PERIODIC TRENDS

Atomic Radius Trend

- Total distance from an atom’s nucleus to the outermost orbital of the
electron
- Usually measured in picometers (pm) or angstroms (A)
❖ Top to Bottom = atomic radius increases
❖ Right to Left = atomic radius increases

Effective Nuclear Charge

- The pull that an electron “feels” from the nucleus
- Zeff = Z - S

Ionization Energy Trend

- Minimum energy required to remove an electron from the ground state
of an atom
- Second important periodic trend
❖ Bottom to Top = ionization energy increases
❖ Left to Right = ionization energy increases

Metallic Character Trend

- Relative measure of how easily atoms lose or give up electrons
- the ability to lose an electron during a chemical reaction due to its low
ionization energy
❖ Top to Bottom = metallic character increases
❖ Right to Left = metallic character increases

Electronegativity Trend
- Measure of an atom’s attraction for another atom’s electrons
- Metals are electron donators, low electronegativities; Nonmetals are
electron takers, high electronegativities
- the ability of an atom to attract electrons
❖ Bottom to Top = electronegativity increases
❖ Left to Right = electronegativity increases
- Noble gases, lanthanides, and actinides are exempted in this trend. Noble gases have a complete valence
shell and do not attract any electrons (electronegativity = 0). The lanthanides and actinides have complex
atomic structures.
- Fluorine is the most electronegative atom.

Overall Reactivity
- Ties all previous trends together into one
- Most reactive metals are largest; most reactive nonmetals are smallest
❖ Bottom to Top = reactivity increases

Ionic Radius Trend

- half the distance between two ions that barely touch each other in a compound.
- Cations are always smaller than the original atom because cations release electrons making it sink.
- Anions are always larger than the original atom because anions release electrons making it expand.
 ELECTRON CONFIGURATION
*# of electrons = atomic #
Filling Rules for Electron Orbitals
● Aufbau Principle
- Electrons are added one at a time to the lowest energy orbitals available until all the electrons of the atom
have been accounted for
- Electrons occupy the positions of the lowest energy.
- “Lazy Tenant Rule”

● Pauli Exclusion Principle

- An orbital can hold a maximum of two electrons. To occupy the same orbital, two electrons must spin in
opposite directions.
- Electrons in the same sublevel occupy empty orbitals rather than pair up.
- Each orbital can hold TWO electrons with opposite spins.

● Hund’s Rule
- Electrons occupy equal-energy orbitals so that a maximum number of unpaired electrons result.
- No two electrons in an atom have the same four quantum number’s.
- Within a sublevel, place one electron per orbital before pairing them.
- “Empty Bus Seat Rule”

Maximum Number of Electrons In Each Sublevel

Sublevel Number of Orbitals Maximum Number of Electrons

s 1 2

p 3 6

d 5 10

f 7 14

Electron Capacities

1s22s22p63s23p64s23d104p65s24d105p66s24f145d106p67s25f146d107p66f147d107f14
Shorthand Configuration
- Simplify the notation by using a bracketed noble gas symbol to represent the configuration of the
noble gas from the preceding row
- Core electrons: Go up one row and over to the Noble Gas.
- Valence electrons: On the next row, fill in the # of e- in each sublevel
Ex.
Na = [Ne] 3s1 Na = [1s22s22p6]3s1

Periodic Patterns

● Period #
- energy level (subtract for d & f)
● A/B Group #
- total # of valence e-
● Column within sublevel block
- # of e- in sublevel

Octet Rule
- Atoms tend to gain, lose, or share electrons until they have eight valence electrons.

Stability
● Full Energy Level : Group 18
● Full Sublevel (s, p, d, f) : Group 2, 12, Lu and Lr
● Half-full Sublevel : Group 7, 15, Eu and Am

● Ion Formation
- Atoms gain or lose electrons to become more stable.
- Isoelectronic with the Noble Gases.
 • Ion Electron Configuration
- Write the e- configuration for the closest Noble Gas
Ex.
O2- 10e- [He] 2s22p6

CHEMICAL BONDING
● A bond results from the attraction of nuclei for electrons.
- All atoms are trying to achieve a stable octet
- The protons (+) in one nucleus are attracted to the electrons (-) of another atom. (Electronegativity)

Types of Bonding
● Ionic Bonding
- Complete transfer of valence electron(s) between atoms
- Forms ionic compounds
- Always formed between metal cations and non-metal anions
● Metallic Bonding
- Always formed between 2 metals (pure metals)
● Covalent Bonding
- Sharing of electrons
- Forms molecules
- Pairs of e- are shared between 2 non-metal atoms to acquire the electron configuration of a noble gas.

Lewis Electron Dot Structure

❖ H needs only 2 e- and B need only 6 e-
Available e- (A) = total valence electrons of the element (*Group #, i-multiply sa kung pila ka atoms ang
element)
Needed e- (N) = 8 (except H (2) and B (6))(*i-multiply sa kung pila ka atoms ang element)
𝑁−𝐴
Shared e- (S) = (*# sa bond(s) nga maproduce)
2
-
Remaining e = A -S (*# sa lone pairs)

Ex.

Naming Molecular Compounds

Rules:
● The most “metallic” non-mental element is written first (the one that is furthest left)
● All binary molecular compounds end in -ide
● Use prefixes to tell the quantity of each element
- If there is only one of the first element do not put prefix (mono-)
- If the nonmetal starts with a vowel, drop the vowel ending of the prefix except di- and tri-
Bond Types
● Ionic
- Electronegativity difference > 2.0
● Non-Polar Covalent
- EN difference is between .21 and 1.99
● Polar Covalent
- EN difference is < .20
- Electrons are shared evenly in the bond

Ionic Character - bond’s polarity

Non-Polar Molecules Polar Molecules

Equal in all sides Not equal in all sides

Symmetrical structure Asymmetrical structure

Equal sharing of electrons Unequal sharing of electrons

EN difference 0 - 0.2 EN difference 0.21 - 1.99

Shapes of Molecules
❖ Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion Theory (VSEPR)
- Covalent molecules assume geometry that minimizes repulsion among electrons in valence shell of
atom
- Shape of a molecule can be predicted from its Lewis Structure
 Intramolecular Attractions Intermolecular Attractions

Attractions within/inside molecules, also known as Attractions between molecules

bonds ● Hydrogen “bonding”
● Ionic ● Dipole-Dipole
● Covalent ● Induced Dipole (Dispersion Force)
● Metallic

Hydrogen “Bonding”
- Strong intermolecular force (like magnets)
- Occurs only between 1 molecule of H and another molecule of N, O, and F
❖ Why does Hydrogen “Bonding” occur?
- N, O, and F are small atoms with strong nuclear charges. They have very high EN, these atoms hog
the electrons in a bond. They create very polar molecules.

Dipole-Dipole Interactions
- Weak intermolecular force
- Bonds have high EN differences (forming polar covalent molecules) but not as high as in hydrogen bonding
(0.21<EN<1.99)
- Partial negative and partial positive charges slightly attracted to each other.
- Only occur between polar covalent molecules

Induced Dipole Attractions

- Very weak intermolecular force
- Bonds have low EN difference (EN<0.20)
- Temporary partial negative or positive charge results from a nearby polar covalent molecule
- Only occur between non-polar and polar molecules
-

Intermolecular Forces affect chemical properties

● For example: Strong intermolecular
forces = High boiling point

MOLECULAR GEOMETRIES

Molecular Shapes
- Geometry & shape of molecule critical
- 3d structure of a molecule can be easily predicted by adding up bond atoms and lone pairs
- The shape is defined by the positions of only the atoms in the molecules, not the lone pairs.

❖ What determines the shape of a molecule?

- Atoms and lone pairs take up space and prefer to be as far from each other as possible
“Things”
- Is an atom or a lone pair of electrons.
- # of things = # of atoms around the central atom + # of lone pairs

Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion (VSEPR)

“The best arrangement of a given number of things is the one that minimizes the repulsions among them.”

● Linear Geometry - 2 things

- If there are only two atoms in the molecule, the molecule will be linear no matter the geometry is
● Trigonal Planar Geometry - 3 things
- Trigonal Planar, if there are no lone pairs
- Bent, if there is a lone pair
● Tetrahedral Geometry - 4 things
- Tetrahedral, if no lone pairs
- Trigonal Planar, if one lone pair
- Bent, if there are 2 lone pairs

BONDING THEORIES

Valence Bond Theory

• Atomic orbitals are mixed in each individual atom before bonding.

Hybridization
- The phenomenon of combining two atomic orbitals to give a new degenerate hybrid orbital.

Ways Orbitals Can Overlap to Form Bonds Between Atoms

• Sigma (𝝈) Bonds
- Head-to-head overlap
- Cylindrical symmetry of electron density about the internuclear axis.
• Pi (𝝅) Bonds
- Side-to-side overlap.
- Electron density above and below the internuclear axis.

Single Bonds
- Always 𝜎 bonds; overlap is greater, resulting in a stronger bond and more energy lowering.

Multiple Bonds
- In a multiple bond, one of the bonds is a 𝜎 bond and the rest are 𝜋 bonds.

Molecular Orbital (MO) Theory

- The wave nature of electrons is invoked.
❖ If waves interact constructively, the resulting orbital is lower in energy: a bonding molecular orbital.
❖ If waves interact destructively, the resulting orbital is higher in energy: an antibonding molecular
orbital.
- No Pre-bonding mixing. Molecular orbitals are computed after bonding.
 GASES

Characteristics of Gases
• Expand to fill their containers
• Highly compressible
• Have extremely low densities

Pressure Atmospheric Pressure

- Amount of force applied to an area. - The weight of air per unit of area
𝐹
- 𝑃=𝐴

Units of Pressure
• Pascals • mmHg or torr
1 Pa = 1 N/m2 - difference in the heights measured in mm (h) of
• Bar two connected columns of mercury
1 bar = 105 Pa = 100 kPa • Atmosphere
- 1.00 atm = 760 torr

Manometer
- Device used to measure the difference in pressure between atmospheric pressure and that of a gas in a
vessel.

Standard Pressure

- Normal atmospheric pressure at sea level

- Equal to:
- 760 torr (760 mm Hg)
1.0 Atm 101.325 kPa

Boyle’s Law
- The volume of a fixed quantity of gas at constant temperature is inversely proportional to the pressure.
Charle’s Law
- The volume of a fixed amount of gas at constant pressure is directly proportional to its absolute
temperature.

Avogadro’s Law
- The volume of a gas at constant temperature and pressure is directly proportional to the number of moles
of the gas.

Ideal-Gas Equation
- The constant of proportionality is known as R, the gas constant.

Densities of Gases Molecular Mass

Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressures

- The total pressure of a mixture of gases equals the sum of the pressures that each would exert if it were
present alone.
Partial Pressures
- When one collects a gas over water, there is water vapor mixed in with the gas.
- To find only the pressure of the desired gas, one must subtract the vapor pressure of water from the total
pressure

Kinetic Molecular Theory

 This is what happens to gas particles as environmental conditions change.

Main Tenets of Kinetic-Molecular Theory

• Gases consist of large numbers of molecules that are in continuous random motion.
• The combined volume of all the molecules of the gas is negligible relative to the total
volume in which the gas is contained.
• Attractive and repulsive forces between gas molecules are negligible.
• Energy can be transferred between molecules during collisions, but the average kinetic
energy of the molecules does not change with time, as long as the temperature of the gas
remains constant.
• The average kinetic energy of the molecules is proportional to the absolute temperature.

Effusion
- The escape of gas molecules through a tine hole into an evacuated space.

Diffusion
- The spread of one substance throughout a space or throughout a second substance.

Graham’s Law Real Gases

• In the real world, the behavior of gases only
conforms to the ideal-gas equation at relatively
high temperature and low pressure. Even the
same gas will show wildly different behavior
under high pressure at different temperatures

Deviations from Ideal Behavior

• The assumptions made in the kinetic-molecular
model (negligible volume of gas molecules
themselves, no attractive forces between gas
molecules, etc.) break down at high pressure
and/or low temperature

Corrections for Non-ideal Behavior

To take deviations from ideal behavior into account, the
ideal-gas equation can be adjusted. The corrected ideal-
gas equation is known as the van der Waals Equation