + RCs) (1 + R,Czs)
E, (s)
Transfer function =
E; (s)
(1 + RCs) (1 + RCs)
RCys + (1 + RCs) (1 + RyCys)
2.6.3. Poles and Zeros and Characteristic Equation of Transfer Function
Transfer function of a linear control system can be expressed 1n
form of quotient with numerator and denominator having polynomia
C(s) + ... t an ...)
R(s) bhs + bs + ... + bm
 BIock Diagram and Transfer Function o 0 41
The numerator and denominator can be factorised into n-terms and
m-term respectively,

C(s) K(s -- z) (s - 2,)... (s -Z,) ...()

R(s) (s - P)(s - P)... (s - Pp)

where k = 1s known as gain factor of transfer function.

1. Poles of transfer function: Pole of a transfer function is defined

the value of s which when substituted in the denominator of transfer
function, makes the value of transfer function infinity (o).
Consider equation (ü)
When s = P, P ... Pm, the denominator is zero gives values of transfer
function infinity. So, P P, ... P are poles of transfer function.
Number of poles = P=m
2. Zero of transfer function: Zero of a transfer function is defined
9s the value of s which when substituted in the numerator of transfer
funetion makes the value of transfer function zero.
Consider equation (i)
transfer
When S = Z1 .. Z, the numerator is zero and values of
function are zero.
transfer function.
So, Z1, Z, ... Z,, are called zeros of
Number of zero = Z = n
If z<p, then number of zero at infinity is P -z
Similarly, if P< 2, then of poles at infinity is 2 - P.
of a transfer
3. Characteristic Equation: Characteristic equationdenominator of
function is defined as the equation obtained by equating
transfer function to zero value.
Consider equation (i).
Characteristic equation is given by
...)
b,s" +b,s"- + b,s- +... m =0
EXAMPLE 2.16.
equation of transfer function
Find gain, poles, zeros and characteristic
of a system given by
C(s) 10(s - 1)
R(s) (s+ 1) (s + 4s + 4)
Solution: () Gain of T.F. =10
() Zero of transfer function
(s - 1) = 0 + s=1
i* Zero of transfer function is 1
Number of finite zero = z = 1
42 oOO Control Systems
(i)) Pole of transfer function
(s + 1) (s + 4s + 4) = 0
(s + 1) (s + 2)2 = 0
s =-1, = - 2, - 2
Transfer function has three poles at - 1, - 2, - 2. So there is a
pole at - 2. doubl,
.. Number of finite pole = P=3
(iv) 2< P, therefore no. of zero at infinity is
P-z= 3-1= 2
.:. The transfer function one zero at s =1
Two zero at s = co and three poles at s = -1, s =- 2 and s 9
(u) Characteristic equation of transfer function is
(s + 1) (8 + 4s + 4) = 0
_ß + 48 + 4s + g + 4s + 4 =0
sß + 58 + 8s + 4 = 0
5. Plot of pole zero in s-Plane: s is a complex variable and is
by given
S =O t j0
where o is real part of s and jo is imaginary part of s. Real part o:
represented by x-axis and imaginary part jo is represented by y-axis. Polec
and zero of a transfer function are points plotted on s-plane. The plot t
poles is indicated by X symbol and plot of zero is indicated by 0 symbol
in s-plane.
EXAMPLE 2.17.
Plot the poles and zero of transfer function
C(s) 20 (s - 2) (s + 2)
R(s) s(s + 1) (s +4)
Solution: Zeros are obtain for equatiing numerator to zero.
’ 20(s - 2) (s + 2) = 0
s = 2, s =-2
(i) Transfer function has two zero, at s = 2 and s =- 2
(iü) Poles are obtained by equating denominator to zero.
.:. s(s t 1) (s + 4) = 0
S= 0, s =- 1, s =- 4
The transfer function has three poles at
S = 0, S =- 1, s = - 4
(iü) The plot of poles and zeros of transfer function in s-plane is showt
in Fig. 2.11.
 BlOck Diagram and Transfer Function o00 43
jo 4
4

1+

-4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4
-1

-2

-4

Fig. 2.11. Plot of poles and zero of transfer function in s-plane

EXAMPLE 2.18.
The transfer function of a system is
C(s) 1 (s+9) (1 +0.5s)
R(s) 4 (s + 4) (1+ 0.2s)
Plot the pole zero of transfer function and find the value of
transfer function at s = 1,
Solution: (i) Zeros are obtained by equating numerator to zero.
( + 9) (1 + 0.5s) = 0
s + 9 = 0, (1 + 0.5s) = 0
1
2 = - 9, s = 0.5

s = J9, s=-2
s =±j3, s = - 2
The transfer function has three zero at
s =#j3 and s =- 2
() Poles are obtained by equating denominator to zero.
(s + 4) (1 + 0.2 s) = 0
s' + 4 = 0. 1 + 0.2s = 0
1
s = -4, s = 0.2
S =# j2, s = 5
So, the transfer function has three poles at
8 =+ j2, s =- j2 and s =- 5
(22) The pole zero plot is shown in Fg. 2.12.
 44 OOO Control Systems
jo

3
2*
1
-5 4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 4 5

-1

-2 *

Fig. 2.12. Pole zero plot

(iv) Value of transfer function at s = 1is calculated below:
C(s) 1(s +9) (1+0.5s)
R(s) 4 (s+ 4) (1 + 0.2s)
1 (1+9)(1+0.5)
4 (1+4) (1+0.2)
1 10x1,5
4 5x1.2

yl5 15
4 6 24
6. Transfer Function From Pole-Zero Plot: Transfer function of a
system can be also obtained if the pole-zero plot of the system in s-plane
is known. The following steps are to be adopted for this purpose.
Step 1: Find the zeros z,, Zo, Zo.. from the plot. The numerator of
transfer function is
= K(s - Z,) (s Z,) (s - Z,)
where K is gain of transfer function.
Step 2: Find the poles P,, P, Pa ... from the plot. The denominator if
transfer function is
= (s - P) (s - P) (s - P) ..)
Step 3: The ratio of (i) to (iü) will give transfer function
C(s) K (s Z) (s -Z) (s - Zz) ...2)
R(s) (s - P)(s - P,)(s P;)
Step 4: Gain K can be obtained if value of transfer function is known
for any value s = S.
Step 5: Substituting value of Kin equation (iii) and simplifying gives
the required transfer function.
EXAMPLE 2.19.
The pole zero plot of a transfer function shown in Fig. 2.l3.
value of transfer function at s = 1 is 4. Determine the transfe
function of the system.
 Block Diagram and Transfer Function o00 45
jo 4

-4 -3 -2

Fig. 2.13. Pole zero plot

salution: From the pole zero plot, it is evident that there is one zero Z
=-2and poles
P, =0, P, =- 3, P, =-4
Transfer function is
C(s) K(s - Z)
R(s) (s- P) (s - P)(s -P;)
K [s -(-2)]
(s 0) {s-(-3)} {s -(-4)}
K (s + 2)
s (s + 3) (s + 4)
For s = 1, the transfer function has a value of 4
K (s + 2) = 4
s(s +3) (s +4)
K(1+3) = 4
1(1+3) (1+4)
4
K. =4
20
K= 20
the
the required transfer function of
So, by substituting value of K,
system is
20 (s + 2)
C(s)
R(s) s(s + 3) (s + 4)

OF MECHANICAL SYSTEM
2.7. TRANSFER FUNCTION
mechanical system namely, translational and
ere are twotypes of linear mechanical system, differential
find transfer function of
Totational, To Newton's second
governing the system are to be deduced by using
alon
law of motion and D'Alembert's principle.
2.7.1. Translation System astraight
linear translational system takes place in These are
ne motion of a forces which resists the
motion.
line, There are three types of
and spring force.
intertiaforce, damping force
46 0OO Control Systems
(a) Inertia Force: Consider a body of mass M.According to
second law of motion, the inertia force f. is proportional to
is given by
1p, = Ma
Newton'andas
acceleration
M
du
- M M
dt di2
where a =acceleration Fig. 2.14.
U= velocity
x= displacement
(6) Damping Force: It is a frictional force and hence always
acts :in
the opposite direction of motion. For a viscous friction, damping force
proportional to velocity and is given by
dx
in = D.u= D dt
where fn =damping force
D
U= velocity
Fig. 2.15. Dash pot
x = displacement
representing D
D= damping coefficient
The damping coefficient is represented by a dashpot consisting of cylinden
and piston as shown in Fig. 2.15.
(c) Spring Force: A spring behaves linear characteristic for small
displacement. It stores potential energy. So spring force is a restoring force
which is proportional to displacement and is expressed by
where f; =restoring force of spring 0000
x =displacement
Fig. 2.16. Spring force
k= spring constant or stiffness of spring
which unit is N/m
The spring force associated with a spring is depicted in the Fig. 2.16.
2.7.2. Rotational System
The rotational motion of a body is due to the rotation of the body about
a fixed axis. Thereare three torques which resist rotational motion. These
are inertia torque, damping torque and spring torque.
(a) Inertia Torque: Consider a body of inertia J. Inertia torque is
proportional to angular acceleration and is given by
T; =Ja
dw
= J J
dt d?
where 1; =inertia torque
J= inertia of body Fig. 2.17. Representation o
inertia torque
a =angular acceleration
w = angular velocity
e = angular displacement
 Block Diagram and Transfer Function oOO 47
(6) Damping Torque: It is the product of damping coefficient and
angular velocity.

de
= D.
di
where T, =Damping torque
D= damping coefficient
(c) Spring Torque: It is the product of torsional stiffness and angular
displacement.
I; = K.0
where K = stiffness
T, = spring torque
We observe the system of equations governing translational motion and
rotationalmotion are similar. Hence, these two system are analogous system.
The analogy between translational and rotational mechanical system is
given in table:
Table 2.3. Analogy between translational and rotational mechanical system
Translational system Rotational system
Force f Torque T
Acceleration a Angular acceleration .
Velocity v Angular velocity o
Mass m Inertia J
Damping coefficient D Rotational damping coefficient D
Stiffness k Torsional stiffness k

2.7.3. D'Alembert's Principle

This principle is used to write the equations of motion of a mechanical
system.
D'Alembert's principle states that for any body'
the algebraic sum of externally applied forces and
0000
resisting forces in any given direction is zero. K D
A reference direction is choosen. The forces in
this direction are taken as positive and in opposite
direction are taken as negative.
M
Considera simpletranslational system consisting
of a mass M, spring and dash pot as known in the
F
hgure. This system is subjected to an external
force F. Fig. 2.18. A typical
translational system
The forces resisting F are:

Inertia force - M
dy?
48 oO0 Control Systems

dx
Damping force dt
Spring force FK=- K
According to D'Alembert principle
F+ E+ E, + E7 =0
-Kx =0
d

dr
F= M + Kx
dt
Consider a rotational system shown in Fig. 2.19. It is subjected to
external torque 7.
The resisting torques acting on the system are
J
Inertia torque d?

Damping torque T,= -D

dt
Spring torque Fig. 2.19. Rotational
According to D'Alembert's principle system
T+ T; + Tp + 7; = 0
or T -J
de de
- K0 = 0
- D
dt
de
Or
dy2
-+ KO
dt

2.7.4. Transfer Function

Necessary differential equations of the mechanical system are derived

with the help of D'Alembert's principle. Laplace transform of the equations
obtained. The ratio of Laplace transform of desired output to Laplace
transform of input is the transfer function of the mechanical system.
EXAMPLE 2.20.

Find the transfer function X(s) for a mass, spring and dashpot
F(s)
system shown in figure 2.18.
Solution: The differential equation of the system is
d'x dx
F= M D + kx (See art 2.7.3.)
dt dt
Taking Laplace transform a both sides,
F(s) = MS x (s) + DS x (s) + K X(s)
= (M^' + DS + K) X(s)
.:. Transform function X(s) 1
F(s) MS + DS + K
 Block Diagram and Transfer Function
O00 49

EXAMPLE2.21.

Determinethe transfer function (8) for a rotational system shown

T(s)
infigure 2.19,
Solution:TThe differential equation representing the system 13
T= J +D. + K9 (See art 2.7.3.)
di? dt
Taking Laplace transform of both side of the equation, we get
T(s) = JS' e(s) + DSO(s) + KO(s)
8(s) 1
Transfer function
T(s) JS' + DS + K
EXAMPLE2.22.
Write the transfer function of system shown in Fig. 2.20.

7 Kg
x(t)
Fig. 2.20. (BTE Delhi-2014)
Solution: The differential equation of the system is
M dx dx
F= +D + Kx
dt' dt
where M=mass = 7 kg
D= Damping coefficient of dash pot = 2
K=Stiffness of spring = 5
dx
F=7 +2 + 5x
dt' dt
Taking Laplace transform,
F(s) = 7 s² x (s) + 2s X(s) + 5 X(9) -(7s + 2s + 5) Xs)
X(s) 1
Transfer function =
F(s) 7s +2s +5
2.8. THERMOMETER

tcontThermometureer of a body. Consider tub

is a device used to measure
emperatameasured
ining with the help
water which temperature
a
is to
of a mercury
theathermofometeinr. the water, the mercury gets
Immersed
When the thermometer is
the water and rises thusindicating
the temperature. Fig. 2.21.
 50 OOO Control Systems

The rise of mercury level depends on heat flow from the

mercury present inthermometer. The rate of heat flow depends on water to the
difference and thermal resistance where as rate of temperature
on thermal capacitance.
Let 1; = temperature of water
triseempedependratur
T, =temperature indicated by thermometer
R= thermal resistance
C= thermal capacitance
q = heat flow
The equation of rate of heat flow to the thermometer is
dq T; -1
dt R
The equation of rate of temperature rise in thermometer is
dT, 1dq
dt Cdt
Taking the Laplace transform of above equation governing the thermal
system we get,
T{(9) - T,(s)
s Qs) =
R

I(s) = Q)
Q(s) = CT,()
Substituting value of Q9) in equation (iüi) will give
T(3) T,(s)
s.CT,(s) = R
RCs T,() =T{s) T,(s)
RCs T,(s) +T,(s) = T{s)
(RCs + 1) T{s) = T(S)
Transfer function of thermometer

T,(8) 1 1
T(9) 1+ RCs 1+sT

where T=time constant

For aunit step input, T(s) =

1
T,(s) = 1+ RCs s
RC
S 1+ RCs
The time response of the system is obtained by taking inverse Lapla
transform
RC
T,0 = g 1+ RCs
 Block Diagram and Transfer Function o0 51

RC
1+ RCs
= 1-g-1| 1
S+
RC
T
-t

=1-eRC
T,(t)
T,(t) = 1 RC 1-e7 t
Fig. 2.22. Time response of
The time constant T. thermometer
The time response of this system for a unit
stepinput is shown in Fig. 2.22.
EXAMPLE 2.23.
A
thermometer has a time constant of 10 seconds. It is guickly taken
from 0°Cto a water bath having a temperature of 100°C. What
temperature willbe indicated by the thermometer after 45 seconds.
Solution: Thermometer is subjected to a step input 100°C
100
T;(s) =
T(s) 1
Transfer function = 1+sT
T(s)
1 100
Th(s) = 1+sT .T;($) = s(1 + sT)

T() = 1001-7=
= 1001-e l5

= 95°C
is 95°C.
Temperature indicated by thermometer after 45 sec
2.9. BLOCK DIAGRAM
of a control sytem. Each element
Block diagram is a pictorial representation each
and block is characterised by
IS represented by a separate block element of a control
transfer function of the element. Let us consider
input and output of element
System having transfer function Gs). If the
element
are A(s) and Y(s) respectively, then thisFig. 2.23.
S Tepresented by a block as shown in X(s) G(S)
Input X(s) is given to the block by a straight Representation of an
line with an arrow head and output Y(s)withis Fig. 2.23.element by a block
taken out of the block by another st.Thelineoutput
row head asindicated in the figure. G(s) offthe block and
Y(s) is the product of input X(s) and transfer function
lS given by equation
Y(s) = G(s) X(s)