Basic Electronics and Electrical

Engineering: ECE 249

UNIT I: Fundamentals of D.C.
and A.C Circuits
Lecture No.: 7
Topic: Thevenin’s Theorem and
Norton’s Theorem

Delivered By: Dr. Irfan Ahmad Pindoo

Head, Patent and Design Cell
Division of Research and Development
Intellectual Property Rights Cell
 Thevenin Theorem
It often occurs in practice that a particular element in a circuit is
variable (usually called the load) while other elements are fixed.
As a typical example, a household outlet terminal may be connected
to different appliances constituting a variable load. Each time the
variable element is changed, the entire circuit has to be analyzed all
over again.
To avoid this problem, Thevenin’s theorem provides a technique by
which the fixed part of the circuit is replaced by an equivalent circuit.
 Thevenin Theorem: Statement
Thevenin’s theorem states that:
a linear two-terminal circuit can be replaced by an equivalent circuit
consisting of a voltage source 𝑉𝑇ℎ in series with a resistor 𝑅𝑇ℎ , where
𝑉𝑇ℎ is the open-circuit voltage at the terminals and 𝑅𝑇ℎ is the input or
equivalent resistance at the terminals when the independent sources
are turned off.
 Thevenin Theorem
• According to Thevenin’s theorem, the
linear circuit in Fig. (a) can be
replaced by that in Fig. (b).
• The circuit to the left of the terminals
in Fig. (b) is known as the Thevenin
equivalent circuit.
• It was developed in 1883 by M. Leon
Thevenin (1857–1926), a French
telegraph engineer.
Thevenin Theorem: Procedure
Thevenin Theorem: Equivalent
Circuit
 Quick Quiz
Find Thevenin voltage in the following circuit:
A. 8 V
B. 8.5 V
C. 9 V
D. 9. 5 V
 Quick Quiz
In the circuit shown in above question, Thevenin’s resistance between
terminals A and B is:
A. 1
B. 2
C. 2.7
D. 1.7
 Problem 1
Find the Thevenin equivalent circuit of the
circuit shown in Figure, to the left of the
terminals. Then find the current through
𝑅𝐿 = 6,16 𝑎𝑛𝑑 36 Ω.
STEPS:
1. VTH:
Open the LOAD
Find Voltage across LOAD

2. RTH:
Open the LOAD
Indep Sources----- Int. Resistance
Dep. sources ------- Left intact
Find Req. across LOAD terminal
Basic Electronics and Electrical
Engineering: ECE 249
UNIT I: Fundamentals of D.C.
and A.C Circuits
Lecture No.: 8
Topic: Thevenin’s Theorem and
Norton’s Theorem

Delivered By: Dr. Irfan Ahmad Pindoo

Head, Patent and Design Cell
Division of Research and Development
Intellectual Property Rights Cell
 Norton Theorem: Introduction
“Any linear circuit containing several energy sources and resistances can be replaced
by a single Constant Current generator in parallel with a Single Resistor”.

As far as the load resistance, RL is concerned this single resistance, RS is the value of the
resistance looking back into the network with all the current sources open circuited and IS is
the short circuit current at the output terminals as shown below.
 Norton Theorem: Introduction
In 1926, about 43 years after Thevenin published his theorem, E. L.
Norton, an American engineer at Bell Telephone Laboratories,
proposed a similar theorem.
STATEMENT:
Norton’s theorem states that a linear two-terminal circuit can be
replaced by an equivalent circuit consisting of a current source 𝐼𝑁 in
parallel with a resistor 𝑅𝑁 , where 𝐼𝑁 is the short-circuit current through
the terminals and 𝑅𝑁 is the input or equivalent resistance at the
terminals when the independent sources are turned off.
Norton Theorem: Introduction
 Comparison
Thevenin Theorem Norton Theorem
 Quick Quiz
Norton current across the load is calculated by finding:
A. Short circuit current across load
B. Open circuit current across load
C. Short circuit voltage across load
D. Open circuit voltage across load
Steps for Applying Norton Theorem
 Problem
Find the Norton Equivalent circuit for the circuit shown in Figure across
terminals A and B. Also determine the value of current that would flow
through a load resistor of 5ohm if it were connected between terminals A
and B?
 Problem
Find the Norton Equivalent circuit for the
circuit shown in Figure across terminals a
and b.

STEPS:
1. In:
Short the LOAD
Find Voltage across LOAD

2. RN:
Open the LOAD
Indep Sources----- Int. Resistance
Dep. sources ------- Left intact
Find Req. across LOAD terminal
 Quick Quiz
Identify the correct statement(s):
A. 𝑉𝑇ℎ needs load as open circuit and 𝐼𝑁 needs load to be shorted.
B. 𝑉𝑇ℎ needs load as short circuit and 𝐼𝑁 needs load to be opened.
C. 𝑅𝑇ℎ needs load as open circuit and 𝑅𝑁 needs load to be shorted.
D. 𝑅𝑇ℎ needs load as open circuit and 𝑅𝑁 also needs same.
a. A and B
b. B and C
c. A and D
d. A, B and D
Basic Electronics and Electrical
Engineering: ECE 249
UNIT I: Fundamentals of D.C.
and A.C Circuits
Lecture No.: 9
Topic: Alternating Current,
Definitions, Average Value and
RMS Value
Delivered By: Dr. Irfan Ahmad Pindoo
Head, Patent and Design Cell
Division of Research and Development
Intellectual Property Rights Cell
 Introduction
 Historically, dc sources were the main means of providing electric power up until
the late 1800s.
At the end of that century, the battle of direct current versus alternating current
began. Both had their advocates among the electrical engineers of the time.
Because ac is more efficient and economical to transmit over long distances, ac
systems ended up the winner.
Delivered by: Dr. Irfan Ahmad Pindoo 22
 DC AC

Cannot be transmitted to longer distances Safe to transfer over longer city distances
because of the losses.

It flows in one direction in the circuit. It reverses its direction while flowing in a
circuit.

Magnitude of current or voltage does not Magnitude of current or voltage does not
vary with time vary with time

Electrons move steadily in one direction only. Electrons keep switching directions - forward
and backward.

Power Factor is always 1 Power Factor lies between 0 & 1.

The frequency of direct current is zero. The frequency of alternating current is 50Hz
or 60Hz depending upon the country.

Example: Cell, Battery. Example: Generator.

Delivered by: Dr. Irfan Ahmad Pindoo 23

Terminologies used in AC Circuits
1. Peak value (Amplitude)
2. Peak to Peak value
3. Instantaneous value
4. Average (Mean) value
5. Cycle
6. Frequency
7. Time period
8. Phase
9. RMS value
Delivered by: Dr. Irfan Ahmad Pindoo 24
 Attributes of Periodic Waveforms
Amplitude , Peak-Value, and Peak-to-Peak Value
Amplitude (Em):
The amplitude of a sine wave is the distance
from its average to its peak.

Peak-to-Peak Value (Ep-p):

It is measured between minimum and maximum peaks.
Peak Value

The peak value of a voltage or current is its maximum

value with respect to zero.

In this figure : Peak voltage = E + Em

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 Instantaneous Value
 As the coil voltage changes from instant to instant. The value of voltage at any
point on the waveform is referred to as its instantaneous value.

 The voltage has a peak value of 40 volts  at t = 0 ms, the voltage is zero.
 The cycle time of 6 ms.  at t=0.5 ms, the voltage is 20V.

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 Sinusoidal ac Voltage

One complete variation is referred to as a cycle.

Starting at zero,
the voltage increases to a positive peak amplitude,
decreases to zero,
changes polarity,
increases to a negative peak amplitude,
then returns again to zero.

 Since the waveform repeats itself at regular intervals, it is called a periodic

signal.
 Symbol for an ac Voltage Source

Lowercase letter e is used

to indicate that the voltage varies with time.

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 Sinusoidal ac Current

 During the first half-cycle, the
source voltage is positive
 Therefore, the current is in the
clockwise direction.
 Since current is proportional to voltage, its
shape is also sinusoidal
 During the second half-cycle, the
voltage polarity reverses
 Therefore, the current is in the
counterclockwise direction.

Delivered by: Dr. Irfan Ahmad Pindoo 28

 Attributes of Periodic Waveforms
 Periodic waveforms (i.e., waveforms that repeat at regular intervals), regardless
of their wave shape, may be described by a group of attributes such as:
 Frequency, Period, Amplitude, Peak value.
Frequency: The number of cycles per second of a waveform is defined

 Frequency is denoted by the lower-case letter f.

 In the SI system, its unit is the hertz (Hz, named in honor of pioneer researcher Heinrich
Hertz, 1857–1894).

Delivered by: Dr. Irfan Ahmad Pindoo 29

 Attributes of Periodic Waveforms
 Period:  The period, T, of a waveform, is the duration of one cycle.

 It is the inverse of frequency.

 The period of a waveform can be measured between any two corresponding

points ( Often it is measured between zero points because they are easy to
establish on an oscilloscope trace).

Delivered by: Dr. Irfan Ahmad Pindoo 30

 Radian Measure

 In practice, q is usually expressed in radians per second,

 Radians and degrees are related by :

For Conversion:

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 Relationship between ω, T, and f

 Earlier you learned that one cycle of sine wave may be represented as either:

 Substituting these into:

The angular frequency refers to the

angular displacement of any
element of the wave per unit of time
or the rate of change of the phase
of the waveform

Sinusoidal Voltages and Currents as Functions of Time:

 We could replace the angle α as:

Delivered by: Dr. Irfan Ahmad Pindoo 32

 Phasor Difference
 Phase difference refers to the angular displacement between different
waveforms of the same frequency.

 The terms lead and lag can be understood in terms of phasors. If you observe
phasors rotating as in Figure, the one that you see passing first is leading and
the other is lagging.

Delivered by: Dr. Irfan Ahmad Pindoo 33

 Average Value
Algebraic sum of all the values divided by the total number of values.
Same concept is applicable for a waveform that varies with time.

Thus, the average value over full cycle is ZERO

Delivered by: Dr. Irfan Ahmad Pindoo 34

 Quick Quiz
The average value of current in a sinusoidal signal over full cycle is:
A. 𝐼𝑚 2
B. 𝐼𝑚 2
C. 1
D. 0

Delivered by: Dr. Irfan Ahmad Pindoo 35

 Average Value
However, an average value can be defined for the half-cycle (positive or
negative) for a sinusoidal signal.

Delivered by: Dr. Irfan Ahmad Pindoo 36

 Average Value
Half Wave Rectifier Full Wave Rectifier

Delivered by: Dr. Irfan Ahmad Pindoo 37

 Average Value
Half Wave Rectifier Full Wave Rectifier

Delivered by: Dr. Irfan Ahmad Pindoo 38

 Quick Quiz
Based on the previous results, we can say that the average value of half
wave rectifier is_________ than full wave rectifier.
A. Double
B. Half
C. Same
D. None of these

Delivered by: Dr. Irfan Ahmad Pindoo 39

 RMS (Effective) Value
The r.m.s. value of an alternating current is given by that steady (d.c.)
current which when flowing through a given circuit for a given time
produces the same heat as produced by the alternating current when
flowing through the same circuit for the same time.

Delivered by: Dr. Irfan Ahmad Pindoo 40

Delivered by: Dr. Irfan Ahmad Pindoo 41
RMS (Effective) Value

Delivered by: Dr. Irfan Ahmad Pindoo 42

 RMS (Effective) Value
Half Wave Rectifier Full Wave Rectifier

Delivered by: Dr. Irfan Ahmad Pindoo 43

 Quick Quiz
The voltage of domestic supply is 230V. This figure represents
A. Mean value
B. R.M.S value
C. Peak value
D. Average value

Delivered by: Dr. Irfan Ahmad Pindoo 44

 Problem 1
Given the sinusoid 30 sin(4𝜋𝑡 − 75°)calculate its amplitude, phase,
angular frequency, period, and frequency.

Delivered by: Dr. Irfan Ahmad Pindoo 45

Problem 2

Delivered by: Dr. Irfan Ahmad Pindoo 46

Basic Electronics and Electrical
Engineering: ECE 249
UNIT I: Fundamentals of D.C.
and A.C Circuits
Lecture No.: 6
Topic: Voltage and Current
Division, Energy Sources

Delivered By: Dr. Irfan Ahmad Pindoo

Head, Patent and Design Cell
Division of Research and Development
Intellectual Property Rights Cell