Biology Essays 5

KENYA CERTIFICATE OF SECONDARY EDUCATION
BIOLOGY ESSAYS
TOPICAL QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS
REVISION
Biology Revision Series: Fred Okwacho

THE CELL
1. State the functions of the various parts of a light microscope. (20 marks)
Response
 The arm; supports the body tube and the stage;
 Base; firm support that bears the weight of the microscope;
 Mirror; reflects and directs light to the specimen on stage;
 Diaphragm; regulates the amount of light passing to the condenser;
 Condenser; concentrates and directs light to the specimen on the stage;
 Stage; a platform where the slide containing the specimen is placed;
 Clips; hold the slide in position;
 Revolving nosepiece; holds objective lenses in position; and also enables change of
magnification from low, medium and high power;
 Objective lens; magnification and resolution;
 Eye piece; has a system of lenses which magnify further the image formed by the objective
lens; and projects it to the eye;
 Body tube; holds the objective lenses and the eye piece at the proper working distances
from each other;
 Coarse adjustment knob; moves the body tube up and down to a large extent bringing the
image into focus;
 Fine adjustment; moves the body tube up and down very slightly bringing the image into
sharper focus;
2. Describe how to use a light microscope. (7 marks)
Response
 Make sure that the low power objective lens is in position in line with the centre of the
stage;
 Looking through the eye piece with one eye, adjust the mirror to ensure maximum
illumination;
 Place the microscope slide with the specimen on the stage;
 With low power objective lens in position, turn the coarse adjustment knob clockwise to
bring the objective lens to the lowest position;
 Looking through the eye piece, turn the coarse adjustment knob anti-clockwise until the
image comes into focus;
 To bring the image into sharper focus, turn the fine adjustment knob clockwise and ant-
clockwise;
 For higher magnification, turn to medium then to high power objective lenses;
3. Describe the structure and functions of parts of a plant cell. (20 marks)
Response
 Cell wall is made of cellulose; that gives the cell its shape/prevents bursting when
turgid;
 Cell membrane has pores; for semi - permeability; has phospholipid layer; which
controls movement of fat soluble and water soluble molecules into and out of the cell;
©Biology essays Page 2

 Chloroplast has chlorophyll; to trap light energy; has stroma with photosynthetic
enzymes;
 Mitochondrion has its inner membrane greatly folded into cristae; to increase surface
area for attachment of respiratory enzymes; has matrix with enzymes that catalyze rate
of respiration;
 Sap vacuole has dissolved salts and sugars; that contribute to the osmotic properties of the
cell;
 Nucleus controls all the activities of the cell; has chromatin material that contains genetic
information of the cell;
 Nucleolus is involved in the formation of ribosomes;
 Cytoplasm is a fluid that suspends the cell organelles; and provides a medium for chemical
reactions;
 Golgi apparatus package synthesized proteins and carbohydrates; transport and secrete
synthesized products; involved in the formation of lysosomes;
 Smooth endoplasmic reticulum synthesize and transport lipids and steroids;
 Rough endoplasmic reticulum transports proteins synthesized by ribosomes;
 Ribosomes have ribosomal RNA involved in the synthesis of proteins;
 Lysosomes contain lytic enzymes; that break down worn out organelles/entire
cell/pathogens;
4. Describe the structure and functions of various plant tissues. (20 marks)
Response
 Epidermal tissue; consists of a single layer of tightly fitting rectangular cells; located on the
surface of leaves and on young stems and roots; it protects the inner delicate tissues from
mechanical damage; it prevents excessive loss of water by evapotranspiration; the ones in
the roots have root hairs which increase surface area for absorption of water and mineral
salts; the guard cells control opening and closing of stomata; and also carry out
photosynthesis;
 Meristematic tissue; consist of small, thin-walled cells with a dense cytoplasm and lacking
sap vacuole; they are found in the growing regions of the plant known as meristems; they
give rise to new cells leading to growth of the plant;
 Parenchyma tissue; composed of large, thin-walled and tightly packed cells; it fills spaces
between other tissues; packaging; and storage; special parenchyma cells known as
chlorenchyma found on certain stems carry out photosynthesis;
 Palisade tissue; composed of cells with numerous chlorophyll; found in leaves and some
young stems; it carries out photosynthesis;
 Vascular tissue; composed of xylem and phloem; phloem translocates manufactured food
from the sites of photosynthesis to other parts of the plant; xylem transports water and
mineral salts from the roots to the leaves; and also provides support due to possession of
lignified walls;
 Collenchyma tissue; made of elongated cells whose walls are thickened with cellulose and
pectin; it offers support;
 Sclerenchyma tissue; made of dead elongated cells with tapering ends; their cell walls are
thickened with lignin; hence offer support;
5. Describe the structure and functions of various animal tissues. (20 marks)
Response
 Epithelial tissue; consists of one or more layers of cells that fit closely together; it forms the
external covering of the body and the various internal organs; it also forms the internal
lining of the various tubular structures in the body; functions include protection of internal
and external structures; secretion; and wafting of mucus and ova through the cilia found on
the ciliated epithelium;
 Muscular tissue; made up of muscle cells i.e. smooth/visceral/involuntary muscle cells,
skeletal/striated/voluntary muscle cells and cardiac muscle cells; they bring about
movement; and pumping of the heart;
 Skeletal tissue; made up of bones and cartilage which form the skeleton; the bones are
made up of cells known as osteoblasts/osteocytes while cartilage is made up of cells known
as chondroblasts/chondrocytes; skeleton forms the body framework giving the body its
shape; supports the animal; brings about locomotion; provides surface for muscle
attachment; protects vital internal organs; formation of white and red blood cells; and act as
reservoirs for Calcium and Phosphorus ions;
 Connective tissue; is a meshwork of fibres with cells known as mast cells embedded within
the fibres; it joins the various body organs holding them in position;
 Blood; consists of a fluid known as plasma in which are suspended three types of cells i.e.
red blood cells/erythrocytes, white blood cells/leucocytes and platelets/thrombocytes;
functions include transport of materials within the body; protection of the body against
pathogens and harmful antigens; distribution of heat; regulation of pH of body fluids; and
prevention of excessive bleeding on injured surfaces;
 Reproductive tissue; associated with ovaries and testes; they are concerned with
gametogenesis/formation of gametes i.e. sperms/spermatozoa/sperm cells and ova;
 Nervous tissue; forms the brain, spinal cord and the nerves; it consists of nerve
cells/neurons; which are interconnected throughout the body; its functions include
transmission of nerve impulses from one part of the body to another; and
integration/interpretation of information;
CELL PHYSIOLOGY
6. (a) Explain how various factors affect the rate of diffusion. (10 marks)
(b) Describe wilting in plants. (10 marks)
Response
(a) Factors affecting rate of diffusion
(i) Diffusion gradient;
 A greater diffusion gradient/difference in concentration of molecules between any two
points increases the rate of diffusion; and vice versa
(ii) Surface area to volume ratio;

 The higher the ratio, the greater the rate of diffusion; and vice versa.
(iii) Temperature;

 An increase in temperature increases the energy content of molecules making them to
diffuse faster; hence an increase in temperature increases the rate of diffusion;
(iv) Size of molecules;

 Small and light molecules diffuse faster than large and heavy molecules;
(v) Thickness of membranes;

 the thicker the membrane, the lower the rate of diffusion; this is because the distance
to be covered by diffusing molecules is greater;
(b) The process of wilting
 Plants lose water to the atmosphere; through transpiration and evaporation; The cells
in the plants lose water and draw more from the soil; It reaches a time when the rate of
water loss to the atmosphere is faster than that of absorption from the soil; on a hot
dry day; Turgor in cells is reduced; while cells shrink; and the plant droops;
 At night plants recover from wilting; because their stomata are closed; and rates of
both evaporation and transpiration are reduced;
 If water supply from the soil is inadequate; the plants do not recover from wilting; and
the plants undergo permanent wilting;
7. Describe how diffusion, osmosis and active transport are important to living organisms.
(20 marks)
Response
i. Diffusion
 Gaseous exchange;
 Absorption of some soluble products of digestion in the alimentary canal;
 Absorption of some mineral salts from the soil by root hair cells;
 Excretion of metabolic wastes from body cells;
 Insects detect scent of flowers through diffusion hence pollinate the flowers;
 Exchange of food substances and waste products between tissue fluid and body cells;
ii. Osmosis
 Absorption of water from the surrounding medium into the cells of micro-organisms;
 Absorption of water from the soil into the root hairs of plant roots;
 Movement of water from cell to cell in the bodies of living organisms;
 Re-absorption of water in the kidney tubules;
 Re-absorption of tissue fluid into the blood stream at the venous side of the capillaries;
 Mechanical support in herbaceous plants due to turgid cells;
 Opening and closing of stomata;
 Involved in nastic responses in plants;
 Feeding in insectivorous plants;
iii. Active transport

 Absorption of mineral salts from the soil by plant roots;
 Re-absorption of salts, glucose and amino acids in kidney tubules;
 Absorption of digested food in the alimentary canal;

 Pumping of ions by the sodium and potassium ion pump across the nerve cell membrane
to bring about transmission of a nerve impulse;
 Removal of excretory products from cells;
8. State and explain the factors that affect the rate of active transport. (10 marks)
Response
 Oxygen concentration; oxygen is required in respiration to generate ATP used in active
transport; hence the higher the concentration the faster the rate
 Glucose concentration; glucose is broken down in respiration providing energy used in
active transport; hence a higher glucose concentration leads to faster rate of active
transport.
 Temperature; respiration which provides energy for active transport is controlled by
enzymes; which function best at a given optimum range of temperature;
 Enzyme inhibitors; such as metabolic poisons slow down or stop the process of active
transport;
 pH; enzymes work best at a narrow range of pH; extreme changes of pH destroy the
enzymes hence inhibiting active transport;
NUTRITION IN PLANTS AND ANIMALS
9. How are leaves of mesophytes suited to their functions (20 marks)
Response
 Broad/ wide/ flat lamina; provides large surface area for absorption of CO2 and
light;
 Thin; to ensure short distance for CO2 to reach photosynthetic/ palisade cells;
 Presence of stomata /guard cells; for efficient diffusion of O2/ gaseous exchange / H2O
vapour transpiration;/ CO2 into the leaf cells;
 Thin/transparent cuticle/epidermal cells; for faster light penetration into palisade cells;
which contain chloroplasts next to upper epidermis; thus receive maximum light for
photosynthesis;
 Chloroplasts have chlorophyll; which traps light energy;
 Leaves have veins that have xylem and phloem; to transport water and mineral salts to the
leaves; and products of photosynthesis to other parts of the plant; respectively.
 Air spaces on spongy mesophyll; to easily circulate gases/ CO2 to diffuse into palisade
cells;
 Leaf stalk; that holds the leaf in position to trap maximum light and for gaseous
exchange;
 Mosaic arrangement of leaves; enable leaves to trap sunlight;
10. (a) Describe the adaptation of floating water lily leaf to its photosynthetic function.
(10 marks)
(b) Describe the activities that take place in the chloroplast of growing plants.
(10 marks)

Response
(a) Broad /flat lamina/large; to provide large surface for carbon (IV) oxide; and (sun) light
absorption;
 Thin leaf to allow light/ carbon (IV) oxide to pass through a short distance;
 Presence of numerous/many stomata; on the upper epidermis, ensuring efficient diffusion
of carbon (IV) oxide;
 Cuticle/Epidermis transparent/ translucent; to allow penetration of light to palisade cells /
photosynthetic cell;
 (Presence of) numerous aerenchyma cells; for buoyancy to reach light and carbon (iv)
oxide;
 Has extensive network of veins; conducting water and mineral salt; to the photosynthetic
cells;
 Veins contain xylem for transport of water and mineral salts; and phloem for
translocation of product of photosynthesis;
(b) Light stage (5marks)

 Occurs in the grana/granum containing chlorophyll which traps light energy;
 Energy splits water molecules / photolysis into hydrogen ions and oxygen atoms;
 Oxygen gas used in respiration; and excess removed (through) stomata;
 Light energy used in ATP formation;
Dark stage/Carbon (IV) Oxide fixation (5 marks)

 Carbon (IV) oxide reacts with hydrogen atoms; to form glucose/simple sugars/ simple
carbohydrates;
 ATP Energy from light stage used to catalyze the reaction;
 Simple sugars formed are respired/ oxidized; or converted to storable forms e.g lipids,
proteins/starch / cellulose;
11. How are leaves of submerged plants adapted for photosynthesis? (8 marks)
Response
 They are highly divide/truncated/branched/dissected; to increase surface area for
trapping of light and Carbon (IV) Oxide;
 Have large air spaces; for storage of gases;
 Have numerous chloroplasts which are very sensitive to light; to absorb any little
available light;
 Have no cuticle; to facilitate faster exchange of gases through the epidermis;
12. Describe how various factors affect the rate of photosynthesis. (20 marks)
Response
i. Carbon (IV) Oxide concentration;
 Carbon (IV) Oxide reacts with hydrogen atoms in the dark stage to form simple sugars;
an increase in Carbon (IV) Oxide concentration leads to an increase in the rate of
photosynthesis; when light and temperature are at their optimum; Further increase in
Carbon (IV) Oxide concentration beyond the optimum amount does not affect the rate
of photosynthesis;

ii. Light intensity, duration and light quality;
 Light provides the energy required to drive the process of photosynthesis; The rate of
photosynthesis increases as light intensity increases; At very high light intensities
chlorophyll is damaged; and the rate of photosynthesis falls;
 Chlorophyll absorbs light mainly in the blue and red wavelengths; hence the presence of
these wavelengths in a light ensures a faster rate of photosynthesis;
 Exposing a leaf to longer durations of light increases the amount of food manufactured
in the leaf;
iii. Temperature;
 Reactions in photosynthesis are catalyzed by enzymes; At optimum temperature
photosynthesis proceeds faster; Below optimum temperature the rate of photosynthesis
decreases; because enzymes are inactivated by the low temperature; Above optimum
temperature the rate of photosynthesis decreases or stops; because enzymes are
denatured/destroyed;
iv. Water;
 Water is a raw material for photosynthesis hence its availability increases the rate of
photosynthesis; Water deficiency may lead to closure of the stomata; preventing entry
of Carbon (IV) Oxide; thus hindering the photosynthesis;
v. Chlorophyll concentration;
 Chlorophyll traps energy from sunlight for photosynthesis; The higher the chlorophyll
concentration the higher the rate of photosynthesis;
13. Describe the dentition of carnivorous mammals and their adaptation to the mode of
feeding (10 marks)
Response
 Have chisel-shaped and closely fitting incisors; for tearing and stripping flesh from
bones/seizing prey;
 Have canines that are long / curved / pointed; for piercing , grasping and holding
the prey;
 Have got the carnassial teeth (upper fourth premolar and lower first molar) with
smooth sides and sharp edges; to shear and slice flesh from tendons and crush
the bones;.
 Have premolars and molars which have broad surfaces; and ridged with cusps; for
crushing and grinding food;
 Premolars have two roots while molars have two or three roots; to hold them
firmly on the jaws;
 Have powerful jaw bones for powerful muscle attached ; This prevents dislocation
of jaws for cutting and shearing of flesh;
14. Describe the changes that occur to a piece of meat from the time it is ingested until it
becomes useful to the body cell. (20 marks)
Response

In the mouth the meat is broken down mechanically/chewed by teeth into smaller
pieces/masticated; to increase surface area for enzymatic action; it is mixed with saliva that
contains mucus for lubrication for easy swallowing;
When the food reaches the stomach it stimulates production of gastrin hormone; Gastrin
hormone stimulates secretion of gastric juice; which contains rennin, pepsin and HCl; HCl
promotes conversion of inactive pepsinogen to active pepsin; It also provides an acidic medium
for protein digestion; and destroy disease causing micro-organisms;
Pepsin breaks down proteins into peptones; the chyme moves into the duodenum through the
pyloric sphincter; Presence of food in the duodenum stimulates the gall bladder to produce bile;
it also stimulates the pancreas to produce pancreatic juice into the duodenum; The Sodium
carbonate in the bile neutralizes the acidic chyme from the stomach; and provides an alkaline
condition for action of duodenal enzymes; The bile salts also emulsify the fats in the
chime/breakdown fat into fatty droplets;
The pancreatic juice contains trypsinogen and pancreatic lipase; trypsinogen is converted into
trypsin; which breaks down the peptones into dipeptides; Pancreatic lipase breaks down fats
into fatty acids and glycerol;
In the ileum, peptidase found in the intestinal juice/succus entericus; breaks down dipeptides
into amino acids; Lipase breaks down the remaining fat into fatty acids and glycerol;
Amino acids are absorbed into the blood stream through the epithelial lining of the villi; and
transported to the liver by the hepatic portal vein. Fatty acids and glycerol are reconstituted
into neutral fat/lipid and absorbed into lacteals;
Assimilation
Amino acids in the body are used for synthesis of new cells; growth/repair of worn out tissues;
formation of enzymes/hormones/antibodies; source of energy during starvation; excess is
deaminated to form urea which is excreted;
Fats are used in provision of energy; structural component of cells; source of metabolic water;
insulation against heat loss in bodies of most animals;
15. a. Explain how a solid starchy food is broken down from the time it is taken into the
mouth to the time it is absorbed in the intestines. (14 marks)
b. Explain the fate of digested proteins. (6 marks)
Response
a. In the mouth starchy food is chewed/masticated into small pieces by teeth; to increase
surface area for enzyme action; the food is mixed with saliva to soften it; saliva contains
salivary amylase/ptyalin; that digests starch to maltose;
In the stomach no starch digestion; due presence of HCl which makes the conditions acidic
hence stopping action of ptyalin;
In the duodenum Bile salts released from the gallbladder; neutralize the acidic chyme from the
stomach; and provide an alkaline medium for action of pancreatic amylase; to digest remaining
starch into maltose;

In the ileum Maltose is broken down into glucose; by maltase enzyme; secreted by walls of the
small intestines;
b. Fate of digested proteins.

- Amino acids from protein digestion are absorbed; in ileum. They are transported to the liver
through the hepatic portal vein; some amino acids are released into general blood circulation;
through hepatic vein; taken to the tissues for cell metabolism; Excess amino acids are
deaminated; in the liver to form ammonia and carbohydrate residues; ammonia is converted to
urea and excreted; while the carbohydrate residue is respired to release energy/form cellular
structures/form glycogen which is stored;
16. a) What are enzymes? (2mks)

b) State the properties of enzymes (6mks)
c) Discuss the factors that affect the rate of enzyme catalysed reactions (12mks)
Response
a) Enzymes are biocatalysts which are protein in nature;
b) Protein in nature
 Affected by extreme changes in temperature and pH;
 Substrate specific i.e. act on certain specific food substances
 can be used again and again hence required in small amounts
 Are catalystic i.e. speed up rate of chemical reactions but are not used up in the reaction.
 most enzyme controlled reactions are reversible i.e they catalyse both forward and
backward reactions;
c) Temperature
 Enzyme work but within a certain temperature range; Increase in temperature within this
range results to increased rate of reaction;
 A reduction of temperature within this range leads to reduced rate of reaction; since the
enzymes become inactive;
Substrate concentration
 The higher the concentration of substrate, the faster the rate of reaction; however the rate
becomes constant when all active sites have been occupied hence at a certain
concentration of substrate, reaction rate remains constant;
Enzyme concentration
 The higher the concentration of enzymes the faster the rate of reaction; However when
substrate concentration become limiting / few the rate remains constant; The active sites
of excess enzymes remains empty hence no corresponding increase in reaction rate;
Presence of inhibitors
 Competitive inhibitors compete with the substrate for the enzymes active site hence
reducing rate of reaction;
 Non- competitive inhibitors bind on the enzyme changing the shape of the active site. The
enzyme cannot bind to the substrate hence reducing reaction rate;

pH
 Enzymes work best at optimum pH; above or below this pH, enzyme activity drops hence
reduced rate of reactions since enzymes become denatured;
Produce concentration
 If the products of enzymes catalysed reaction are left to accumulate the rate of reaction
slows down; in this situation reverse reaction is favoured.
17. Describe how the mammalian digestive system is adapted to its function. (20 marks)
Response
(a) Mouth
 has four types of teeth
 incisors have sharp edges for cutting/tearing/shearing
 canines are curved and pointed for holding/grasping food
 premolars and molars have ridged and flattened/broad tops for grinding
 has flexible tongue for rolling food into boluses and for swallowing
 has salivary glands which secrete saliva containing water and mucus for softening and
lubrication of food, and salivary amylase/ptyalin for digesting starch
(b) Gullet/Oesophagus
 consists of longitudinal and circular muscles which contract and relax resulting into
peristaltic movement that pushes food bolus down to the stomach
(c) Stomach
 is a muscular bag that stores food
 consist of longitudinal and circular muscles which contract and relax to churn the food
into semi-fluid chyme.
 contains gastric glands which secrete gastric juice containing:
 protein digesting enzymes pepsinogen and rennin
 hydrochloric acid that activates pepsinogen into pepsin, kills disease causing micro-
organisms in the food, and provide an acidic medium for the action of protein digesting
enzymes
 mucus that lubricate the food, prevents corrosion of stomach walls by HCl, and
digestion of stomach walls by enzymes
(d) Duodenum
 consists of longitudinal and circular muscles which promote peristalsis
 has associate glands and organs i.e.
 liver which secretes bile containing bile salts that emulsify fats and provide an alkaline
medium for action of duodenal enzymes/neutralizes acidic chyme from the stomach
 pancreas which secretes pancreatic juice that contains digestive enzymes
(trypsin/chymotrypsin, pancreatic lipase, pancreatic amylase)
(e) Ileum
 ileum is long to offer large surface area for digestion/absorption of digested food

 The walls have circular/longitudinal muscles/are muscular for peristalsis
 Inner walls possess mucus glands/goblet cells that secrete mucus for lubrication of food
and protects the inner walls against digestion by enzymes
 Inner walls have digestive glands/Crypt of Lieberkhun that secrete (digestive)
enzymes/juices
 Are highly vascularized/have numerous blood vessels to supply oxygen/transport of end
products of digestion
 Presence of lacteals for transport of fats/ lipids
 Presence of villi/microvilli which are numerous to increase surface area for absorption of
digested food
 Villi have a thin epithelium/one cell thick epithelium to facilitate faster/rapid absorption
of food
 The ileum is highly coiled to slow down movement of food allowing sufficient time for
digestion/absorption
(f) Colon
 long to increase surface area for absorption of water and mineral salts
(g) Rectum
 temporary storage of undigested and indigestible food material
18. a) What is meant by the term digestion? (2 marks)

(b) Describe how the mammalian ileum is adapted to its functions. (18 marks)
Response
(a) Breakdown of (complex) food substance by enzymes; to simpler compounds (which can be
absorbed);
(b) ileum is long; to offer large surface area for digestion/absorption of digested food;
 The walls have circular/longitudinal muscles/are muscular; for peristalsis;
 Inner walls possess mucus glands/goblet cells; that secrete mucus; for lubrication of
food; and protects the inner walls against digestion by enzymes;
 Inner walls have digestive glands; that secrete (digestive) enzymes/juices;
 Are highly vascularized/have numerous blood vessels; to supply oxygen/transport of end
products of digestion;
 Presence of lacteals; for transport of fats/ lipids;
 Presence of villi/microvilli; which are numerous to increase surface area for absorption
of digested food;
 Villi have a thin epithelium/one cell thick epithelium to facilitate faster/rapid absorption
of food;
 The ileum is highly coiled; to slow down movement of food allowing sufficient time for
digestion/absorption;
TRANSPORT IN PLANTS AND ANIMALS
19. Describe the structure and functions of a young root. (20 marks)

Response
 Root cap; consists of simple parenchyma cells; that protect the root tip meristematic
cells behind it;
 Epidermis/piliferous layer; consists of flattened cells; which protect the inner structures
from mechanical damage; they form root hairs; which absorb water and mineral salts;
 Cortex; is made up of parenchyma cells; it acts as a storage structure;
 Endodermis/starch sheath; its cells have a casparian strip; which is made up of an
impervious waxy deposit on the radial and cross walls; It controls entry of water and
mineral salts into the xylem;
 Pericycle; is a single layer of cells beneath the endodermis; that gives rise to lateral
roots;
 Vascular bundles; consist of xylem; which transports water and mineral salts; and
phloem; which transports manufactured food; In dicots, xylem is star-shaped and is
located at the centre of the root; with phloem being located in between the arms of
xylem; In monocots, the vascular bundles are arranged in a ring with phloem alternating
with xylem;
 Pith; present in monocots but absent in dicots; consists of parenchyma cells; that store
water and food;
20. Describe how water moves from the soil to the leaves in a tree. (20 marks)
Response
Water exists as a thin film in the soil between soil particles; The concentration of cell sap is
greater than that of the surrounding solution in the soil; Thus drawing water molecules across
the cell wall and membrane into the root hair cells; by osmosis; water drawn into the root hair
cell dilutes the cell sap/ makes it less concentrated than that in the adjacent cell into the cortex
cells; water is then drawn from the cortex cells into the cells of the endodermis by osmosis; it
then moves across the endodermis by active transport; into the xylem vessels (of the root);
which then conduct the water up into the xylem (vessels) of the stem; into xylem of leaves.
Water is pushed/ rises up the stem (in the xylem vessels) by root pressure; capillarity; cohesion;
and adhesive forces; water moves as a continuous and uninterrupted water column in the
xylem (vessel) up the tree to the leaves. As water vaporizes from the spongy mesophyll cells;
their cell sap becomes more concentrated than that of adjacent cells; water flows into the cells
from other surrounding cells; which in turn take in water from xylem vessels within the leaf
veins; This creates a pull / suction force/ transpiration pull; that pulls a stream of water from
xylem vessel in the stem and roots; the transpiration pull maintains continuous column of water
from the roots into the leaves (transpiration stream);

21. Describe how transpiration pull is created in a leaf. (10 marks)
Response
The cell sap of the spongy mesophyll are saturated with water; which evaporates into the
intercellular spaces; and is lost through transpiration; via the stomata; the cells that lose water
through evaporation develop higher osmotic pressure; and draw water; by osmosis; from the
surrounding cells; The process continues until those cells adjacent to the xylem vessels draw
water; thus creating a suction pressure;
22. Describe how the various environmental factors can affect the rate of transpiration. (20
marks)
Response
i. Light intensity
 Increase in light intensity; increases the rate of photosynthesis in guard cells; this
results in the increase in the number of stomata that are open; causing an increase in
the rate of diffusion of water vapour from the leaf surface;
ii. Temperature
 High temperature; increases the kinetic energy of water molecules; in the leaves. This
increases rate of diffusion of water molecules from the mesophyll cells into the
airspaces and through the stomata;
iii. Wind
 Air currents carry away water from the area around the leaf; This increases the diffusion
gradient; causing more water to diffuse from the airspaces through the stomata;
iv. Humidity
 Low humidity around the leaves; creates a higher diffusion gradient between the
intercellular spaces and surrounding air; this increases transpiration rate;
 High humidity; lowers transpiration rate;
v. Atmospheric pressure
 Low atmospheric pressure; decreases saturation of water vapour; causing an increase in
the rate of transpiration;
 High atmospheric pressure; increases saturation of water vapour; causing a decrease in
the rate of diffusion;
23. Explain how structural features in terrestrial plants affect their rate of transpiration.
(13 marks)
 Plants in arid /semi arid /desert habitats have leaves covered with thick / waxy cuticles
that are water proof/ impermeable to water; allowing for reduced rate of transpiration;

 Sunken stomata ; in some desert/ semi arid area plants have water vapour accumulating in
the pits so as not to be carried away by wind;
 Most plants have few or no stomata on the upper surface of the leaf/ more stomata on the
lower surface which are sheltered from direct sunlight; the fewer the stomata the less the
water loss from the plant;
 Some plant leaves have small stomata / small stomatal pores; thus reducing transpiration
rate;
 Plants with small needle like leaves/ spines; expose less surface area hence reduce the
rate of transpiration;
 Leaves with shiny surfaces; reflect light resulting in reduced leaf temperature thus
reducing the rate of transpiration;
 Some plants have leaves covered with hair/scales; which trap a layer of moisture; (on the
leaf surface ) reducing the rate of transpiration;
 Plants growing in wet habitats / mesophyets have a thin layer of cuticle; which allow high
rate of transpiration;
 Some mesophytes have broad leaves; to expose a large surface area for water loss;
 Some mesophytes have many stomata on both sides of the leaves; to enhance water loss;
24. Outline the functions of the various components of mammalian blood. (20 marks)
Response
Red blood cells/erythrocytes;

 Transport of oxygen from lungs in form of oxyhaemoglobin;
 Transport of Carbon (IV) Oxide from body cells to lungs in form of hydrogen carbonate
ions/Carbaminohaemoglobin;

White blood cells/leucocytes;
 Destroy pathogens by engulfing/phagocytosis;
 Lymphocytes produce antibodies against pathogens leading to immunity;
 Some white blood cells produce antitoxins; which neutralize toxins produced by pathogens;
Blood platelets/thrombocytes;
 Cause blood clotting; which reduces bleeding; and leads to healing of wounds; and
prevents entry of pathogens;
Blood plasma;
 Transport of Carbon (IV) Oxide from body cells to lungs in form of sodium hydrogen
carbonate ions/weak carbonic acid;
 Transports waste products e.g. urea from cells to excretory organs;
 Transports nutrients in the body;
 Transports hormones from glands to their target organs;
 Distribution of heat in the body;
 Regulation of pH of body fluids;

25. Describe the structural adaptations of the mammalian heart to its functions. (20 marks)
Response
 The heart is enclosed by a translucent membrane / pericardium which prevents its
overdilation;
 the pericardium membrane secretes pericardial fluid; that lubricates the heart/reduces
friction;
 The heart is covered by a layer of fat; that acts as a shock absorber;
 The heart has the cardiac muscles; that contract and relax rhythmically without nervous
stimulation / myogenic; and does not fatigue throughout life;
 The cardiac muscles have intercalated discs between its cells to enable the spread of waves
of contractions throughout whole muscle;
 Presence of coronary artery ; that supplies blood with oxygen and nutrients to the heart
tissues / cells;
 The coronary vein drains blood away from the heart rich in Carbon (IV) Oxide and other
metabolic wastes from the heart tissues;
 Presence of septum; which divides the heart into two halves, thus preventing the mixing of
oxygenated blood and deoxygenated blood;
 Presence of Sino atrial node; in the right atrium which acts as a pace maker for the heart
beat; Atrio-ventricular node; receives waves of contractions from SAN and spreads them to
the purkinje tissues;
 Presence of atrio-ventricular/cuspid valves; to prevent the back flow of blood into the
auricles during systole;
 The cuspid valves/bicuspid and tricuspid valves are supported by tendons; which prevent
them from turning inside out;
 The presence of semilunar valves; at the base of pulmonary artery and aorta; to prevent the
back flow of blood to the ventricles during diastole;
 The heart has four chambers; to hold and pump a large volume of blood;
 Walls of ventricles are thicker and more muscular than those of auricles; to generate high
pressure to pump blood out of the heart;
 The wall of left ventricle is thicker and more muscular than the right ventricle; to pump
blood under a higher pressure to a longer distance/rest of the body except lungs;
 The heart muscle cells have numerous mitochondria; to release energy needed for pumping
of blood;
 Presence of the vagus nerve that slows down the rate of the heart beat; and sympathetic
nerve that accelerates the rate of the heart beat;
26. a) Briefly describe the circulation of blood in a mammalian heart. (6 marks)

b) Discuss the pumping mechanism of the heart. (14 marks)
Response
(a) Deoxygenated blood enters the right atrium (from the body) through vena cava; then passes
through the tricuspid valve into right ventricle;
Blood is pumped through semi lunar valve to pulmonary artery to the lungs; (for oxygenation)
Oxygenated blood from lungs enters the left atrium through the pulmonary vein; then through
bicuspid valve to the left ventricle;
Blood is then pumped through semi lunar valve; to aorta to the rest of the body;

(b) When ventricular muscles relax and the auricle muscles contract/ during diastole; volume of
ventricles increases; pressure decreases; Atrio ventricular valve/ cuspid valve opens; allowing
deoxygenated blood to flows into the right ventricle; while oxygenated blood flows from the left
atrium into left ventricle; Semi lunar valves close; preventing blood from flowing back into
ventricles;
When ventricular muscles contract and the auricle muscles relax/during systole; atrio
ventricular/ cuspid valves close; preventing blood from flowing back into the auricles from the
ventricles; volume of ventricles decreases; while pressure increases; this force blood out of the
heart to lungs; (via semi lunar valve through pulmonary artery) and to body tissues; via semi
lunar valve through the aorta.
27. Describe the formation of tissue fluid. (20 marks)

Response
Tissue fluid is the part of blood that ultrafiltrates from the capillaries to fill the channels and
spaces around the body cells;
Capillaries on the arteriole side of the capillary bed function as an ultrafiltration device; They
allow considerable amounts of all components of blood except plasma proteins and cells to pass
through; High hydrostatic pressure of blood on the arteriole side of the capillary bed; resulting
from the pumping action of the blood; and the high resistance offered by the narrow lumen of
capillaries; forces fluid; and small molecules; out of the blood; to form tissue/intercellular fluid;
Tissue fluid circulates in the spaces between the cells; supplying oxygen, nutrients and other
useful materials; to the cells; metabolic wastes from the cells are shed into it;
Excess tissue fluid returns to the bloodstream through two routes; some returns to the
bloodstream via the capillaries on the venous side; by osmosis; this is enabled by the high
osmotic pressure resulting from the high concentration of proteins and other solutes in the
blood; and the fact that the hydrostatic pressure on the venous side is very low; The rest of the
tissue fluid drains into the lymphatic vessels; forming lymph;
28. Describe how the human red blood cell is adapted to its function. (14 marks)
Response
 Has a biconcave shape; that creates a large surface area for diffusion of gases;
 Contains haemoglobin; which readily combines with oxygen;
 Lacks nucleus and other organelles; which allows more space for packing of
haemoglobin;
 Has a thin cell membrane; which allows rapid diffusion of gases;
 Small in size; to offer a large surface area for diffusion of gases;
 It is pliable/flexible; which enables them to move through the narrow lumen of
capillaries;
 Has an enzyme carbonic anhydrase; which enable it to transport Carbon (IV) Oxide;
29. Describe the transport of Carbon (IV) Oxide in the human body. (20 marks)
Response
Carbon (IV) Oxide is formed from cellular respiration; Most of it diffuses into red blood cells;
where the enzyme carbonic anhydrase; catalyses its reaction with water; to form weak carbonic
acid; This acid then dissociates to form hydrogen carbonate ions; and hydrogen ions; The
hydrogen carbonate ions diffuse into the plasma; and is transported in this form;
Some of the Carbon (IV) Oxide which diffuses into the red blood cells combines with the amino
acids of the haemoglobin; to form carbaminohaemoglobin; compound and is transported in this
form;
A small amount of Carbon (IV) Oxide remains in the plasma; where it reacts with water to form
weak carbonic acid; This acid dissociates just like in the red blood cells to form hydrogen
carbonate ions and hydrogen ions; The hydrogen carbonate ions is then transported by plasma;
In the lungs; there is a sudden change in the concentration of Carbon (IV) Oxide and oxygen;
This leads to a reversal of all the reactions described above; leading to release of Carbon (IV)
Oxide; which is then exhaled;
30. Describe the blood clotting process in human beings. (10 marks)
Response
When a blood vessel is cut/injured platelets/thrombocytes are exposed to the air; they release
thrombokinase/thromboplastin; an enzyme that activates the conversion of prothrombin; to
thrombin; in the presence of calcium ions; Vitamin K/ phylloquinone; is needed for the
formation of prothrombin; Thrombin converts (soluble blood protein) fibrinogen; into (the
fibrous form) fibrin; which forms a meshwork across the wound; The clot so formed prevents
excessive bleeding; and entry of disease agents/pathogens/micro-organisms/microbes;

31. Describe how allergic reactions occur in the human body. (15 marks)
Response
Allergy is a condition where the body overreacts to antigens; which are otherwise not harmful
to the body;
The antigen/allergen is recognized as a foreign body; and antibodies are formed against it; The
antibody-antigen reaction occurs on the surface of tissue cells; This cells become highly
permeable to water; hence swell and may burst; Some cells release histamine; which brings
about allergic reactions; Some effects of histamine include dilation of capillaries; flushing and
itching of the skin; constriction of bronchi resulting in breathing difficulties; increased
permeability of blood capillaries; resulting in an increase in the rate of formation of tissue fluid;
causing swelling of the affected tissues;
Allergic reactions occur after an individual has had an earlier contact with an allergen; This
initial contact is known as sensitization; Later contact with the same allergen stimulates the
allergic reaction;
32. Describe the route taken by a molecule of glucose from the time of absorption until it
reaches the muscle cell in the leg of a man. (20 marks)
Response
 glucose is absorbed into the bloodstream through the capillaries lining the villi;
 the capillaries join to form the hepatic portal vein; which takes blood having the glucose
molecule to the liver;
 from the liver the blood passes through the hepatic vein; to the inferior vena cava; and
then to the vena cava;
 the blood then enters the right auricle/atrium; then the right ventricle; via the tricuspid
valve; from where it passes through the pulmonary artery; to the lungs; and then back into
the left atrium/auricle; via the pulmonary vein;
 the blood then flows into the left ventricle; via the bicuspid valve;
 the blood then passes into the aorta; via semi lunar valve; from where it passes through
the femoral artery; to the arterioles; then to the capillaries; of the leg muscles. The glucose
then diffuses into the muscle cell of the leg;
GASEOUS EXCHANGE
33. (a) State four characteristics of respiratory surfaces. (4 marks)

(b) How are respiratory surfaces in mammals adapted to their functions? (10 marks)
Response
(a) Highly vascularised/network of blood capillaries;
 Large surface area;
 Thin membrane/epithelium/lining; reject thin walls
 Moist (lining);
b. Many to provide a large surface area; across which large amounts of gases diffuse;
 Moist surfaces; to dissolve respiratory gases; so as to diffuse.
 Made of a thin membrane/epithelium/one cell thick ; to reduce diffusion distance;
 Highly vascularized; to carry away oxygen; and bring in carbon (IV) oxide; creating a steep diffusion
gradient;
34. Describe the mechanism of gaseous exchange in a mammal. (16 marks)

Breathing in/inhalation
External intercostal muscles contract; while internal intercostal muscles relax; lifting/raising the
ribcage upwards and outwards; muscles of diaphragm contract; and the diaphragm flattens; the
volume of thoracic cavity increases; while pressure decreases; higher air pressure in the
atmosphere forces air into the lungs;
Breathing out/exhalation
External intercostal muscles relax; internal intercostal muscles contract; moving the ribcage
downwards and inwards; the muscles of diaphragm relax; the diaphragm assumes dome shape;
volume of thoracic cavity decrease; while pressure increases; higher pressure forces air out of the
lungs;
35. Describe how regular cigarette smoking affects the following:

(a) Pregnant woman. (5 marks)
(b) Respiratory and circulatory systems of an adult. (15 marks)
Response
(a) Causes abortions; still birth; premature birth;
 Results to underweight babies/smaller in size;
 Nicotine causes bits and convulsions to infants;
(b)Cause lung cancer/lethal mutations; soot block cilia/bronchiole; preventing sweeping out of
mucus/foreign particles; / causes chronic bronchitis;
 Cause emphysema/destruction of alveoli air spaces; leading to smaller surface area; for
oxygen intake/less efficient in O2 exchange;
 Nicotine deposits; cause coronary heart disease/coronary thrombosis;
 Nicotine stimulates release of adrenaline; hence increase in heart beat; and constriction of
blood vessels; high blood pressure; increase cholesterol deposit; and blood clotting;

36. Describe the theories to explain the mechanism of opening and closing of stomata in
plants. (20 marks)
Response
The photosynthetic theory
Guard cells have chloroplasts; In the presence of light/during the day; photosynthesis occurs; in
guard cells; producing sugar; osmotic pressure of guard cells increases/osmotic potential lowers;
water from neighboring /adjacent cells enter into guard cells; by osmosis; causing turgidity of
guard cells; causing stomata to open;
In the absence of light/at night; no photosynthesis takes place; hence no glucose is manufactured;
osmotic pressure lowered/ osmotic potential increases; due to low glucose concentration; guard
cells lose water to adjacent epidermal cells; by osmosis; becoming flaccid; stomata close;
Starch-sugar interconversion theory.

Guard cells have chloroplasts; In presence of light/during the day; photosynthesis occurs in the
leaf/guard cells; lowering the CO2 concentrations; this increases pH/alkalinity; which triggers off
enzymatic hydrolysis/conversion of starch to sugar/glucose; leading to low osmotic potential/
increased osmotic pressure in guard cells; guard cells absorb water from epidermal cells; by
osmosis; thus becoming turgid; the inner walls are thicker than the outer walls; outer walls
stretch more than inner walls; causing guard cells to bulge outwards, stomata open;
In the absence of light/at night; no photosynthesis occurs; CO2 concentration increases; due to
respiration; pH lowered/ acidity increases; sugar converted to starch; osmotic pressure lowered/
osmotic potential increases; guard cells lose water to adjacent epidermal cells; by osmosis,
becoming flaccid; stomata close;
The Potassium ion theory

Guard cells have chloroplasts; In light ATP is produced; the energy drives K+ ions from adjacent
epidermal cells into guard cells; accumulation of K+; raises osmotic pressure (lower osmotic
potential) of guard cells; guard cells absorb water from adjacent epidermal cells; becoming
turgid; the inner walls are thicker than the outer walls so outer walls stretch more than inner walls
causing guard cells to bulge outward; and stomata open;
In the absence of light/at night ATP rapidly decreases; no energy from potassium ions pump; K+
migrate by diffusion; from guard cells; to adjacent epidermal cells; guard cells lose water; and
become flaccid; the thinner outer walls of guard cells shrink; thicker inner walls reduce their
curvature; thus closing the stomata;
37. Describe how gaseous exchange takes place in terrestrial Plants. (20 marks)
Response
 Gaseous exchange takes place in spongy mesophyll, lenticels, epidermis and cuticle;
 During the day, air diffuses into large air spaces of spongy mesophyll; through the stomata;
Carbon (IV) Oxide in the air diffuses into the photosynthetic cells; in solution form; During
photosynthesis Carbon (IV) Oxide is used; while Oxygen is produced; Some Oxygen is used in
respiration; while excess diffuses out of the leaf; through the stomata; due to concentration
gradient;

During the night, air diffuses into the air spaces of spongy mesophyll; then dissolves in the
film of moisture; Oxygen in the air diffuses into the cells; and is used in respiration during
which Carbon (IV) Oxide is produced; The Carbon (IV) Oxide diffuses out of the leaf through
stomata; due to diffusion/concentration gradient.
 Gaseous exchange occurs through lenticels (found on older stems); The cork cells at a
lenticel are loosely packed; gaseous exchange takes place between cork and atmosphere
within the loosely packed cells; Oxygen in the air diffuses into the cells and is used for
respiration; producing Carbon (IV) Oxide which diffuses out of the cells;
 Some gaseous exchange takes place through the cuticle; and epidermis; of young leaves,
roots and stems. Epidermis of young roots carries out gaseous exchange with air in the soil;
 Some plants have breathing roots/pneumatophores through which gaseous exchange takes
place;
38. a. How is the tracheal system of a terrestrial insect adapted for gaseous exchange? (10
marks)
b. Describe the mechanism of gaseous exchange in a terrestrial insect. (10 marks)
Response
(a) spiracles have valves; that control their closing and opening;
 spiracles have hair; that prevent excessive loss of water;
 walls of trachea are strengthened with spiral rings/bands of chitin; to keep them open
hence allow free flow of air through them;
 tracheoles have a thin epithelium; for faster diffusion of air;
 tracheoles have a moist lining; to dissolve the respiratory gases;
 have air sacs; that act as air reservoirs to supply extra volume of Oxygen during high cellular
activity/flight;
(b) When thoracic spiracle valves open; air is drawn from the surrounding into the tracheal
system; The valves close and air is forced along the system; by muscular contractions of
abdominal muscles; At the tracheoles; Oxygen in the air diffuses into the tissues; due to
diffusion gradient; The oxygen is used in respiration; producing Carbon (IV) Oxide; Carbon (IV)
Oxide diffuses out of the tissues into the tracheal system; The abdominal spiracle valves open;
and air rich in Carbon (IV) Oxide is released into the surrounding;
39. Describe the mechanism of gaseous exchange in a bonny fish. (20 marks)
Response
The mouth opens; floor of the mouth cavity is lowered; by muscular contraction; this increases
the volume of mouth cavity; while pressure decreases; water flows into the mouth;
Opercula close; with the free edge pressing on the body; but bulges outwards; to reduce
pressure and increase volume of gill cavity; so that water flows into the gill cavity;
The mouth then closes; and the floor of the mouth is raised; forcing remaining water to flow
from the mouth into gill chamber;

Water entering the gill chamber has a higher concentration of oxygen; than blood. Oxygen
therefore diffuses into the bloodstream; in the gill filaments; while carbon (IV) oxide diffuses
from the bloodstream into the water; flow of water in the gill chambers is in a counter-current
direction to enhance a steep concentration gradient;
The free edge of opercula moves away from the body; opening the opercular chamber; allowing
water to flow out of the body;
40. Describe how gaseous exchange takes place in a frog. (20 marks)
Response
Gaseous exchange takes place in the lungs, buccal/mouth cavity and skin;
Mouth/buccal cavity. The mouth opens; and the floor of the mouth is lowered; by muscular
contractions; increasing the volume; while lowering pressure in the mouth; air moves into the
mouth; and dissolves in the moist lining of the mouth; under the linings of the mouth, there is a
rich supply of blood capillaries; and Oxygen diffuse into the blood; and is carried by
haemoglobin to all parts of the body; Carbon (IV) Oxide from the tissues is brought by blood to
the mouth cavity where it diffuses out;
Lungs. Air is drawn into the body through the nostrils; and is forced into the lungs by pumping
action of the floor of the mouth; the alveoli of the lungs have a moist lining and are highly
vascularized; Oxygen in the air dissolves in the moist lining; and diffuses into the blood across
the wall of the capillaries; it is then transported to all tissues of the body as oxyhaemoglobin;
Carbon (IV) Oxide from body tissues is carried by blood and diffuses into the alveoli; then
pumped out through the nostrils;
Skin. Oxygen in the surrounding air/water dissolves in the moist skin; and diffuses into the
blood in the blood capillaries beneath the skin; Carbon (IV) Oxide in the blood diffuses out of
the blood capillaries through the moist skin; and into the surrounding air/water.
RESPIRATION
41. Describe the process of aerobic respiration in a living cell. (15 marks)
Response
Glucose is first broken down in the cytoplasm; in the absence of oxygen; into two molecules of
ATP; and pyruvic acid; a process called glycolysis; Pyruvic acid enters the mitochondrion; where
it is converted into acetyl co-enzyme A; in the presence of oxygen; Acetyl co-enzyme A joins the
krebs cycle; in which it is broken down to Carbon (IV) Oxide, water and energy; The energy is
used to make adenosine triphosphate; which is a complex organic molecule containing

adenosine; and three phosphate groups; When the bond between the phosphate groups is
hydrolyzed; energy is released;
42. Describe the economic importance of anaerobic respiration. (15 marks)

Response
 Brewing of alcoholic drinks; such as wine, beer and spirit;
 Baking/leavening of bread; in which yeast ferments the small amount of sugar in dough
to Carbon (IV) Oxide and ethanol; The Carbon (IV) Oxide is entrapped in the dough
causing it to rise;
 Manufacture of milk products;
Bacteria of the genus Lactobacillus bring about souring of milk; some of which is
flavoured to form yoghurt.
Cheese is also made from solidified milk proteins using different micro-organisms;
 Manufacture of organic acids; such as citric, butyric and oxalic acids; using micro-
organisms;
 Sewage treatment; in which certain bacteria are introduced into sewage to break down
the organic substances in the sewage;
 Making of silage; through the fermentation of green fodder;
 Production of biogas; using methane bacteria; which breaks down organic matter
releasing methane gas; which is the major component of biogas;
EXCRETION AND HOMEOSTASIS

43. Describe the mechanisms of excretion by terrestrial green plants. (15 marks)
Response
Diffusion;
Oxygen, a by-product of photosynthesis and Carbon (IV) Oxide from respiration; diffuse from
the leaves through the stomata; Carbon (IV) Oxide also diffuses from the stems through lenticels;
Transpiration;
Excess water in form of water vapour is lost by transpiration through the stomata;
Guttation;

Some plants especially those in hot and humid areas release liquid water and excess salts; by
guttation through hydathodes;
Exudation;
Resins/ tannins are exuded through the bark of the stem;
Deposition;
Some by-products such as nicotine/caffeine/pyrethrin/ cocaine are converted into non-toxic
forms; and deposited in leaves/fruits/flowers; and the plant gets rid of them when these structures
fall;
Some by-products such as oils/tannins/gums/resins/alkaloids are deposited in the inner dead
tissues such as xylem;
44. Describe how excretion takes place in fresh water amoeba. (15 marks)
Response
 Gaseous wastes such as Carbon (IV) Oxide; diffuses out of the cell; across the cell
membrane; due to existence of a diffusion gradient between the cell cytoplasm and the
surrounding water;
 Excess water and ammonia is released through contractile vacuoles; The surrounding
water is hypotonic to the cell cytoplasm; water is therefore drawn into the cell; by
osmosis; The cell forms a contractile vacuole; into which excess water is actively pumped;
The vacuole is surrounded by several mitochondria; which supply energy needed for
excretion; The water contains ammonia and dissolved Carbon (IV) Oxide; On attaining
maximum size, the contractile moves to the cell membrane; merges with it and
discharges the water together with the dissolved excretory products;
45. Describe the structure and functions of various parts of the human skin. (20 marks)
Response
 Cornfied layer; to protect the skin against mechanical damage; bacterial infection; water
loss;
 Granular layer; forms cornified layer;
 Malpighian layer; form granular layer; contains melanin which protects skin against
ultraviolet rays;
 Sebaceous glands; produce sebum to make skin supple; and water proof; sebum is also
antiseptic;
 Blood vessels; for temperature regulation;
 Sensory nerve endings/ and receptors; for detection of changes in external environment;

 Sweat glands; produce sweat which evaporates and cools the body; sweat also removes
waste products from the skin;
 Hair; regulates body temperature;
 Subcutaneous fat; for insulation against heat loss;
46. How is the mammalian skin adapted to its functions? (20 marks)
Response
 The skin is made up of epidermis and dermis;
 The outermost layer is known as cornified layer; made of dead cells that protect it against
mechanical damage/desiccation/microbes;
 The granular layer; is made up of living cells that give rise to cornified layer;
 The malpighian layer; with actively dividing cells that give rise to new epidermal cells;
malpighian layer contains melanin; that protects the skin against ultra-violet rays by
absorbing them;
 Has sweat gland/endorific glands; that produce sweat when hot which evaporates (carrying
with it latent heat of vaporization) thus reducing the body temperature; under cold conditions,
little or no sweat is produced thus heat is conserved; the sweat contains water, sodium
chloride, uric acid, urea hence the skin acts as an excretory organ;
 Has hair; the hair stands erect to trap air when temperature is low to insulate/reduce heat
loss/the hair lies flat to allow heat loss when the temperature is high;
 Has nerve endings; which are sensitive to stimuli such as heat, cold, pain, pressure, touch;
 Has subcutaneous fats/Adipose tissue; that insulates the body against heat loss;
 Has sebaceous glands; which secretes sebum, an antiseptic/water repellant that prevent
drying/cracking of skin/make skin supple;
 Has arterioles that vasodilate when temperatures are high to lose heat by
radiation/convection; and vasoconstrict when temperature is low to conserve heat/minimize
heat loss;
 Has blood vessels/capillaries/arterioles; that supply food/oxygen/nutrients/and remove
excretory products from the cells;
47. Describe how excretion takes place in the mammalian kidney. (20 marks)
Response
Blood reaches the kidney nephron through the afferent arteriole; which branches highly to form the
glomerulus; the afferent arteriole has a wider lumen/diameter; than the efferent arteriole(leaving
the bowmans capsule) ; this causes higher pressure in the glomerulus; that results into ultra
filtration; the ultra filtered materials include glucose, amino acids, vitamins, hormones, salts, urea and
water; which form the glomerular filtrate; large materials such as white blood cells, red blood cells
and blood proteins are not ultra filtered ( hence remain in the blood); the filtrate flows to the
proximal convoluted tubule; where all glucose and amino acids are selectively reabsorbed back into
the blood stream; by active transport; The filtrate flows to the loop of henle; where water is
reabsorbed by osmosis into the blood stream; and sodium and chloride ions are actively pumped
from the ascending loop of henle into the blood; under influence of aldosterone hormone; the
filtrate flows into the distal convoluted tubule; where more water is reabsorbed; and mineral
salts too into the blood; The filtrate flows into collecting ducts; from where more water is
reabsorbed; under influence of ADH/vasopressin; the remaining filtrate is called urine; and is

emptied into the urinary bladder via pelvis and ureter; and passed out of the body through
urethra;
48. Describe the roles of hypothalamus and pituitary glands in osmoregulation. (15marks)
Response
The hypothalamus contains osmoreceptor cells; which are sensitive to changes in osmotic
pressure of blood passing through them;
When the osmotic pressure of blood goes up beyond normal; the osmoreceptor cells
stimulate the pituitary glands; to release more anti-diuretic hormone; into the bloodstream;
ADH is carried to the kidneys; where it increases the permeability of kidney tubules to
water; so that more water is reabsorbed; from the glomerular filtrate into the bloodstream;
This leads to production of little but highly concentrated urine; leading to conservation of
water;
When the osmotic pressure of blood falls below normal; little or no ADH is released by the
pituitary glands; This results in less reabsorption of water in the kidney tubules; leading to
production of copious amounts of dilute urine;
49. Describe the role of the liver in homeostasis in the human body ( 20 marks)
Response
Regulation of blood glucose;
Increase in blood sugar level above normal is detected by the hypothalamus which sends
impulses to the (beta cells of the) pancreas; which secrete insulin hormone; insulin stimulates the
liver cells to convert excess glucose to glycogen; Further excess glucose is converted to fats;
Excess glucose is also oxidized to energy, Carbon (IV) oxide and water;
When blood sugar level decreases below the normal level, the (alpha) cells of the pancreas are
stimulated to secrete glucagon hormone; that stimulates the liver cells to convert glycogen to
glucose; fats/ amino acids are converted to glucose; and there is reduced oxidation of glucose;
until the normal level of blood sugar is attained.
Deamination;
Excess amino acids are deaminated; to form amino group and a carbohydrate residue; the amino
group is converted to ammonia which combines with carbon (IV) oxide to form urea; that is
excreted through the kidney/ the skin as sweat; The carbohydrate residue is broken down to
release energy/converted to glycogen and stored/used to synthesize cellular structures;
Detoxification;
Poisonous substances are converted to less harmful compounds;
Thermoregulation/ maintenance of body temperature;

Heat is generated (in the liver) by chemical activities; the heat is distributed in the body by blood;

50. Describe the role of the following in homeostasis. (20 marks)
a. Insulin and glucagon
b. Antiduretic hormone/ADH/Vasopressin
c. Fibrinogen
Response
(a) Insulin and glucagon
 Insulin is produced by pancreas when blood sugar increases beyond normal; it stimulates
conversion of glucose to glycogen; which is stored in liver/muscles; restoring blood sugar
level;
 Glucagon is produced by pancreas when blood sugar decreases below normal; it stimulates
conversion of glycogen; stored in liver/muscles; to glucose which is released into
bloodstream restoring blood sugar level;

(b) Antiduretic hormone/ADH/Vasopressin
 Is produced by pituitary glands when there is less water/high osmotic pressure/arise above
normal salt concentration in the blood; it increases permeability of kidney tubules; hence
increased reabsorption of water; thus lowering osmotic pressure of body fluids/blood/body
cells;
 When there is more water/lower osmotic pressure/decreased salt concentration in blood; little
or no ADH is produced; less water reabsorbed; hence more water lost in urine/more dilute
urine; hence raising the osmotic pressure of body fluids/blood/body cells;

(c) Fibrinogen
 When a blood vessel is cut, there is exposure of blood platelets to the air; this triggers
fibrinogen to be converted into fibrin; which plugs the cut surface/clots; preventing body
fluids/blood from being lost; thus conserving the salts and water in the body;
51. Describe how urea is formed and removed from a mammalian body. (20 marks)
Response
 Urea is formed from excess amino acids; which are obtained from digestion of proteins; and
from the breakdown of protoplasm;
 the excess amino acids are deaminated; in the liver forming ammonia; and a carbohydrate
residue;
 ammonia combines with Carbon (IV) Oxide; in the ornithine/urea cycle; to form less toxic
urea;
 the carbohydrate residue is oxidized to release energy; or is stored as glycogen; and used
later;
 urea is transported in blood plasma; to the kidneys;
 in the kidneys, ultrafiltration takes place; and urea is passed into the Bowmans capsule; and
then into the tubules together with water and other substances; to form urine; urea is not
reabsorbed back into the blood stream but passed out in urine;
 small amounts of urea are also excreted from the sweat glands in sweat;
52. Describe body temperature regulation in human beings. (20 marks)

Response
 human beings are homoiothermic/ regulate their body temperature; to keep it relatively
constant;
 heat loss is mainly by breathing out, urine, faeces, skin radiation/conduction/evaporation of
sweat;
 changes in body temperature are detected by the hypothalamus; which sends impulses to
various effectors in the body;
 the effectors on receiving the impulses respond to correct any body temperature deviations;
by negative feedback mechanisms;
 when body temperature rises above normal range; sweating increases; during which latent
heat of vaporization is absorbed from the skin to evaporate the sweat; thereby reducing the
temperature/cooling the body; Vasodilation of skin arterioles occurs; increasing heat supply
to the skin to encourage heat loss by radiation; Hair erector pilli muscles relax; causing the
hair to lie flat on the skin surface; allowing more heat to escape;
 when body temperature falls below normal range; sweating reduces/ceases; erector pilli
muscles contract to make the hair erect; to trap more air to increase insulation against heat
loss; Metabolic activities increase; to generate more heat; The skin arterioles vasoconstrict; to
reduce heat supply to the skin surface; shivering occurs to generate more heat;
53. (a) Describe how mammals regulate body temperature. (12 marks)
(b) What is the significance of maintaining a constant sugar level in the body? (8 marks)
Response
(a) the body temperature of a mammal is kept constant;
 to maintain this temperature the mammal must be able to balance its heat loss against heat
gain;
 a mammal loses heat through breathing out, urine, faeces, skin radiation and evaporation of
sweat;
 a mammal generates heat by the activity of its muscles, by its general body metabolism/ in
respiration and in chemical activities;
 in hot conditions a mammal can increase heat loss by sweating; vasodilation; keeping hair
flat on the surface of the skin; reduction in metabolic rate;
 In cold conditions a mammal can reduce heat loss by shivering; vasoconstriction; hair being
erect to trap a layer of air around the skin; for insulation; and generation of heat by increase
in metabolic rate;
(b) Body cells are surrounded by tissue fluids that are isotonic to the cytoplasm of the cell; If
sugar level is higher than normal, it makes the tissue fluid to be hypertonic to the cytoplasm
of body cells; This will cause the body cells to lose water; to the tissue fluid by osmosis;
thereby increasing the concentration of cell contents; and this will change the conditions
especially pH; which will interfere with proper functioning of the cell; If blood sugar is
lower than normal, the cytoplasm gains water by osmosis; diluting the cell contents; thereby
altering the physiology or proper functioning of the cell.
54. Describe how desert animals deal with the problem of water shortage in their habitat.
(15marks)
Response
 Their nephrons have long loops of henle; which increases reabsorption of water; hence
water is conserved; The nephrons also have few and smaller glomeruli; to reduce
ultrafiltration; hence less water is lost in urine;
 Most of them produce their nitrogenous wastes in form of uric acid and in some cases
urea; uric acid is less toxic; and requires very little water to excrete; thus enabling the
animal to conserve water;
 Most of them such as camels have tissues tolerant to water loss; hence can withstand
dehydration to a greater extent;
 Desert mammals tend to metabolize fats rather than carbohydrates; since fats produce
more metabolic water; which they use.
 Some use behavioral means; such as aestivation; and moving to the shade to evade sun
heat;
55. (a)Explain how structural features in terrestrial plants affect their rate of transpiration.(13
marks)
(b) Explain how the human skin brings about cooling of the body on a hot day. (7 marks)
Response
(a) Plants in arid/semi-arid/desert habitats have leaves covered with thick/waxy cuticle that
are water proof/impermeable to water allowing for reduced rate of transpiration.
 Sunken stomata in some desert/semi-arid areas plants have water vapour accumulating in
the pits reducing rate of transpiration as moisture in the pits is not carried away by wind.
 Most plants have few or no stomata on the upper surface of the leaf/more stomata on the
lower surface or sheltered from direct sunlight, small stomata/small stomata size thus
reducing rate of transpiration.
 Plants with small/needle like leaves/spines expose less surface area hence reduced rate of
transpiration.
 Leaves with shiny surfaces reflect light resulting in reduced leaf temperature thus reducing
rate of transpiration.
 Some plants have leaves covered with scales to trap a large amount of moisture on the leaf
surface reducing transpiration.
Plants growing in wet habitats have thin layer of cuticle which allow high rate of
transpiration.
 Broad leaves expose large surface area to increase water loss.
 Many stomata on both surfaces of the leaf/large stomatal aperture to increase water loss
(b) Erector pilli muscle relax and hair lies flat, trapping less air thus reducing insulation/more
heat lost
 Blood arterioles in the skin vasodilate and more blood is brought near skin surface
increasing heat loss by radiation/convection.
 Sweat glands release more sweat to the skin surface the sweat takes away heat from the
body when it evaporates
CLASSIFICATION II
56. Describe the economic importance of

a. Fungi (9 marks)
b. Bacteria. (11 marks)
Response
a. Fungi
 Some cause food spoilage; e.g. bread mould/mucor/rhizopus
 Some cause human diseases e.g. ringworm;
 Some used as food; e.g. mushrooms
 Some are used in production of antibiotics; e.g. penicillin from penicillium
 Some cause plant diseases; e.g. potato/tomato blight by Phytophthora infestans
 Yeast is used in brewing alcohol; and bread baking;
 Yeast is a source of vitamin B;
 Some fungi are decomposers; hence recycle/release nutrients from dead organic matter;
b. Bacteria
 Manufacture of antibiotics; butter/cheese; enzymes such as invertase/amylase; vinegar/acetic
acid/lactic acid/citric acid;
 Brewing of alcohol
 Tanning of leather;
 Curing of tea/tobacco leaves/coffee leaves;
 Preparation of silage;
 Fermentation of milk;
 Sewage treatment in septic tanks;
 Saprophytic bacteria decompose dead organic matter to form humus;
 Symbiotic bacteria are used for digestion in ruminants;
 Some fix nitrogen hence increase soil fertility;
 Denitrifying bacteria reduce soil fertility by breaking down nitrates to form nitrogen gas
which escapes into the atmosphere;
 Some cause animal/human/plant diseases;
 Some cause food decay/spoilage;
57. a. Sate the differences between dicotyledonous and monocotyledonous plants. (7 marks)
b. Using specific examples state the economic importance of insects. (13 marks)
Response
a. Differences between dicotyledonous and monocotyledonous plants
Dicotyledonous plants Monocotyledonous plants

i. Seeds with two cotyledons  Seeds with one cotyledon;
ii. Leaves with network venation  Leaves with parallel venation;
iii.Leaf stalk in form of a petiole  Leaf stalk in form of a sheath;
iv.Leaf has a midrib  Leaf lacks midrib;
v. Stem vascular bundles arranged in a ring  Vascular bundles in stem scattered;
vi.Secondary growth occurs  No secondary growth;
vii. Tap root system
 Fibrous root system;

viii. Root xylem star-shaped at the center  Root xylem in a ring alternating with phloem;
ix. Floral parts in 4s or 5s or their multiples  Floral parts in 3’s or multiples of 3
b. Economic importance of insects.

Beneficial effects
(i) Food; many insects are utilized by human beings directly as food- either raw, roasted,
fried, dried depending on community and the type of insect. They are a rich source of
proteins; e.g. locusts, grasshoppers, white ants;
(ii) Food chains; insects form important links in many food chains, either as predators or
prey. As prey they serve as food for many birds, mammals, amphibians and fish;
(iii) Pollinators; e.g. bees, butterflies;
(iv) Biological control of pests and other organisms; e.g. ladybirds, praying mantis,
assassin bugs, aphids;
(v) Aesthetics; e.g. butterflies, fireflies;
(vi) Honey; from bees;
(vii) Litter feeders e.g. beetles; contribute to decomposition;
Harmful effects
(i) Pests; e.g. aphids, army worms, weevils, locusts, stock borers;
(ii) Disease vectors; e.g. mosquitoes, tsetse flies;
(iii) Dirt and pathogen carriers e.g. houseflies, cockroach;
(iv) Sting and bite; e.g. bees, wasps, termites;
ECOLOGY
58. Explain how abiotic factors affect plants. (20 marks)
Response
(a) Wind- On windy conditions, transpiration rate increases; wind disperses fruits/seeds; wind an
agent of pollination;
(b) Temperature- changes in temperate affect rate of photosynthesis/other Biochemical

reaction/metabolic/enzymatic reactions;
 Increase in temperature increases transpiration acc. Converse
(c) Light-green plants need light for photosynthesis; some plants need it for flowering. Some
seeds (like lettuce) require it for germination.
(d) Humidity when humidity is low transpiration rate increases; (acc the converse)
(e) pH Each plant requires specific pH to grow well (acidic or Alkaline or neutral)
(f) Salinity- plants with salt tolerant tissues (e.g. mangrove) grow in saline areas; plants in
estuaries adjust to salt fluctuations;
(g) Topography- North facing slopes in temperate lands have more plants than south facing
slopes; (acc converse) windward side plants have normal growth, leeward side plants are stunted;

(h) Rainfall/water fewer plants in dry areas where rainfall is less (acc converse)
 plants require water for germination; and for dispersal of fruits/seeds;
 water is a raw material for photosynthesis;
 water is a solvent for minerals;
 water provides turgidity;
 water is a medium of transport of plant nutrient (in plant tissues)
(i) Pressure Atmospheric pressure variations affects

- Availability of CO2 that affects photosynthesis;
- Availability of O2 for respiration;
- Low pressure increases rate of transpiration;
(j) Mineral salts - plants thrive/grow well in soils with mineral salts;
Plants living in soils with deficiency of particular elements have special methods of obtaining it;
59. Of what value are the following practices to a farmer? (20 marks)
a. Liming of soil
b. Organic farming
c. Mulching
d. Keeping transplanted seedlings in shade.
Response
a. Liming: After repeated use of inorganic fertilizers; the pH of the soil becomes more acidic;
Adding lime to the soil neutralizes the acidity; thus increasing the pH back towards
neutral/alkaline;
b. Organic farming: This practice encourages the use of organic fertilizers such as cow dung,
compost or farmyard manures instead of the inorganic fertilizers; This practice is being
enhanced by use of Enzyme- Micro-organism (EM) fertilizer a substance containing
micro-organisms that release enzymes for faster decomposition of the organic matter;
Advantages:
 Stabilizes the pH of the soil/does not lead to increased acidity;
 Increases water holding capacity of soil; therefore regulates the soil humidity;
 Nutrient binding hence decreased leaching; meaning less variations in soil pH and salinity;
The soil does not become quickly exhausted;
 Organic matter acts as food for soil micro-organisms; hence more nutrient accumulation;
e.g. through nitrogen fixation;
 Organic matter encourages better aeration in the soil; leading to increased microbial activity;
c. Mulching: this is covering soil between crops with dry leaves/grass; This reduces the rate of
evaporation from the soil; hence maintains soil humidity; When the mulch decomposes, it
contributes to soil fertility;
d. Keeping transplanted seedlings in shade: the shielded air around the plants has cooler
temperature; and is less exposed to wind; hence reduced water loss by transpiration from the
seedlings; Humidity in the soil is also regulated;
60. a. Explain how food as a factor regulates the population of animals in an ecosystem. (8
marks)

b. Describe the flow of energy from the sunlight through different trophic levels in an
ecosystem. (12 marks)
Response
(a) when there is sufficient food, there will be a high reproductive rate; hence an increase in
population;
 sufficient food will minimize competition and emigration; hence high increase in
population growth rate;
 limited supply of food results into competition hence emigration/death; leading to a
decrease in population size;
 little food will result to starvation; leading to low birth rate hence decrease in population
size;
(b) all energy in an ecosystem comes from the sun; most of it is lost in form of heat;
 small amount of solar energy is trapped by green plants and algae/producers; and is used in
photosynthesis; to manufacture food/chemical energy;
 some of the plants are eaten by herbivores; passing the chemical energy to them;
 some of the herbivores are eaten by carnivores which acquire the energy;
 the food in plants and animals is used in respiration; to drive various biochemical processes;
 during respiration, some of the energy is lost in form of heat;
 some energy is lost through defecation/excretion;
 when plants and animals die; their organic matter is converted into heat by decomposers,
that is lost in the ecosystem;
61. Describe the nitrogen cycle ( 20 marks)
Response
During thunderstorm/ lightning; nitrogen gas combines with O2 to form nitrogen oxides;
nitrogen oxides dissolve in rain water to form nitric and nitrous acids; the acids are deposited in
the soil by rain; and combine with chemical substances to form nitrates/ nitric acids dissolve to
form nitrates; which are absorbed by plants;
Symbiotic bacteria/ such as Rhizobium; which are found in root nodules of leguminous plants;
fix free nitrogen to nitrates;
Free living bacteria/ Clostridium/ Azotobacter; fix nitrogen to nitrates

Nostoc algae/ chlorella/ anabaena; fix nitrogen to nitrates.
Plants use Nitrates to form plant proteins;

Animals feed on plants and convert plant proteins into animal proteins;
Plants/ animals die and are decomposed; by bacteria/fungi/ saprophytes; the decomposing plants/
animals/ release ammonia; which is converted to nitrites; by Nitrosomonas/Nitrococcus bacteria;
Nitrites are converted to nitrates; by Nitrobacter;
Nitrates in the soil can be converted to free nitrogen/ denitrification by some fungi; and
Pseudomonas/ Thiobacillus/denitrifying bacteria;
62. Describe causes and methods of controlling water pollution ( 20 marks)

Response
It is addition of substances into water that may cause harm to organisms and are disruptive to
ecosystem.
The causes of water pollution include:
 Industrial effluents that may be toxic chemicals which may kill the aquatic organisms; It can
be controlled by treating the effluents before discharging them;
 Hot water that reduces concentration of oxygen killing the animals; It is controlled by
placing high penalties on factories discharging hot water;
 Oil spillage from oil tankers that reduces oxygen in water, penetration of light and clog
feathers of marine birds; It can be controlled by regular servicing of oil tankers;
Domestic effluents that include:
 Untreated sewerage that causes water borne diseases; It can be controlled by treating
sewerage before being discharged;
 Detergents that cause eutrophication causing reduced oxygen concentration; It is controlled
by banning phosphate based detergents;
Agricultural effluents that include:
 Pesticides and herbicides that have heavy metals that they may accumulate along the food
chain killing the higher animals; It is controlled by use of biological control of pests;
 Inorganic fertilizers that have nitrates and sulphates that cause eutrophication; is controlled
by use of organic fertilizers;
 Silting due to soil erosion reduces penetration of light to the plants and clog respiratory
surfaces of animals; it is controlled by proper methods of controlling soil erosion and proper
farming methods;
63. Explain how various activities of man have caused pollution of air. (20 marks)
Response
Sulphur based chemicals e.g. Sulphur (IV) Oxide; produced by (food preserving) industries;
affect gaseous exchange/makes acid rain/damage plant leaves; acc. Chlorine gas, oxides of
nitrogen, hydrogen sulphide from sewage/decomposing organic matter/mines/any correct
gaseous pollutant.
Aerosols; sprayed to control plant diseases/pests; also affects respiratory organs of animals; The
chemicals are residual and persistent (not easily broken down)/depletion of ozone layer by CFC;
acc. Pesticides, herbicides. Insecticides, paint sprays, agro-chemicals acaricides etc.
Smoke/fumes; produced in areas with (heavy) industries/fire/ (high density) of motor vehicles;
which burn fuels/oils/coals/wood; This cause Carbon (II) Oxide poisoning; Affect respiratory
sytem/ Visibility;
Fumes also settle on leaves and stop photosynthesis; excessive production of Carbon (IV) Oxide
causes green house effect/temperature inversion as a result of heating in lower layers of
atmosphere.
Sound/noise; produced incessantly/continuously by machines/heavy vehicles/aeroplanes/trains;

affect hearing in animals; RJ. hearing diseases for affect hearing.
Dust; produced in industries producing cement generate dust; which finally settles on plant
leaves limiting photosynthesis;

Cutting/removal of vegetation; interferes with carbon cycle;
Radioactive emissions; from mines/bombs/nuclear reactors; those that produce energy may
cause cancer/mutations/death;
64. (a) Describe how soil pollutants can affect the growth of plants. (10 marks)
(b) Describe how halophytes are adapted to living in their habitat. (10 marks)
Response
(a) air pollutants; e.g. Sulphur (IV) Oxide form sulphuric acid with rain water which alters soil pH;
which affects the plants that cannot tolerate acidic soil;
 most aerosols sprayed to control pests and diseases; precipitate in the soil and are taken by
plants which increase its concentration. This increases the toxicity in plants which absorb
them;
 petroleum products due to spillage by tankers of fuel oils; Plant roots cannot obtain oxygen
in oil saturated soils; causing death of plants;
 agricultural/inorganic fertilizers; the heavy metals are not used up by plants and eventually
soil micro-organisms cannot inhabit the soils; the organic matter formation slows down, soil
becomes exhausted and life ceases;
 community, household wastes and industrial waste disposal; such as commodities packaged
in metal tins/rubber/plastic containers/scrap metals/glass bottles/polythene papers are a
nuisance to the environment rendering it useless for agricultural purposes;
(b) Halophytes
 concentrate/accumulate salts in their cells; to increase their osmotic pressure within the cell;
so as to be able to absorb water by osmosis;
 some have salt secreting glands in the leaves; which excrete excess salts;
 some have succulent tissues; for storage of water that is absorbed;
 some have large airspaces in the stem and leaves; for storing oxygen to be used in the
submerged parts;
 some have stilt/prop roots; that anchor them properly in the soil;
 some e.g. mangroves have pneumatophores; for gaseous exchange;
65. Describe how xerophytes are adapted to living in their habitat. (20 marks)
Response
 have roots that grow deep; to reach water table far below the ground to absorb water;
 some have shallow roots; that spread widely/extensively; in order to trap water from any
little shower of rain;
 have fleshy/succulent/juicy stems and roots; for storage of water;
 some have photosynthetic cells/chlorenchyma cells in their stems; hence take up the role of
photosynthesis from leaves; which would lose much water;
 some have leaves that are needle-like/scaly/reduced to spines; to reduce surface area for
water loss;
 some have fewer number of stomata; located on the lower surface of leaves; to reduce
transpiration rate.
 stomata are small in size; to reduce water loss.
 some have sunken stomata; to accumulate water; thereby reducing rate of transpiration.
 some have reversed stomatal rhythm; where they open their stomata at night and close them
during the day; to reduce water loss by transpiration.
 some have waxy cuticle; while others have thick cuticle that is waterproof; thereby
preventing excessive loss of water.
 some have a very short life cycle; thus they grow very fast during short rains and mature; to
hand over life to another generation for survival;
 some have thorns on their stems/branches/midribs/leaves; to protect themselves from
browsers/herbivores;
 some roll their leaves; to reduce surface area exposed for water loss.
66. Describe how the following plants are adapted to live in their habitats. (20 marks)
(a) mesophytes
(b) hydrophytes
Response
(a) Mesophytes
 have broad leaves with thin cuticle to allow for transpiration
 have large sized stomata/numerous stomata on both surfaces of leaves to allow loss of more
water by transpiration
 shallow and extensive root system except those in drier areas that have deep roots
 some have very large base due to pressure of buttress/prop roots for anchorage
 those found in rain forests grow very tall to compensate in search of light
 have shiny, glossy leaf surfaces to be able to reflect light rays
 some grow on the surface of other tree plants to be able to get sunlight (epiphytes) e.g. ferns
and bryophytes
 those that cannot reach the top form the undergrowth in the forest and are adapted to carry
out photosynthesis under low light intensity
(b) Hydrophytes
 large number of stomata on the upper leaf surface to increase transpiration rate
 broad leaves to increase surface area for floating/photosynthesis
 have aerenchyma tissues with large airspaces for storage of air to be used for gaseous
exchange/ for buoyancy
 leaves of submerged plants lack cuticle to allow for faster diffusion of gases
 have highly sensitive chloroplasts to light enabling them to photosynthesize under low light
intensity.
 leaves of submerged plants are deeply dissected to provide a large surface area for
absorption of light/gaseous exchange
67. a. What is meant by the following terms? (4 marks)

i. Habitat
ii. Ecosystem
iii. Autecology
iv. Synecology
b. Explain how each of the following may affect population growth of organisms in a
habitat. (16 marks)
i. Parasitism
ii. Competition
iii. Human activities
Response
a. Definition of terms
i. Habitat a specific locality with a set of factors/conditions in which an organism
lives
ii. Ecosystem a biological unit composed of living and nonliving components whose
interactions lead to a stable and self-sustaining system;
iii. Autecology is the study of a single species within a community
iv. Synecology is the study of several species within an ecosystem
b. How each of the following may affect population growth of organisms in a habitat.
i. Parasitism
 parasites may kill the host, deprive it of its food, or may make it weak/sick; This reduces
reproductive ability; and makes the host be easily preyed on by predators; hence the
population of host is likely to reduce;
ii. Competition
 organisms compete for food, light, water, shelter and mates among other resources;
 competition leads to weaker ones migrating or dying; hence their population decreases;
 the population of the stronger organisms increases;
iii. Human activities

 pesticides/agrochemicals reduce population of organisms
 deforestation destroys plants reducing their population and causing the death or emigration
of animals
 construction of physical amenities/mining destroys habitats of organisms
 poaching/hunting/fishing reduce population of organisms
 environmental conservation through afforestation and reafforestation may lead to increase in
population of organisms
 population control methods e.g. family planning, selective breeding may decrease
population
68. (a) Describe how animals living in the desert are adapted to living in their habitat. (10
marks)
Response
 desert reptiles, insects and some birds have a waterproof outer covering that prevents excessive
loss of water.
 some animals have very few sweat glands in their skin to minimize water loss.
 some have modified kidneys i.e. long loop of henle/tubules to increase surface area for
reabsorption of water and reduced number of glomeruli and small Bowman s capsule for water
conservation
 some have flat hooves to increase the surface area so as not to sink in the sand during
locomotion
 most animals e.g. kangaroo rat metabolise fats during respiration for their energy requirement.
metabolic water from these reactions is retained in the body for use to supplement the water
requirement.
 have tissues tolerant to very high and very low temperatures
 some e.g. camels can withstand high level of dehydration to some extent due to not drinking
water for sometime but when water is available they drink a lot of water quickly to restore the
water lost.
 desert reptiles, insects and birds excrete their nitrogenous wastes in form of a highly
concentrated uric acid which is insoluble, less toxic thus requires very little water for
elimination
 some aestivate to evade very high temperatures
(b) Describe how fresh water animals are adapted to living in their environment. (10
marks)
Response
 produce large quantity of dilute urine by reabsorbing much of the salt in the kidney
 salts lost in the water is replaced through ingestion of food and through the active intake of
salts in the gills
 fish excrete their nitrogenous wastes in the form of toxic ammonia that require large quantity
of water for elimination
 due to low concentration of oxygen, reptiles and mammals often come to the surface for
breathing.
69. (a) Describe how the quadrat method can be used to estimate the population of various
species of plants in a habitat. (6 marks)
(b) Explain how to use the capture-recapture method when studying the population of
grasshoppers in a given habitat. State the assumptions made during the study. (14 mks)
Response
a. How to use the quadrat method
 measure the total area of the habitat;
 draw/throw/mark out quadrat in the area of study at random;
 identify/label various species of the plants of each species;
 repeat the process and work out the average per quadrat for each species;
 calculate the total average per quadrat for each species;
 calculate the total number of different species in the area/calculate the total population for
the total area of the habitat;
b. Using the capture-recapture method and the assumptions made

 by use of a marked string or a tape measure determine the area of study;
 in the area of study capture/catch as many grasshoppers as possible using appropriate safe
method e.g. a sweep net;
 count the number of grasshoppers captured and record the number;
 using a waterproof paint, mark the animals captured and then release them back into their
habitat;
 allow time for the animals to re-distribute themselves e.g. 24 to 48 hours;
 capture the organisms again for the second time but this time both marked and unmarked;
 count the number of grasshoppers in the second catch which include both the marked and
unmarked and record the number;
 count the number of the unmarked grasshoppers and record;
 determine the total population using the following formula
P = FM x SC;
MR
where P = Total population

SC = Total number of grasshoppers in the second catch
FM = Total number of grasshoppers in the first catch
MR = Number of marked and recaptured
Assumptions made during the study

 no change in the population size of the grasshoppers due to emigration or immigration;
 no death occurred;
 the grasshoppers re-distributed themselves in the habitat after release;
 the marks did not alter the behavior of the animals;
70. (a) What is parasitism? (1 mark)

(b) Describe how the tapeworm is adapted to its parasitic mode of life. (19 marks)
Response
(a) An association between two organisms where one benefits and the other is adversely affected;
Or an association where an organism lives in or on another living or organism obtaining food
from it and causing harm without necessary killing it;
(b) Has hooks/suckers: for attachment to wall of intestines;

 Long; to increase surface area for absorption of food;
 Secretes enzymes/mucus inhibitor substance/anti enzymes; to neutralize digestive
enzymes;
 Hermaphroditic; to ensure self reproduction/ self fertilization;
 Production of many eggs; to ensure survival;
 Segments; for egg dispersal;
 More than one host; for transmission; e.g Taenia solium has pig as intermediate host;
 Anaerobic/has tissues tolerant to low oxygen tension; to survive in the gut with low O2;
71. The government of Kenya is very much concerned about the destruction of our
environment and the need to conserve it.
(a) In which ways is the environment being destroyed?
(b) Suggest possible ways of conserving it.
Response
(a) Ways in which the environment is being destroyed
i. pollution
This includes:
 Air pollution through waste gases/smoke from vehicles, dust particles from factories and
crushing of stones from quarries.
 Noise pollution mainly in urban centres due to industries, planes, loud music in bars,
matatus, discos e.t.c.
 Water pollution due to domestic wastes, factory effluents, aerosols, agrochemicals
 Soil pollution due agrochemicals, disposal of factory/domestic wastes, disposal of polythene
bags
ii. destruction of vegetation
This is caused by
 deforestation
 overgrazing
 farming
 construction of roads, buildings and factories
 forest fires
 mining
iii. destruction of natural habitats
 due to human activities such as farming, constructions, mining and deforestation
iv. overfishing
v. poaching
(b) Possible ways of conserving the environment

 domestic/factory wastes/effluents be treated before released into water bodies
 avoid indiscriminate cutting of trees
 factories removed from overcrowded residential areas or from near natural animal
sanctuaries
 avoid overgrazing
 avoid fires
 better methods of disposal
 tame poaching
REPRODUCTION IN PLANTS AND ANIMALS

72. (a) State the differences between mitosis and meiosis. (4 marks)
(b) State three importance of mitosis (3 marks)
(c) What are the advantages and disadvantages of sexual and asexual reproduction in
plants? (13 marks)
Response
(a) Differences between mitosis and meiosis
Mitosis Meiosis
 results to two daughter cells each  results to four daughter cells each
diploid haploid;
 takes place in somatic cells leading to  takes place in reproductive organs
growth leading to formation of gametes;
 one cell/nuclear division  two successive nuclear/cell divisions;
 no synapsis, no chiasma formation  there is synapsis which may lead to
hence no crossing over and no variation chiasma formation bringing about
crossing over hence variation;
(b) Importance of mitosis

 leads to growth and repair
 basis for asexual reproduction;
 diploid number of chromosomes retained/conservation of genetic information hence parents
and offsprings are identical;
(c) Advantages and disadvantages of sexual and asexual reproduction
Sexual reproduction

Advantages
 results in new desirable varieties/hybrid;
 colonization of new habitats is possible due to dispersal;
Disadvantages
 may result to new undesirable characters;
 takes longer time to maturity;
 dependent on pollination agents;
Asexual reproduction
Advantages
 advantageous characteristics of parent retained;
 takes shorter time to maturity;
 independent of pollination, fertilization or dispersal;
 offspring obtains food from parent in some species;
 allows grafting for desirable qualities;
Disadvantages
 undesirable characteristics passed on to offsprings;
 no genetic variation;
 overcrowding leading to competition;
73. (a) Describe the process of fertilization in a flowering plant (15 marks)
(c) State the changes that take place in a flower after fertilization (5 marks)
Response
a) Pollen grains stick in the stigma surface; the surface of stigma produces a chemical substance;
which stimulates the pollen grain to produce a pollen tube / germinate; The pollen tube grows
down (into the tissues of style) from where it derives nutrients; with the tube nucleus guiding the
growth; The generative nucleus; divides by mitosis; to give rise to two male gamete nuclei;
The embryosac of the ovary divides to form eight nuclei; i.e. one egg cell; two synergids; three
antipodal cells and two polar nuclei;
When pollen tube reaches the micropyl; the tube nucleus disintegrates; one of the male gamete
nucleus fuses with the egg cell; and forms the zygote; The other male nucleus fuses with the two
polar nuclei; to form a triploid endosperm nucleus; The process involves double fertilization.
b) Integument changes into seed coat / testa;

Zygote into embryo;
Ovary into fruit;
Ovule into seed;
Triploid nucleus into endosperm
Style dries up / falls off leaving a scar / corolla dries up (falls off) stamens dry up;
74. Describe how fruits and seeds are suited to their modes of dispersal (20 marks)
Water dispersed fruits / seeds
Response
 Mesocarp / seed has air spaces; thus light / buoyant to float therefore carried away by water;
 The fruit / seeds are protected from soaking by water proof pericarp/testa;

 Fruits have spongy / fibrous pericarp eg coconut; which enclose large air spaces; to become
lighter and float in water as they are carried away;
 Some fruits have outer covering that easily absorb water, swell and burst open to release the
seeds eg water Lily;
Animal dispersed fruits / seeds

 Presence of hooks; for attachment to animals body; thus carried to other places;
 Fruits are brightly coloured ; succulent; aromatic/scented when ripe to attract animals; which
feed on them.
 The seed coats are resistant to digestive enzymes; thus carried to other places in faeces;
 Some are large in size and conspicuous; to be easily seen; by the animal that eats and
disperse them;
Self dispersed fruits / seeds / explosive mechanisms

The dry pods / fruits split (along lines of weakness / sutures); scattering seeds away from parent
plant;
Wind dispersed fruits / seeds

Censor mechanism; in which a perforated capsule is usually loosely attached to a long stalk
which is swayed by wind scattering seeds;
Presence of hairs / wing like structures/ extensions; which increase surface area for buoyancy
making it easy for fruits / seeds to be blown away;
Fruits / seeds are light due to small size; therefore easily carried a ways by wind.
75. a) How is the male gamete in man adapted to its function? (6 marks)
b) Describe the structure and functions of the male reproductive system. (14 marks)
Response
a) The head has a large nucleus; that carries genetic material/chromosomes;
The head has an acrosome; which contains lytic enzymes that digest the egg membranes;
The middle part has numerous mitochondria; that produce energy for movement/swimming;
It has a long tail; for propulsion/swimming/movement;
b) The scrotum/scrotal sac suspends the testes outside the body;

 Testes; contain numerous seminiferous tubules; on whose walls sperms are formed; The
sertoli cells found on the walls of seminiferous tubules nourish sperms; The interstitial
cells found between seminiferous tubules produce male sex
hormones/androgens/testosterone;
 The epididymis; stores sperms temporarily;
 The vas deferens/sperm duct; is a passage of sperms out of the testis;
 The accessory glands; namely seminal vesicle, Cowper s gland and prostate gland,
produce seminal fluid; which nourish spermatozoa/provide a suitable medium for
swimming/neutralize acidity in the vagina;
 The penis; for erection and penetration into the female vagina/to deposit sperms; The
urethra carries semen out of the body; The glans penis is sensitive to stimuli e.g. touch;
76. Describe how the human female reproductive system is adapted to its functions. (20
marks)
Response

 Has ovaries produce ova; and female sex hormones/oestrogen/progesterone;
 ovaries are highly vascularized; so as to supply ovarian tissues with nutrients and oxygen;
and also to remove metabolic wastes;
 the fallopian tubes/oviducts have a funnel shaped end; to ensure the released eggs are
channeled into them; they have smooth muscles in their walls; that contract and relax to
move the ovum along it; walls are lined with cilia; that waft the ovum;
 fallopian tube forms site for fertilization;
 uterus has endometrium; for implantation and development of foetus;
 endometrium is highly vascularized; to nourish embryo and remove wastes;
 myometrium of uterus is muscular; hence expands and relaxes to facilitate the expulsion of
the fully developed foetus during birth; the muscles also allow for stretching to
accommodate the developing foetus;
 cervix is glandular; hence produces a plug of mucus; that prevents entry of pathogens into
the uterus during pregnancy;
 has a vagina; which is the copulatory organ; and birth canal;
 vulva has vestibular glands; which produce mucus that lubricate the vagina during
copulation;
 clitoris has a large number of nerve fibres; for sensitivity; hence sexual stimulation;
77. Describe how the human male reproductive system is adapted to its function. (20
marks)
Response
 The testes hang outside; for lower temperature than the body which is suitable for sperm
production/spermatogenesis;
 Testes are located in the scrotum; for protection;
 Testes have numerous and highly coiled seminiferous tubules; to provide a large surface
area for production of a large number of sperms; to increase chances of fertilization;
 The seminiferous tubules are embedded in interstitial cells; that secrete
androgens/testosterone; responsible for the development of male secondary sexual
characteristics;
 Lining of seminiferous tubules have sertoli cells; that support and nourish the sperms;
 The walls of seminiferous tubules have smooth muscles; that contract and relax to move the
sperms into the epididymis;
 Epididymis is long and highly coiled; to increase surface area for temporary storage of
sperms;
 The epithelium of epididymis is ciliated; to propel the sperms outwards;
 The wall of the vas deferens is muscular; to propel the sperms towards the urethra;
 The accessory glands i.e. seminal vesicle, cowper s gland and prostate gland secrete seminal fluid;
which activates sperms/nourishes sperms/provides an alkaline medium for sperms to swim;
 The penis is highly vascularized; to supply a large volume of blood for erection;
 The penis is made of a spongy erectile tissue; for erection and penetration into the vagina;
 The glans penis has cells sensitive to touch; hence enables erection;
78. Describe how various hormones control menstrual cycle in human beings. (20mks)
Response
The follicle stimulating hormone/F.S.H

 Is secreted by the anterior lobe of pituitary gland immediately after menstruation
 It causes the graafian follicle to develop inside the ovary;
 It also causes the ovarian tissue to secrete Oestrogen hormone
Oestrogen hormone
 Secreted by the ovarian tissue;
 It brings about healing and repair of endometrium following menstruation;
 High levels of oestrogen cause the pituitary glands to secrete Luteinising hormone/L.H
Luteinising hormone/L.H
 It is secreted by the pituitary gland;
 It brings about ovulation and causes the graafian follicle to change into corpus luteum;
corpus luteum secrete hormone progesterone;
Progesterone hormone
 It causes growth and proliferation of the uterine wall lining the endometrium; in preparation
for implantation;
 High levels of progesterone inhibits the secretion of F.S.H and L.H; in-turn the ovary stops
producing oestrogen and progesterone;
 No further ovulation and menstruation occurs;
79. Describe how insect pollinated flowers are adapted to pollination (10mks)
Response
 Large; brightly coloured corolla/petals/ bracts/inflorescence; to attract insects;
 Scented; to attract insects.
 Have nectar guides that direct insects into nectaries which secrete nectar;
 Pollen grains have rough/ sticky surface; to stick on insects body;
 Special shaped corolla tube; to enable insects to land
 Anthers situated inside the flowers; to ensure that they get into contact with the insect;
 Sticky stigma; for pollen to stick and adhere;
80. Describe how new plants arise by asexual reproduction (1 5 marks)
Response
 Lower plants/example Bryophyta/Pteridophyta; produce spores; which develop to new plants;

 Budding/ an outgrowth arises from plant; drop off; and develops into a new plant; common
in lower plants..
 Fragmentation; a segment of the plant breaks off and grows into a
new plant;
 Root/stem tubers/ leaves: possess buds; which develop to new plants;
 Rhizomes and stolons; have terminal buds which produce new plants;
 Corns; have terminal buds; that grow vertically and produce new plants
 Runners; have lateral buds; that produce new plants;

81. Describe the various family planning methods used in controlling human population.
(20 marks)
Response
(a) Rhythm method

 Avoidance of sexual intercourse around the time of ovulation
How it works
 Sperm and egg do not meet
(b) Condom
 Thin rubber sheath worn on erect penis or inserted into female vagina prior to sexual
intercourse
How it works
 Sperm and egg do not meet as sperm is deposited in the teat of the condom
(c) Diaphragm
 Rubber cap placed at the vaginal end of the cervix to cover the cervix
How it works
 It prevents the sperms from entering the uterus hence no fertilization takes place
(d) Pill/hormone/injection
 Synthetic female hormones taken daily/oestrogen and progesterone injection
How they work

 Suppress/inhibit the release of the egg by inhibiting the production of F.S.H. and L.H. by the
pituitary gland hence no ovulation
(e) Spermicides/Foam tablets

 are inserted into vagina before intercourse
How it works
 they kill the sperms hence no fertilization occurs
(f) Intra-uterine devices (I.U.D)/Loop

 are plastic/metal flexible rods placed in the uterus
How it works
 they prevent implantation of the egg in the uterine wall
(g) Sterilization
 consists of vasectomy and tubal ligation
(i) Vasectomy in males

 a simple operation in which the sperm duct/vas deferens is cut and tied
How it works
 it ensures sperm is not part of semen hence no fertilization

(ii) Tubal ligation in females
 a simple operation done on the female whereby the fallopian tubes/oviducts are tied and cut
How it works
 to prevent the egg from reaching the uterus hence no fertilization
(h) Coitus interuptus/withdrawal
 withdrawing of the penis just before ejaculation
How it works
 prevent the release of sperms into the vagina hence no fertilization.
82. a. How is the mammalian placenta adapted to its function? 6 marks

b. Explain the roles of the mammalian placenta. (7 Marks)
a. Has numerous chorionic villi; to increase surface area for exchange of materials;
 Chorionic villi are highly vascularized; to maintain a steep concentration gradient;
 Maternal blood and foetal blood flow in a counter-current manner; to maintain a steep
concentration gradient;
 It is glandular; to produce progesterone and oestrogen hormones;
b. Prevents mixing of maternal and foetal blood;

 Protects the foetus against micro organisms;
 Prevents some harmful chemicals/teratogens passing to the foetus;
 Protects foetal blood vessels from damage by high blood pressure of maternal blood;
 Allows exchange of gases;
 Allows supply of nutrients and water to the foetus;
 Removes metabolic wastes from the foetus to be excreted through maternal blood;
 Produces progesterone and oestrogen;
83. Describe the role of hormones in the human menstrual cycle (20 marks)
Response
Anterior lobe of pituitary gland secretes Follicle Stimulating Hormone; which causes graafian
follicle to develop; in the ovary. It also stimulates ovary tissue/ ovary/ follicle walls; to secret
estrogen; which causes repairs/healing of uterine wall/endometrium; Oestrogen stimulates
inferior lobe of pituitary gland; to produce Luteinizing Hormone; which stimulates ovulation; It
also causes the remains of graafian follicle to change into corpus luteum; L.H stimulates corpus
luteum to secrete progesterone; which causes proliferation of the uterine walls; in preparation of
implantation; progesterone inhibits the production of F.S.H ( by anterior lobe of pituitary) thus
no more follicle develop; and oestrogen production reduces; 14 days later progesterone level
rises and inhibits production of L.H; from anterior lobe of pituitary gland/ The corpus luteum
stops secreting progesterone; and menstruation occurs; when the level of progesterone drops;
anterior lobe of pituitary starts secreting F.S.H again;
84. Give the possible reasons why HIV/AIDS is still rampant in Kenya despite a lot of
awareness creation. (20 marks)
Response
i. Majority of HIV infections are through sexual intercourse; Since sexual intercourse is a very
pleasurable activity; it has become difficult to enforce positive behavior change; This is
because:
 many adolescents engage in sexual activity; through excitement, wrong advice, peer
pressure or even ignorance; These therefore form a reservoir of the disease;
 many people (especially the youth) misuse their leisure time through engaging in sexually
stimulating activities; such as erotic dances, reading pornographic material or watching
similar videos;
 lack of a strict policy and concerted efforts against drug abuse (sale of alcohol to
students/pupils and commercial advertisements); has led to indulgence;
 due to unemployment/moral decay; the society has allowed commercial sex/prostitution to
flourish;
 pervasive behavior; such as homosexuality or rape also occur;
ii. The long incubation period of the HIV virus; makes people complacent; hence engage in
risky sexual behavior before the symptoms start showing;
Note: incubation period of the virus varies from 6 months to over ten years.
iii. Many traditionalists and cultural adherents have opted not to believe/misconstrue/neglect the
HIV/AIDS campaigns; hence the continuation of practices such as wife inheritance;
traditional circumcision; tattooing;
iv. There are bush doctors, quacks and conmen/conwomen who misinform/cheat; people about
cure drugs/miracle cures of HIV/AIDS;
GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT
85. Describe the various phases of a normal growth curve. (20 marks)
Response
Lag phase/ slow growth;
Growth is slow; due to
 Number of cells dividing are few;
 Cells not adjusted to environmental factors;
Exponential phase/Lag phase;

Growth rapid; due to
 Increase in number of cells dividing;
 Cells already adjusted to new environment;
 Food/other factors not limiting; hence no competition for resources;
 Rate of cell increase is higher than rate of cell death;
Decelerating phase;
Slow growth; due to

 Most cells fully differentiated;
 Fewer cells still dividing;
 Environmental factors have become limiting e.g. shortage of oxygen, nutrients;
 Space limited due to high number of cells;
 Accumulation of metabolic wastes;
Plateau phase;
Growth has ceased; due to
 Cell division equals cell death;
 Cells and tissues fully differentiated; therefore no increase in number of cells;
86. Explain the various conditions necessary for seed germination. (20 marks)
Response
i. water
 activates enzymes;
 provides a medium for chemical reactions;
 dissolves the stored food materials;
 is a medium of transport of stored food to the growth regions;
 softens seed coat to facilitate emergence of the radicle;
ii. oxygen
 is necessary for the oxidative breakdown of glucose/stored food; to release energy necessary
for growth;
iii. temperature
 optimum temperature makes the enzymes more active; thereby facilitates faster germination;
very high temperature above optimum range kills the protoplasm of cells and denatures the
enzymes; thereby inhibiting germination; Very low temperature below optimum range
makes the enzymes inactive thereby inhibiting germination;
iv. enzymes
 hydrolyze stored food; into soluble products; e.g. diastase breaks down stored carbohydrates
into glucose/ lipase hydrolyze lipids into fatty acids and glycerol/ protease hydrolyzes
proteins into amino acids;
 respiratory enzymes break down the soluble products to release energy;
 enzymes play a role in conversion of hydrolyzed products to new plant tissues;
v. hormones
 some hormones (e.g. gibberellins and cytokinins) are growth stimulators; hence induce
germination;
 hormones also counteract the effects of germination inhibitors;
vi. seed viability

 only seeds with a mature, healthy and viable embryo can germinate;
 seed must also have sufficient stored food for it to germinate;
87. Describe the role of hormones in plant growth and development. (20 marks)

Response
Indoleacetic acid/Auxins/IAA
 promotes cell division/elongation/influences tropic responses
 Promotes growth and development of adventitious roots on stems
 Promotes formation of woody tissue and repair
 Promotes apical dominance
 Delays falling of leaves and fruits/low concentration leads to formation of abscission layer
that brings about leaf fall
 Promotes seed and bud dormancy/inhibits growth and development of lateral buds
 Promotes fruit formation by parthenocarpy
 Promotes cell differentiation especially in vascular tissue.
 promotes elongation of internodes
 IAA plus cytokinins promote formation of callus tissue during healing of wounds
Gibberellins
 Stimulates rapid cell division leading to root and stem elongation of dwarf varieties
 Breaks both seed and bud dormancy
 Induces flowering in long day plants
 Inhibits growth of adventitious roots
 Induces parthenocarpy in plants
 Retards leaf abscission
 Promotes leaf expansion
Cytokinins
 Enhances cell division in the presence of IAA
 Stimulates leaf growth due to cell enlargement
 Promotes chloroplast development/Stabilizes protein and chlorophyll
 Delays aging of leaves by preventing formation of hydrolytic enzymes which degrade tissues
 Breaks dormancy in seeds
 promotes formation of adventitious roots from stems
 stimulates lateral bud development
 Inhibits apical dominance
 Promotes flowering in some species
 in high concentration it induces enlargement of leaves/in low concentration it encourages leaf
senescence hence leaf fall.
 cytokinins plus IAA promote/induce formation of callus tissue during healing of wounds
Abscisic acid
 Accelerates abscission of leaves/fruits
 high concentration induces closing of stomata
 Inhibits stem elongation
 Inhibits seed germination/hence cause seed dormancy
 inhibits sprouting of buds/induces dormancy in buds
 promotes flowering in pineapples
Ethene/Ethylene/C2H5
 Facilitates uniform ripening and falling of fruits

 induces thickening of stem by promoting cell division and differentiation of cambium
meristem
 inhibits stem elongation
 promotes germination of some seeds
 promotes flowering in pineapples
 causes abscission of leaves/fruits/leaf fall
Florigen
 Promotes flowering
Traumatin
 promotes healing of wounds by callus tissue formation
88. (a) Outline the characteristics of the meristematic tissues. (5mks)

(b) Explain how different meristematic tissues contribute to growth in higher plants.
(l5mks)
Response
(a) Characteristics of meristematic tissues
 The cells have ability to divide mitotically
 The cells remain undifferentiated
 Cells are thin walled.
 Cells have large nucleus;
 Cells have dense cytoplasm;
 The cells have numerous mitochondria;
 Cells lack sap vacuole
b)
i) Apical meristems;
Found near the root and shoot apex;
They are responsible for primary growth (increase in length of shoot and root) at the apex; The
tissue is divided into zones of cell division; cell elongation and cell differentiation;
ii) Vascular cambium;

Found between the xylem and phloem of woody plants;
The cells divide to give rise to secondary xylem and phloem; resulting to increase in girth
(diameter); Secondary parenchyma is formed between adjacent vascular bundles resulting to
secondary growth;
iii) Cork cambium;

It is located beneath the epidermis;
It divides to form secondary cortex and corky cells to the inside and outside respectively;
preventing rupturing of the stem and root when vascular cambium increases the girth.
iv) Intercalary meristem;

Found at base of nodes and leaf sheath in monocots/grasses;
They are responsible for increase in length of leaf and nodes/regrowth of damaged leaves;
v) Floral meristem;
Responsible for the formation and growth of floral parts during flowering;
89. (a) Describe secondary thickening in flowering plants (12 marks)
(a) Describe one method which can be used to measure the average growth of a single
leaf of a plant. (8 marks)
Response
(a) Secondary thickening
 is achieved by dividing cells known as cambium cells i.e. vascular cambium and cork
cambium
 vascular cambium are located between the xylem and phloem of the stem
 the vascular cambium divides radially/sideways to form the cambium ring with the xylem
inside and phloem outside the ring
 cells of the cambium between xylem and phloem of each vascular bundle/intravascular
cambium divide to form secondary phloem outside and secondary xylem inside. In this there
is much more xylem formed than phloem thus pushing the phloem and cambium ring
outwards.
 cells of the cambium between successive vascular bundles/ intervascular cambium divide to
form secondary parenchyma which increases the growth of medullary rays
 This results into secondary growth whose rate of growth depends on the rainfall seasons
 the secondary growth therefore results in annual rings due to rainfall seasons
 the cork cambium also divides to form new cork tissue on outside and secondary cortex on
the inside. The secondary cortex later form collenchyma cells forming the cortex while cork
cells form the bark;
(b) Average growth of a single leaf
Method 1
 choose a young leaf that has just unfolded
 make sure to use the same leaf all through the experiment
 measure the total length of the whole leaf
 record the length
 repeat the measurement at regular intervals until no more change in length is observed
 the average rate of growth is equal to the total increase in length divided by the period of time
taken to achieve the final length
Method 2
 choose a young leaf that has just unfolded
 make sure to use the same leaf all through the experiment
 trace the outline of the whole leaf on a graph paper and work out the area by counting the
number of the small squares enclosed by the traced leaf
 record the area
 repeat the experiment at regular intervals until a constant area is obtained
 the average rate of growth is equal to the total increase in area divided by the period of time
taken to achieve the final area
90. Describe how you would determine the region of growth in the following: (20 marks)
(a) A root of a seedling
(b) A shoot of a seedling
Response
(a) Region of growth in the root of a seedling
 germinate the seedlings
 select the seedling with a radicle measuring 2 3 cm long
 mark the radicle at equal intervals of 2mm using waterproof or permanent ink
 allow the seedling to continue growing downward
 after two days examine the root and compare the marked intervals
 the widest interval is found in the region just behind the tip and is the region of greatest
growth or cell elongation
(b) Region of growth in the shoot of a seedling

 germinate the seedlings
 select the seedling with a plumule measuring 2 3 cm long
 mark the plumule at equal intervals of 2mm using waterproof or permanent ink
 allow the seedling to continue growing upward
 after two days examine the shoot and compare the marked intervals
 the widest interval is found in the region just behind the shoot tip and is the region of greatest
growth or cell elongation
GENETICS
91. (a) Distinguish between continuous and discontinuous variation (2 marks)

(b) Briefly describe the causes of variation among individuals of the same species.(8mks)
(c) With illustrations describe the various types of chromosomal mutations. (10 marks)
Response
(a) Continuous Discontinuous
- Controlled by many genes - Controlled by one or two major genes;
- Exhibits wide range of differences for the same - No intermediate forms;
characteristic/intermediate forms occur. 2mks
(b)Mutations Changes in genes/chromosomes leading to a change in the offspring
Fertilization parental genes combine differently hence passing different traits from the parents
to the offspring
Crossing over chromatids of homologous chromosomes break and rejoin at chiasma this leads
to genetic material crossing from one sister chromatid to the other
Independent assortment of chromosomes during metaphase of first meiotic division

homologous chromosomes come together in pairs and subsequently segregate into daughter cells
independently of each other. It also brings about a wide range of different gametes combination
leading to wide range of variation among individuals of the same species.
(c) Deletion Loss of a portion of a chromatid;
Duplication A section of a chromatid replicates leading to an extra set of genes

Inversion A portion of a chromatid breaks at two points, the middle piece rotates through 180º
then rejoins in inverted position
Translocation some portion of a chromatid breaks off and attaches to another chromatid of a
non homologous chromosome
Non-disjunction addition or loss of a single or whole set of chromosome;
EVOLUTION
92. Discuss the various evidences which show that evolution has taken place. (20 marks)
Palaentology/fossil records;
Response
 Fossils are remains of ancestral forms of organisms accidentally preserved in naturally
occurring materials e.g. sedimentary rocks for many years; They show morphological changes of
organisms over a long period of time; they also show the type of organisms that existed during a
particular geological age; examples human skull, horse limbs etc.
Comparative anatomy:
 Members of a phylum or group shows similarities in structures or organs performing similar
functions; e.g. digestive system, urinary system, nervous system.
 Homologous structures; are of common embryonic origin but modified to perform different
functions; they arose by divergent evolution e.g. pentadactyl limb of vertebrates, beaks of
pinches/birds;
 Analogous structure; structures with different embryonic origins but evolved to perform similar
functions due to exploitation of similar ecological niches; They evolved by convergent evolution;
e.g. wings of birds and those of insects.
 Vestigial structures; are structures that have in the course of time ceased being used and have
therefore become rudimentary/reduced in size; e.g. wings of kiwi/coccyx/appendix in man;
Comparative embryology;
Study of embryos in their early stages of development e.g. those of vertebrates look similar; the
more the similarity the more the evolutionary relationship (recapitulation theory); Acc larvae of
mollusca and annelid (trocophore).
Cell biology;
 Structure and functioning of cells from almost all kinds of organisms are basically similar, All
Eukaryotic cells contain same cell organelles; such as mitochondria, lysosome, etc indicating a
common ancestry;
Geographical distribution;
 Present continents are thought to have been a large land mass joined together; As a result of
continental drift; isolation of members of a species occurred bringing about different patterns
of evolution; example of species that migrated are llamas, jaguars, panthers of South
America, Lions, leopards, cheetahs and Camels of Africa, Tigers of Asia, Marsupials of
Australia

Comparative serology/comparative physiology;
 Blood groups/Rhesus factor/Antigen antibody reactions/ structure of haemoglobin being
similar; reveal some (phylogenetic) relationship among organisms hence common ancestry;
93. How would the personalities below explain why ducks have webbed feet?
a) Lamark
b) Darwin
Response
a) Originally, all ducks had unwebbed feet; because of competition for food they
started using feet as peddles in water; in search of food the feet later developed / acquired webs;
the subsequent generation were all born with webbed feet / inherited webbed feet;
b) Originally , ducks with webbed and unwebbed feet existed; due to variations; determined by
genes webbed feet were better adapted for swimming;
Unwebbed feet were poorly adapted for swimming; Ducks with webbed feet were able to obtain
enough food; from water; and survive to reproductive age; and gave rise to offspring with
webbed feet;
Ducks with un webbed feet were unable to compete / obtain food; hence died before
reproductive age; and never left any offspring; The fittest survive / survival of the fittest; nature
select individuals that are well adapted; and allows them to survive to reproductive age; and
rejects those that are poorly adapted;
94. a. What is natural selection? (3 marks)

b. Describe how natural selection leads to formation of new species. (17 marks)
Response
a. a process by which nature selects those individuals that are well adapted; and allows them to
survive; and rejects those that are poorly adapted;
b. Individuals of the same species show certain variations/differences; caused by mutations; these
variations can be passed on from parents to offsprings; through genetic inheritance; some of the
characteristics/variations become more suitable for the prevailing environmental conditions; due
to selection pressure; Most organisms generally produce more offsprings than the environment
can support; therefore there is always struggle for existence; due to competition; those organisms
that possess favorable characteristics/competitive advantage; survive and reach reproductive age;
passing over their favourable characteristics to their offsprings; The poorly adapted individuals
fail to reach sexual maturity; and therefore do not pass their genes/traits to their offsprings; and
thus perish; and the fittest survive;
95. (a) Describe industrial melanism to show natural selection in action. (10 marks)
(b) Explain how isolating mechanisms may lead to the development of new species. (10
marks)
Response
a. Before industrialization, forests near the cities were inhabited by light coloured (speckled
white) moths; The dark melanic form was rare;
 The light coloured moths easily camouflaged on lichens of tree trunks thus less seen by
predators;

 The light coloured (speckled white) thus increased in population and inhabited the
environment; while the dark coloured moth was easily seen by predators on the light
background thus their number /population went down;
 After industrialization, soot and smoke were released to the environment darkening the
tree trunks and killed the lichens. A dark background on the tree trunks was created;
 The dark melanic form now camouflaged in the dark background thus less predated upon.
 They therefore increased in population/ number;
 The light moth were easily visible against the dark background; they were easily predated
thus their population reduced;
 With time the forests had more dark melanic moths than light moths (speckled white);
b. Isolating mechanisms are factors that isolate/separate one population/deme from another
over a long period of time leading the formation of totally new species; these include:
Geographical isolation;
 This is due to physical barriers e.g. mountains/oceans/lakes/rivers that prevent interbreeding
among the demes;
Ecological isolation;
 This is a barrier where a deme is separated from another deme by occupying a different type
of habitat from the original type; for the reason of breeding, feeding or escaping predation;
Eventually after a long period of separation the organisms in the demes develop into new
species separately.
Behavioral isolation;
 This is due to alteration in behavior of members of a deme e.g. songs in birds that may not be
preferred by members from another deme; and therefore may serve as a barrier for mating
between the two groups;
Genetic isolation;
 Is a barrier due to differences in the genetic makeup which results in inability of members to
reproduce or give rise to fertile offsprings;
Reproductive isolation;
 Is caused by differences in the structure of reproductive organs of members of a deme
making reproduction to be unsuccessful;
 The isolation is also caused by failure in fertilization/incompatibility;
96. (a) Describe how mutations arise. (5 marks)

(b) Explain the significance of mutations in evolution. (15 marks)
Response
(a) Mutations are due to the following

 mutagenic agents; and chemical substances; that may lead to:
 alteration in the normal number of chromosomes;
 change in a portion/structure of a chromosome/chromosomal aberrations;
 change in DNA;

(b) significance of mutations in evolution
Mutations bring about variations; that can be inherited; Some variations are advantageous
while others are disadvantageous; Advantageous variations favour organisms to compete
better; in the struggle for survival; This results in a well adapted organism to its environment;
Those organisms with disadvantageous variations will be discriminated against; and are
therefore eliminated from the population; The well adapted organisms grow to reach
reproductive age; and pass on their advantageous characteristics to their offsprings; and they
are the ones that take part in evolution after a long period of time;
Thus mutation, natural selections and evolution are related; Mutations provide the raw
materials (genes); which are acted upon by natural selection; to produce evolution in a given
direction;
RECEPTION, RESPONSE AND COORDINATION
97. (a) Distinguish between nervous and endocrine communication. (3 marks)

(b) Explain the role of auxins in various tropic responses and state the survival value of
each response. (17 marks)
Response
(a) Differences between nervous and endocrine communication.
Nervous communication Endocrine communication

 speed of transmission is faster  speed of transmission is slow;
 responses are achieved more rapidly  responses are achieved more slowly;
 impulses transmitted through nerves  hormones transmitted in blood;
 responses are short-lived  responses may persist for a long time;
 responses are localized  responses are widespread/has various
target organs;
(b) Role of auxins in tropic responses and the survival value of each response.
(i) Phototropism
 Under uniform light distribution auxins produced from the shoot apex are translocated evenly
down the shoot; therefore there is equal growth rate in the zone of cell elongation; leading to
normal increase in height of the shoot;
 When a shoot is exposed to a unidirectional source of light, light causes lateral migration of
auxins from the lit side of the shoot to the darker side; A higher concentration of auxins
stimulates rapid cell division and elongation and hence faster growth rate on the darker side
than on the lit side; causing the shoot to bend towards the source of light;
Survival value
 it exposes the leaves in position to maximize trapping of light for photosynthesis;
 it exposes flowers to agents of pollination and fruits and seeds to agents of dispersal;
(ii) Thigmotropism/Haptotropism
 When a climbing stem/shoot comes into contact with a hard object, the contact causes lateral
migration of auxins to the side not in contact with the surface; The higher concentration of
auxins on the side not in contact with the hard surface stimulates faster growth on this side

than on the side in contact with the hard surface; This causes the stem/shoot to coil/curl/twine
round the hard object;
Survival value
 Enables climbing plants/non woody plants to obtain mechanical support;
(iii) Geotropism/Gravitropism
 Gravity causes auxins to accumulate on the lower side of stems and roots;
 in stems, a high auxin concentration promotes faster growth; but in roots it inhibits growth;
 A greater auxin concentration on the lower side in the shoot promotes faster growth on the
lower side than on the upper side; causing the shoot to bend upwards;
 In the root, lower concentration of auxins on the upper side promotes faster growth on the
upper side than on the lower side; hence the root bends downwards;
Survival value
 Enables plant roots to grow deep into the soil thus offering firm anchorage to the plant; and to
absorb water
 Enables shoots to grow upwards exposing the leaves to trap light for photosynthesis;
98. (a) State three structural differences between a sensory neuron and a relay neuron. (3
marks)
(b) How is a motor neuron adapted to its function? (6 marks)
(c) Describe a simple reflex action. (12 marks)
Response
a. Structural differences between sensory and relay neurons.
Sensory neuron Relay neuron

 has myelin sheath on its axon and  lacks myelin sheath on its axon and
dendron; dendron;
 is unipolar  can be bipolar or multi-polar;
 cell body is off the axon  cell body is body axon and dendron;
b. Adaptations of the motor neuron

 has a long axon; to increase surface area for transmission of nerve impulse;
 axon contains axoplasm which is continuous with the cytoplasm of the cell body; for
transmission of impulses;
 cell body has numerous receptor dendrites; to receive maximum stimulation from the effector
dendrites of the relay neuron;
 axon has myelin sheath; for insulation;
 has Schwann-cell; that secretes the myelin sheath;
 the myelin sheath is broken at one millimeter intervals by constrictions called nodes of
ranvier; that help propagate the nerve impulse and speed up transmission of impulses;
c. The simple reflex action

 When a specific part of the body gets in contact with a stimulus; the receptor cells are
stimulated; and generate a nerve impulse; The nerve impulse is transmitted to the sensory
neuron; which relay them to the relay neuron; in the grey matter of the central nervous
system; via a synapse; in the dorsal root; The relay neuron integrates the information; then
transmits the impulse to a motor neuron; through another synapse; The impulse is then
transmitted by the motor neuron through the ventral root; to the effectors; which bring about
a response;
99. Describe the structure and functions of the mammalian brain (20 marks)
Response
 Cerebrum ; controls learning, intelligence ; reasoning ; thought ; memory ;

speech ; hearing ; smell ; taste;
 Hypothalamus ; controls body temperature ; ability to sleep and wake up ; appetite
; homeostatic centre/osmoregulation/thermoregulation; secretion of hormones;
 Pituitary gland ; secretes hormones likes ADH / F.S.H / L.H/ Prolactine/ Oxytocin;
 Thalamus ; integrates sensory impulses from eyes ; ear; skin and sends them to
cerebrum;
Integrates information on pain and pleasure; controls sense of smell;
 Meninges : contains cerebral spinal fluid which supplies nutrients and oxygen ; to
brain tissues; removes metabolic wastes for brain tissues ; acts as a shock
absorber; protection against mechanical damage;
 Optical lobes; control movement of the eye;
 Cerebellum; controls body balance / movement/ posture;
 Medulla oblongata; controls involuntary movement; sneezing/ vomiting / blood
circulation / breathing;
 Arachnoid layer; secrets cerebral spinal fluid;
100. (a) Describe the mechanism of hearing. (10 marks)

(b) Describe how a human eye functions. (10 marks)
Response
(a). mechanism of hearing
 Sound waves collected by pinna; are directed to the ear drum/ tympanic membrane through
the auditory meatus;
 The waves are received by the tympanic membrane/eardrum; and vibrates;
 The vibrations are picked by the ossicles in the middle ear;
 The ossicles amplify the vibrations; and these vibrations are picked up by the oval window;
 From the oval window, the vibrations are transmitted to the perilymph of the cochlea; and
then to the endolymph of the cochlea;
 In the cochlea the vibrations stimulate the sensory cell hairs to generate nerve impulses;
 These impulses are transmitted to the brain via the auditory nerve for interpretation;
 The intensity of the stimulus transmitted to the brain enables the brain to interpret the
impulses as sound of specific pitch and loudness;
 The vibrations in the fluid of inner ear are dissipated back into the middle ear through the
round window;
 The ear discriminates between frequencies in that certain frequencies stimulate only
specific parts of the cochlea;
(b) how a human eye functions

 light from the object is refracted; by cornea, aqueous humor, lens, vitreous humor to form an
image on the retina;
 the image formed is real; inverted; and diminished/smaller than the object;
 light sensitive cells where the image is formed become stimulated; and cause impulses to be
generated; and transmitted to the brain; through the optic nerve
 in the brain, the impulses are interpreted by inverting them and forming an impression of a
real; upright; and normal object;
 in this way the eye is able to see the object just as it is;
101. How is the human eye adapted to performing its functions? (20 marks)
Response
The sclera; is a tough outer fibrous coating; which protects the inner delicate parts;
The conjunctiva; is a thin transparent membrane; that protects the cornea and the eye ball
against mechanical and pathogenic damage;
The cornea; is transparent and curved; to allow passage of light and refract light into the eye;
The choroid; is a middle layer of the eye containing numerous blood capillaries; which supply
oxygen and nutrients to the eye and removes metabolic wastes from eye; Its highly pigmented, to
prevent reflection of light within the posterior chamber of the eye ball;
The aqueous and vitreous fluids; are transparent and refract light into the retina; the fluids
contain solutions of sugar, proteins and salts that nourish the eye and maintain its shape;
The iris; is heavily pigmented to absorb stray light and to prevent entry of light into the eye
except through its central aperture called the pupil. It contains circular and radial muscles which
constrict or dilate the pupil depending on the intensity of light/controls the amount of light going
into the eye;
The lens; is transparent, biconvex and elastic; therefore allows changes in its shape depending on
the tension exerted through the suspensory ligaments. This enables it to bring light rays coming
from either near or far objects into sharp focus on the retina/fovea;
The ciliary body; contains ciliary muscles that contract and relax; to alter the lens curvature and
enable it to focus the object depending on their distance from the eye;
- they also produce aqueous humor;
The suspensory ligament; are fibrous materials that hold the lens in position;
The retina contains light sensitive cells, the rods; which contain the pigment rhodopsin which is
sensitive to light of low intensity; and cones; containing iodopsin pigment which help to perceive
light of high intensity and vision of different colours ;
Optic nerves; contain sensory neurons which transmit impulses from retina to the brain;
The eyelids which are movable and opaque structures that can be closed through a reflex action
to protect the eye from too much light or from foreign objects.
The eye muscles help to move the eye ball within the orbit. The lateral rectus muscles move the
eye up and down while the oblique muscles move the eyeball in its up and down movement.
The lachrymal gland which continuously secretes a watery, saline and antiseptic fluid called
tears. The tears moisten the cornea and wash foreign particles out of the eye. Tears also contain
lysozymes that destroy pathogens;
The eyelashes, which are many hairs, protect the eye from the entry of small foreign particles.
The eyebrows raised portion of the skin above the eye, thickly covered with hair, whose
functions are to prevent sweat and dust from entering the eye.
102. Describe the functions of the various parts of the human eye (20 marks)
Response

Sclerotic layer/sclera (made up of collagen fibres thus) protects the eye/maintains shape of
eyeball.
Cornea - Allows light to enter the eye
- Refracts light towards retina
Conjunctiva - Protects cornea
Eyelids- Protects cornea from mechanical & chemical damage / protects eye form entry of
foreign particles.
- protects retina from bright light (by reflex action)
Choroid (Contains black pigment which)prevents reflection of light within the eye / absorb
light.
-Nourishes the eye / retina / supply oxygen / remove CO2
Ciliary muscles Alter shape of lens during accommodation
- Ciliary body produces aqueous humour.
Suspensory ligaments adjusts shape of lens during accommodation
Lens Refracts light rays / focuses light on retina
Aqueous Humor Nourishes cornea / lens
- Refracts light
Iris ( pigmented thus) gives the eye its colour / absorbs stray light/ controls amount of light
entering the eye / adjusts size of pupil
Pupil light enters the eyes through pupil.
Retina has photoreceptor cells / rods / cones for image formation/generates impulses.
Fovea centralis / yellow spot visual acuity / most sensitive part of retina with only cones.
Blind spot point where nerve fibre emerges from the optic nerve / where the optic nerve leaves
the eye / point where blood vessels & nerve fibres enter the eye.
Optic nerve transmit impulses to brain.
103. Describe how a mammalian eye is able to focus on objects at the following distances
(20 marks)
1. A far object
2. A near object
Response
a. A far object
 Iris circular muscles contract; whereas iris radial muscles relax;

 pupil diameter decreases;
 ciliary radial muscles contract; as the ciliary circular muscles relax;
 suspensory ligaments become tight;
 lens diameter increases/lens become thin;
 image is formed/focused on the retina;
 impulses generated; and travel along the optic nerve; to the brain for interpretation and
sensation;
b. A near object
 Iris circular muscles relax; whereas iris radial muscles contract;
 pupil diameter increases;
 ciliary radial muscles relax; as the ciliary circular muscles contract;
 suspensory ligaments loosen/slacken;
 lens diameter decreases/lens become thick;
 image is formed/focused on the retina;

 impulses generated; and travel along the optic nerve; to the brain for interpretation and
sensation;
104. Explain the changes that take place in the eye when a person moves from:
1. a dark room into light. (4 marks)
2. a bright room into a dark room. (4 marks)
Response
a. a dark room into light

The radial iris muscles relax; as the circular muscles contract; pupil diameter decreases; to cut
down the amount of light entering the eye;
b. a bright room into a dark room

The radial iris muscles contract; as the circular muscles relax; pupil diameter increases; to
increase the amount of light entering the eye;
105. (a) State the functions of the following parts of the mammalian ear;
(i) Tympanic membrane (3 marks)
(ii) Eustachian tube (1 mark)
(iii) Ear ossicles (3 marks)
(b) Describe how semicircular canals perform their functions (13 marks)
Response
a) i) Tympanic membrane.
Receives sound waves (from the air); and vibrates / transforms sound waves into vibrations; and
transmits them to the ear osssicles / malleus, stapes and incus; acc. Hammer for malleus.
ii) Eustachain tube.

Equalizes the air pressure in the middle ear to that in the outer ear;
iii) Ear ossicles

Amplify; and transmits; vibrations from the tymphanic membrane to the venestra ovalis / oval
window;
b) There are three semi circular canals; arranged in planes at right angles to each other; at
the end of each canal is swelling called ampulla; which contains receptors;
The movement of the head; causes movement of the fluid in at least one canal; the fluid
movement deflects / displaces the cupula and thus stimulating the receptors / sensory hairs;
which generate a nerve impulse; the impulse / nerve impulse is transmitted / conducted to the
brain; by auditory nerve; to restore body balance;
106. Describe the structure and functions of the various parts of the human ear.( 20
marks)
Response
The ear is an organ involved in perceiving sound and maintaining body balance and posture. It is
made of the following sections

Outer ear that is composed of
Pinna That is funnel shaped structure made of skin and cartilage. It receives sound waves and
directs them to the ear tube.
External auditory meatus That is a canal lined with hair and wax. It allows passage of sound
waves to the middle ear. The hairs and wax trap dust particles that enter the ear.
Tympanic membrane/ear drum That is a thin flexible sheet-like structure that receives sound
waves, convert them into vibrations and pass the vibration to the ossicles.
Middle ear that is composed of

Tiny bones known as ossicles They are stapes, malleus and incus. They amplify sound
vibrations from the tympanic membrane.
Eustachian tube That connects the ear to the nasal cavity. It balances pressure on both sides of
the tympanic membrane.
Oval window That is a thin flexible membrane that opens into the inner ear. It receives
vibrations from the ossicles and passes them to the inner ear.
Inner ear that is compost of
Vestibular apparatus- That are the semicircular canals, utricles and saccules. They help in
maintenance of body balance and posture.
Cochlea That is a coiled structure that has sensory cells for hearing. It is connected to the
auditory nerve that is involved in transmission of sounds to the brain
SUPPORT AND MOVEMENT
107. (a) A dicotyledonous stem offer support to the plant. Give three necessities for this
support (3mks)
(b) Describe the adaptation of the stem of a dicotyledonous plant to its function (17mks)
Response
a. To expose the leaves to sunlight for photosynthesis;
 Expose flowers to agents of pollination;
 Expose fruits and seeds to agents of dispersal;
b. The stem has several strengthening tissue; that provide support;
 Cell walls of collenchyma tissue are thickened with cellulose; to offer support;
 Walls of sclerenchyma tissue; are thickened with lignin; to offer support;
 Xylem tissue; made up of xylem vessels and tracheids whose walls are thickened
by lignin; to prevent them from collapsing;
 Xylem vessels have a narrow lumen; to facilitate upward movement of water by
capillarity;
 Xylem vessels have boarded pits; to facilitate lateral movement of water and
mineral salts;
 Walls of xylem are made of dead cells; to make them impervious hence prevent
loss of water to adjacent cells by osmosis;

 Xylem vessels are continuously hollow; to allow uninterrupted flow of water and
mineral salts;
 Phloem tissue contains contractile cytoplasmic strands; to push organic food
substance from one sieve tube to the next;
 Phloem tissue contain plasmodesmata; that joins companion cells to sieve
elements; allowing for passage of ATP to be used in translocation of substances;
 Cambium tissue; for secondary growth within the vascular bundles;
 Parenchyma tissue /cells; stores water and food hence support through turgidity;
 Suberin in the stem; prevents excess loss of water and entry of pathogens;
 Lenticels on the bark; that facilitate gaseous exchange;
 Some stems have parenchyma cells with chlorophyll/chlorenchyma; for
photosynthesis;
108. (a) Describe the exoskeleton and its functions in insects. (10 marks)
(b) Describe the characteristics and functions of the three types of muscle found in the
mammalian body. (10marks)
Response
(a) The exoskeleton is made of chitin, chitin is not evenly distributed/is thin and flexible at
joints for movement. Exoskeleton is secreted by epidermal cells, when still soft it allows
for growth of the insect. When (in contact with the air) it hardens limiting growth, it is
shed regularly thus regulating growth. It also supports internal structures, because it is
hard, it protects internal organs from mechanical damage. It is waterproof
preventing/reducing water loss/desiccation of the insect. It also provides a surface for
attachment of muscles, it is light/has low density/modified into wings for flight, can be
modified to form jaws/mouth for biting/piercing/sucking/grinding, pigmented for
camouflage, can be transparent in some places allowing entry of light into the eyes for
camouflage in water.
(b) i) Skeletal muscles or striated muscles

 Attached on the skeleton to bring about voluntary movements.
 Have strips running across them thus called striped or striated
 Made up of a bundle of long fibres running the length of the cell
 Are multinucleated.
 Cytoplasm known as sarcoplasm
 The covering of a muscle fibre is called sarcolemma.
 The functional unit of the muscle is the myofibril.
 The muscle is innervated by the voluntary part of the nervous system
 Have numerous mitondria to yield energy for high activity.
ii) Smooth muscles of visceral muscles

 Found on the walls of tubular visceral organs.
 Cells are spindle shaped with a single nucleus.
 Lack striations
 Cell has one nucleus
 Cytoplasm known as sarcoplasm
 Innervated by the autonomic part of nervous system (are involuntary)

iii) Cardiac Muscles
 Each muscle fibre consists of short cells with centrally placed nuclei and numerous
striated fibrils.
 Ends of cells marked by intercalated discs
 Are myogenic and independent of nervous stimulations
 Bring about heartbeat
109. Explain how a finned fish is adapted to locomotion in water (20 marks)
Response
Streamlined/ tapered anteriorly and posteriorly; to minimize water resistance;
Overlapping scales facing posterior end; to bring about less resistance;
Slimy/oily substance to moisten scales; hence reduce resistance between water and fish;
Swim bladder; which controls/ brings buoyancy; and depth at which it swims;
Myotomes/ muscle blocks; which contract and relax alternately bringing about thrust/force;
which propels fish forward;
Pectoral and pelvic fins (paired fins); which bring about balancing effect; braking; and changing
direction;
Dorsal fin and anal fin (unpaired fins); to increase vertical surface area; and therefore prevent
rolling; and yawing;
Tail fins that are long and flexible; for steering/ more force/ thrust;
Lateral line; which enables the fish to perceive vibrations; hence can locate objects so that it
escapes / changes direction;
110. a) Name three types of skeletons found in multicellular animals (3

marks)
b) Describe how the cervical, thoracic, lumbar and sacral vertebrae are suited to their
functions. (17 marks)
Response
(a) Hydrostatic;
Exoskeleton;
Endoskeleton;
(b) Cervical vertebrae

 Vertebraterial canals for passage of neck bloodvessels and nerves;
 Atlas has broad surfaces for articulation with condyles of skull to permit nodding
 Axis has odontoid process/ projection of the centrum to permit rotatory/ turning movement
of skull. The process acts as a pivot for atlas forming a pivot joint with atlas;
 Branched / forked/ divided/short transverse processes to provide surface for attachment of
( neck) muscles; acc. zygapophysis, for articulation between vertebrae
 Have a short/reduced neural spine for attachment of ( neck) muscles;
 Have wide neural canal for passage of spinal cord
 Have a broad neural arch for protection of spinal cord.
Thoracic vertebrae
 Have long neural spine to provide surface for attachment of the back muscles;
 Have tubercular and capitular facets for articulation with the tuberculum and capitulum of
the rib;
 Have reduced/short transverse processes to provide surface for attachment of muscles;

 Have a neural arch for protection of the spinal cord;
 Have anterior and posterior facets for articulation with those of the next vertebrae;
 Have a centrum for support;
Lumbar vertebrae
 Broad/ long neural spine for attachment of ( powerful back) muscles;
 Long/ large/ well develo to provide surface ped transverse processes to provide surface for
attachment of muscles; ( that maintain posture and flexes the spine)
 Has metapophysis and hypapophysis to provide surface for muscle attachment;
 Large/ thick centrum for support;
 Prezygapophysis and post zygapophysis for articulation between vertebrae; ( acc.
Anapophysis for hypapophysis)
Sacral Vertebrae
 Anterior vertebra has a well developed transverse process, which are fused to provide
strength/firmness;
 Vertebrae are fused for strength/firmness;
 Sacrum has a broad base and short/reduced neural spine; for attachment of (back) muscles;
 Have canals for passage of blood vessels and nerves;
111. Describe how the various parts of a mammalian forelimb bones and the pectoral
girdle bones are adapted to their functions. (20
marks)
Response
Scapula:
 Has glenoid cavity for articulation with head of humerus;
 Has spine for muscles attachment;
 Has flat and broad surface for muscle attachment;
 Has acromion for articulation with clavicle bone/ collar bone providing support;
 Has metacromion and acromion for muscle attachment;
Humerus:
 Has a large/broad rounded head at its proximal end that fits in the glenoid cavity of scapula;
for articulation to form ball and socket joint;
 The head is covered with cartilage to reduce friction during articulation;
 Anterior to the head of humerus is a projection called greater for muscle attachment;
 At the distal end are two condyles that articulate with the sigmoid notch of radius and ulna;
to form the elbow joint; which is an example of hinge joint; providing movement in one
plane only;
Ulna and radius

 At the elbow joint, the ulna forms a backward projection called olecranon process; which
provides surface for muscle attachment; and also prevents overstretching of the joint; It also
helps form the hinge joint at the elbow;
 A cavity called sigmoid notch is formed between the olecranon process and ulna where the
condyles of humerus fit for articulation;

Carpals, metacarpals and phalanges
 Carpals articulate with each other to form gliding joints;
 Metacarpals and phalanges articulate to form hinge joints;
 The bones also provide surfaces for muscle attachment;
112. Describe how the various parts of a mammalian hind limb bones and the pelvic
girdle bones are adapted to their functions. (20
marks)
Response
Femur
 Has a smaller head that fits into the acetabulum/socket of the pelvic girdle; forming a ball
and socket joint; that permits movement in all planes;
 Head of femur is covered with cartilage; that reduces friction during locomotion;
 At distal end it bears two rounded condyles; which articulate with tibia to form the knee
joint; which is an example of a hinge joint.
 Has a long shaft; to offer surface area for muscle attachment; and for support;
 Has projections called trochanters; that provide surfaces for muscle attachment;
Tibia
 Has a long shaft; for support; and for muscle attachment;
 It bears two oval surfaces at the proximal end; for articulation with the two condyles of the
femur;
Pelvic girdle
 Consists of two halves of fused bones; that offer support;
 Pubis bone has a socket known as acetabulum; for articulation with head of femur; forming
ball and socket joint.
 Pubis has obturator foramen; to allow passage of blood vessels and nerve fibres;
 Ischium has a thick ridge; for muscle attachment;
 Ilium has a facet; for articulation with the sacrum;
 The pubis symphysis has flexible cartilage; which allows for widening of females girdles at
the time of child birth;
Tarsals, metatarsals and phalanges

 Tarsals articulate with each other to form gliding joints;
 Metatarsals and phalanges articulate to form hinge joints;
 The bones also provide surfaces for muscle attachment;

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KENYA CERTIFICATE OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

Biology Revision Series: Fred Okwacho

2. Describe how to use a light microscope. (7 marks)

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(ii) Surface area to volume ratio;

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(iv) Size of molecules;

(v) Thickness of membranes;

iii. Active transport

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NUTRITION IN PLANTS AND ANIMALS

9. How are leaves of mesophytes suited to their functions (20 marks)

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(b) Light stage (5marks)

Dark stage/Carbon (IV) Oxide fixation (5 marks)

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b. Fate of digested proteins.

16. a) What are enzymes? (2mks)

a) Enzymes are biocatalysts which are protein in nature;

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18. a) What is meant by the term digestion? (2 marks)

TRANSPORT IN PLANTS AND ANIMALS

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Red blood cells/erythrocytes;

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26. a) Briefly describe the circulation of blood in a mammalian heart. (6 marks)

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27. Describe the formation of tissue fluid. (20 marks)

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34. Describe the mechanism of gaseous exchange in a mammal. (16 marks)

35. Describe how regular cigarette smoking affects the following:

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Starch-sugar interconversion theory.

The Potassium ion theory

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42. Describe the economic importance of anaerobic respiration. (15 marks)

EXCRETION AND HOMEOSTASIS

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Thermoregulation/ maintenance of body temperature;

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52. Describe body temperature regulation in human beings. (20 marks)

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56. Describe the economic importance of

Dicotyledonous plants Monocotyledonous plants

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b. Economic importance of insects.

58. Explain how abiotic factors affect plants. (20 marks)

(b) Temperature- changes in temperate affect rate of photosynthesis/other Biochemical

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(i) Pressure  Atmospheric pressure variations affects

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61. Describe the nitrogen cycle ( 20 marks)

Free living bacteria/ Clostridium/ Azotobacter; fix nitrogen to nitrates

(i) Pressure Atmospheric pressure variations affects

(b)Mutations Changes in genes/chromosomes leading to a change in the offspring

Independent assortment of chromosomes during metaphase of first meiotic division

(c) Deletion Loss of a portion of a chromatid;

Duplication A section of a chromatid replicates leading to an extra set of genes

Non-disjunction addition or loss of a single or whole set of chromosome;