03 Structural Analysis and Modelling

STRUCTURAL
DESIGN
Master’s degree in
Buildings Engineering
STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS POLITECNICO DI TORINO

Department of Structural, Geotechnical
AND MODELING
and Buildings Engineering
(DISEG)
Diego GINO, PhD

diego.gino@polito.it
Analysis and
structural models
Structural design - Diego Gino

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS AND MODELING 2
2
Types of structural analysis
Structural analysis is a mathematical procedure, based on a structural model (mathematical

idealization), that allow to determine the effect of the actions within a structure or structural
member (i.e., structural response) (e.g., stresses, displacements, internal actions MEd, VEd,
NEd, etc…)
In general, the structural analysis can be performed according to and combining the
following assumptions:
 first-order analysis  linear elastic analysis

The analysis and the equilibrium are The analysis is carried out assuming
evaluated assuming the structure with materials with linear elastic behaviour
its un-deformed shape (assumption of
small displacements)
 second-order analysis  non-linear analysis

The analysis and the equilibrium are The analysis is carried out assuming
evaluated assuming the structure with materials with their actual non-linear
its deformed shape (also denoted as P- behaviour (also denoted as
delta analysis or geometrically non- mechanically non-linear analysis)
linear, big displacements)

3
Focusing on the structural analysis of RC and steel structures, in line with the NTC18 and
EN1992, the following methods may be adopted:
 Linear elastic analysis Linear elastic analysis

(NTC18, EN1992)
 Plastic analysis
 Linear elastic analysis based on elasticity
 Non-linear analysis theory (first-order analysis) can be used for
both serviceability limit states (SLS) and
ultimate limit states (ULS)
 With the aim to determine the effects of the

actions, the linear elastic analysis should be
carried out under the following assumptions:
o Un-cracked cross section properties (RC)
o Linear stress-strain law for materials
o Using the mean value of the Young’s

modulus Ecm(28 days) (RC), Es (Steel)

4
Note: concerning the structural analysis for ultimate limit states (ULS) only, the
following effects should be accounted for:
 geometrical imperfections (e.g., deviations from verticality of columns)
 second-order effects (when are relevant in case of slender members in presence

of axial loads, i.e., slender columns)  relevant for steel structure, less for RC

5
Structural idealization
Structural idealization is a process in which an actual structure and the loads acting
on it are replaced by simpler models for the purpose of analysis.
To make analysis less cumbersome, structures are represented in simplified forms. The choice of
an appropriate simplified model is a very important aspect of the analysis process, since the
predictive response of such idealization must be the same as that of the actual structure.
Structural elements are classified according to their nature and function for buildings:
 Beam
Element with a width not less than 3 times the height of the cross section
 Column
Element with cross-section height not exceeding 4 times the base of the section and height
of the element not less than 3 times the height of the section
 Slab
(element with a minimum width of not less than 5 times the total thickness)
In the case of uniformly distributed loads, it may be considered to be load-bearing in only
one direction (one-way) if:
a) has two free edges not supported and significantly parallel

b) it is the central part of a significantly rectangular plate, constrained on four sides, with a
greater and lesser ratio between the lights greater than 2
6
The actual structural members are represented in their idealization (i.e., structural
model) with elements located and aligned along the centroid (G) of the related
cross-section
G
Centroid H

7
 Idealization of framed structures
2D 3D
In general, only the 3D or 2D frames are modelled. The floor systems stiffness is accounted for by
appropriate constraints conditions.

8
 Idealization of floor systems (one way)
L L
Working
direction
Typically, simply supported or continuous beams models oriented in the working direction of the
are uses defining the appropriate cross section (follow the load path!!)

9
The structural idealization consist also in the right identification and modelling of:
 loads
Loads coming from the floors

(load path analysis) are
directly applied to the beams
of the model

10
 restraints between the members and foundations
 STEEL FRAMES
Nodes: typically, we
have hinged connections
Floor bracing systems: in

general floors are not rigid in
their plane
Wall bracing systems: need to

carry horizontal actions

11
 3D RC FRAMES
Rigid body constrain

between the 4 nodes
of each field to
simulate presence of
rigid floors in their
plane
Nodes: typically, we
have full restrained
connections

12
Building Information Modeling (BIM) is based on a holistic view of a structure’s life cycle;
this includes the initial idea and design planning (architect, building owner), the detailed
design and final planning (engineers), and the building’s operation and demolition.
Structural models can be

derived from BIM, but
pay attention in which
way the structural
idealization is performed!!
It is impossible to infer the
structural model from the pure
geometry information of a BIM
model without the intervention
of a qualified structural
engineer.

13
In general, a RC and steel structures have a high degree of complexity:
 the structure is always three-dimensional 3D, but can be simplified in 2D sub-systems
 it is composed by various systems (floors, main and secondary beams, columns,

walls, cores, foundations, non-structural elements, truss systems, bracings...) that are
connected and interact to resist the applied actions:
- in RC structures, connections are, in general:
i. full restraints (monolithic frame system)
- in steel structures, connections are, in general
i. hinges (pendulum systems)

ii. full restraints (frame systems with appropriate connections)

14
 RC structures
Rigid frame
Full restraints

15
 Steel structures
i)
Hinges
Pendulum system Bracing system
ii) Rigid frame
Full restraint
Hinge Hinge

16
In order to simplify the analysis, a
sufficiently regular three-dimensional frame
structure can be divided into floor fields
(analyzed independently) and into a series
of 2D frames considered independent of
each other. If gravitational loads are then
considered, this 2D frame can be further
simplified into sub-frames or continuous
beams.

17
This way of operating, in the age of computers and finite element programs
(FEM), may seem obsolete  In fact, it can be tempting to entrust the analysis
in its entirety to the calculation programs, seeing them as "black boxes" and
blindly believing in the results obtained.
However, even postulating the correctness of the calculation programs, it must

always be remembered that the more complicated the models become, the
more the user has to enter a large number of input data, which obviously
determines the output results.
An error in the introduction of input data, be it conceptual or simply typing, can

have disastrous consequences.
Therefore, approximate and hand-calculation methods are needed that allow a

quantitative control of the results of the analysis, in order to intercept significant
errors in the generation of the calculation model (and / or in the introduction
and combination of loads), increasingly likely as the complexity of the model
itself increases.

18
Numerical
analysis

19
FEA & FEM
The Finite Element Analysis (FEA) is the simulation of any given physical phenomenon
using the numerical technique called Finite Element Method (FEM)
The Finite Element Method is a numerical procedure for solving (partial) differential
equations, with an accuracy acceptable to engineers
To solve a problem, the domain is divided into an equivalent system of smaller bodies or
units (finite elements), interconnected at points common to two or more elements (nodes
or nodal points): the discretization of the structure is called “mesh”
The method approximates the unknown function over the single finite element with
predefined functions  in general the unknowns of the problem are the nodal
displacements; the piecewise approximation provides good precision even with simple
approximating functions
In this way, the differential equations system is transformed in a set of linear or nonlinear
algebraic equations that can be solved to find the values of the unknowns

20
21
Types of finite elements
Truss (or bar) elements
 DOF: ux-uy-uz
 Element output: axial force (Fx)
 Additional input: cross section area (A)
 Use for structural modelling:

- truss systems (steel structures)
- truss bracing systems (steel structures)
- bridge engineering  suspenders, stay cables

22
Beam (or frame) elements
 DOF: ux-uy-uz-rx-ry-rz
 Element output: axial force (Fx), torsion (Mx), 2
bending moments (My, Mz), 2 shear forces (Fy, Fz)
 Additional input: cross section properties (A, Iz, Iy,
effective shear area, Ix (torsional))

- structural elements subjected to bending, shear
and axial force (beams, columns in both RC
and steel structures)

23
24
25
26
Shell elements
 DOF: ux-uy-uz-rx-ry-rz
 Element output: 8 internal actions (integral of
tension in figure)
 Additional input: thickness (t)
 Use for structural modelling: Internal actions

- 2D structures (two-way slabs, plates, walls) per unit length
(kN/m, kNm/m)

27
2D elements (plane stress)
 DOF: ux-uy (in the plane of the element)

 Element output (plane stress): σx, σy, τxy
 Additional input: thickness (t)

- local models, simplified model

28
3D elements (brick)
 DOF: ux-uy (in the plane of the element)

 Element output: full stress tensor σx, σy, σy, τxy, τxz, τyz
 Additional input: -

- massive structures (e.g., foundations, dams…)

29
Link elements
 Link elements: 0D elements used to connect 2 different nodes or 1 node

and the ground and to capture particular Linear or Non-Linear behavior
(Rigid, Multi-Linear Elastic, Multi-Linear Plastic, Damper, Gap, Hook,
Contact, Rubber Isolators, Friction Isolators, …)
 Element output: relative displacement between the nodes and forces
exchanged between the connected body
 Additional input: depend on the link type

- rigid connection between the centroid of finite elements of different nature
- seismic isolation

30
Constrains, restraints and releases
 Constraints: are conditions imposed to one or more nodes of the mesh (e.g., rigid body to
simulate rigid floors)
Constraint: body
Restraint: hinge /
full restraint
Full Hinge Roller
 Restraints: are used to fix the degrees of freedom of an edge node (external reststraints)
 Releases: are used to release degrees of freedom between two internal nodes of the mesh
(e.g., creation of an internal hinge  internal restraints)

31
Example of RC system: use of shell elements combined to beam elements
RC core: shell elements
RC frames
(beams and
columns): beam
elements
Full restraint with

foundations Remember:
- rigid floor constraints
- connections between
members (full restraint)

32
Example of STEEL system: use of beam elements combined to truss elements
Frames: beam elements
Bracings: truss
elements
Hinge
connection
(release)
Full restraint or
hinge connection
with foundations
Remember:
- floor not rigid  need for floor bracings
- connections (full restraint in rigid frames,
hinges in pendulum frames  need for
wall bracings)

33
Which element type should be used?
It depends on what you are looking for: FEA and FEM are tools to get the answers,
but the answer depends on the question; if the question is wrong, the answer will
be wrong too:
- If we want to design a structure (evaluate a reinforcement, a resistance, define a

tendon layout, ecc) it’s easy manage truss or beam elements, is more difficult
manage 2D/shell elements, it’s impossible manage 3D elements
- If we want to validate simpler model, we can use 2D/3D/shell elements as we

don’t use the result to design. Usually we consider few load conditions and
compare the displacements, transverse deformation, eigenmodes with the results
of the simpler model
- If we want to evaluate local stress, maybe even in non-linear filed, we can use
2D/3D/shell elements considering sub-models loaded at the boundary with the
internal action evaluated with a simpler model

34
In any case, you should know the expected structural behavior and the magnitude
of some results (internal actions, reactions, ecc) before to run the analysis
In general, we should consider many models with increasing complexity, using the
simpler one to understand the structural behavior and the magnitude of the
interesting output

35
A similar argument can be made for the sizing of the sections and the calculation of
the relative reinforcements  this can also be done automatically, but criteria are
needed to control the results obtained.
As a general rule, before building a calculation model, you must understand:
 how the structure works (load paths analysis)
 identify the order of magnitude of the internal actions and their reinforcements
with hand calculations
 first create simple models with which to understand the behavior of the
structure, and then eventually move on to increasingly complex models (e.g.,
full 3D or spatial)

36
Advantages of FEA:
- Can easily handle complex geometry
- Can handle complex analysis types (vibration, transients, nonlinear, heat

transfer, fluids)
- Can handle complex loading distributions (point loads, pressure, thermal,

inertial forces)
- Can handle complex restraints
- Can handle bodies comprised of nonhomogeneous materials (every element

in the model could be assigned a different set of material properties)
- Special material effects can be handled (temperature dependent properties,

plasticity, creep, swelling)
- Special geometric effects can be modeled (large displacements, contact

condition, gap)

37
Disadvantages of FEA:
- A specific numerical result is obtained for a specific problem. A general

closed-form solution, which would permit one to examine system response to
changes in various parameters, is not produced
- The FEA is applied to an approximation of the mathematical model of

a system (the source of so-called model errors)
- Experience and judgment are needed in order to construct a good finite

element model
- Input and output data may be large and tedious to prepare and interpret
- Susceptible to user-introduced modeling errors (poor choice of element

types, distorted elements, geometry not adequately modeled)

38
When you define a structural model you always have to keep in mind:
 All models are wrong, but some are useful (G. Box)
 An error caused by misunderstanding or oversight is not correctible by mesh
refinement or by use of a more powerful computer… Although the finite element
method can make a good engineer better, it can make a poor engineer more
dangerous (R.D. Cook)
 A finite element analysis program allows an engineer to make mistakes at a
rapid rate of speed (R. Miller)
 After running the analysis you have to check if the outputs are only numbers or
are also results (V.I. Carbone – PoliTo)

39
Definition of the geometrical
data of the structure for
calculations and modeling
(calculation schematization)

40
RC structures
In general, the structural members can have complex geometry. The geometrical data
related to the structural members should be characterized with the aim to determine:
 the effective cross-section properties

To be used for calculations and modelling
 the effective span length L
Effective width of flanges beff
In ribbed slabs and T beams the effective flange width, over which uniform conditions
of stress can be assumed, depends on the web and flange dimensions, the type of
loading, the span, the support conditions and the transverse reinforcement.
The effective flange allow to determine the portion of

slab that cooperates with the main beam or rib to carry
the load (resistant cross section)

41
 Concept of effective width:
Distribution of compression stresses Effective width beff

due to bending in the flange
Reality Idealization

42
EN1992: Effective width calculation
Effective corss-section
Effective width calculation
l0 distance between two point

with zero bending moment
in the longitudinal static
cheme

43
l0 distance between two point with zero bending moment in the longitudinal
static cheme
Longitudinal static scheme of the beam
Note: - the cantilever span must be less than half the adjacent span
- the ratio of adjacent spans must be between 2/3 and 1.5
- for simply supported spans l0=l

44
 Typical cases

45
Effective span length leff of beams and slabs in buildings
The effective span, leff, of a member should be calculated as follows:
Values at the member

edges as in the next
Effective span Clear distance figures
between the faces of
the supports

46
47
Note 1: Where a beam or slab is monolithic with its supports, the design moment at the
support should be taken as that at the face of the support. In any case, the moment at the
face of the support should not be less than 0.65 that of the full restrain end moment.
Note 2: Regardless of the method of analysis used, where a beam or slab is continuous
over a support which may be considered to provide no restraint to rotation (e.g. over
walls), the design support moment, calculated on the basis of a span equal to the
centre-to-centre distance between supports, may be reduced by an amount ΔMEd as
follows
∆MSd = FSd,sup ⋅ t / 8
Reaction at the support Width of the support

[fig (b) in previuos slide]

48
Steel structures
The complexity of the connections forces the introduction of computational
simplifications that must, however, faithfully represent the adopted calculation scheme,
then relying on the static theorem for safety against collapse.
Consider, for example, the pendulum frame (that is, with beam-column joints
assimilable to hinges) in the figure.
Taking into account the A B

physical dimension of the
constraint, the beam AB can
be schematized with different
models, as indicated in the
following slides.

49
Scheme 1
Columns simply compressed

Beam operates on span L
Sec.XX V = R1 M= R1 ⋅ a
Sec.YY V = R1 M = R1 ⋅ ( a + e )
N = R1
Node A
M =0
N R1B + R2 B
=
Node B
M =0
This scheme minimizes the stresses in the

columns. To be used for columns oriented
with minimum stiffness.

50
Scheme 2
Columns compressed with bending moment

Beam works on a span (L-2a)
Sec.XX V = R1 M =0
Sec.YY V = R1 M= R1 ⋅ e
N = R1
Node A
M= R1 ⋅ a
N R1B + R2 B
=
Node B
M = ( R2 B − R1B ) ⋅ a
This scheme is advantageous if the

columns are oriented with maximum
stiffness.
51
Scheme 3
Columns compressed with bending moment

Beam works on a span (L-2a-2e)
Sec.XX V = R1 M= R1 ⋅ e
Sec.YY V = R1 M =0
N = R1
Node A
M = R1 ⋅ ( a + e )
N R1B + R2 B
=
Node B
M= ( R2 B − R1B ) ⋅ ( a + e )
This scheme is not usually

advantageous.

52
References
- EN1992, Eurocode 2: Design of concrete structures, CEN, Brussels.

- Designers’ Guide to EN 1992-1-1 and EN 1992-1-2. Eurocode 2: Design of
Concrete Structures. General Rules and Rules for Buildings and Structural Fire
Design. A. W. Beeby and R. S. Narayanan
- EN1993, Eurocode 3, Design of steel structures, CEN, Brussels
- NTC18 – Norme Tecniche per le costruzioni (Italian standard)
- Manual for Refined Analysis in Bridge Design and Evaluation – U.S. Department of
Transportation
- Strutture in acciaio - Ballio Mazzolani
- Progetto e verifica delle strutture in acciaio – Bernuzzi 2018
- www.steelconstruction.info
- www.promozioneacciaio.it
- https://www.jousefmurad.com/fem/the-finite-element-method-beginners-
guide/
- SAP2000 User’s manual, https://www.csi-italia.eu/software/sap2000/

53

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STRUCTURAL

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS POLITECNICO DI TORINO

Diego GINO, PhD

Structural design - Diego Gino

Structural analysis is a mathematical procedure, based on a structural model (mathematical

 first-order analysis  linear elastic analysis

 second-order analysis  non-linear analysis

Structural design - Diego Gino

 Linear elastic analysis Linear elastic analysis

 With the aim to determine the effects of the

o Un-cracked cross section properties (RC)

o Linear stress-strain law for materials

o Using the mean value of the Young’s

Structural design - Diego Gino

 geometrical imperfections (e.g., deviations from verticality of columns)

 second-order effects (when are relevant in case of slender members in presence

Structural design - Diego Gino

a) has two free edges not supported and significantly parallel

Structural design - Diego Gino

Structural design - Diego Gino

Structural design - Diego Gino

Loads coming from the floors

Structural design - Diego Gino

Floor bracing systems: in

Wall bracing systems: need to

Structural design - Diego Gino

Rigid body constrain

Structural design - Diego Gino

Structural models can be

Structural design - Diego Gino

 the structure is always three-dimensional 3D, but can be simplified in 2D sub-systems

 it is composed by various systems (floors, main and secondary beams, columns,

- in RC structures, connections are, in general:

i. full restraints (monolithic frame system)

- in steel structures, connections are, in general

i. hinges (pendulum systems)

Structural design - Diego Gino

Structural design - Diego Gino

Pendulum system Bracing system

ii) Rigid frame

Structural design - Diego Gino

Structural design - Diego Gino

However, even postulating the correctness of the calculation programs, it must

An error in the introduction of input data, be it conceptual or simply typing, can

Therefore, approximate and hand-calculation methods are needed that allow a

Structural design - Diego Gino

Structural design - Diego Gino

Structural design - Diego Gino

Truss (or bar) elements

 Use for structural modelling:

Structural design - Diego Gino

 Use for structural modelling:

Structural design - Diego Gino

 Use for structural modelling: Internal actions

Structural design - Diego Gino

 DOF: ux-uy (in the plane of the element)

 Use for structural modelling:

Structural design - Diego Gino

 DOF: ux-uy (in the plane of the element)

 Use for structural modelling:

Structural design - Diego Gino

 Link elements: 0D elements used to connect 2 different nodes or 1 node

 Use for structural modelling:

Structural design - Diego Gino