ENGINEERING CHEIMI

4.1 INTRODUCTION, CALORIFIC VALUE OF FUEL-HCV, LCV-DUI

AYDERABAD
FORMULA
DULONGS3
What is meant of calorific
value
ofsolid fuel
Q Calorific value? Explain
determination
(Model Paper-l, Q5ta)(i) | Nov./Dec.
A7, Set-3,03
OR
what is calorific value? Write the formula of HCV. April/May-18, Set-1,01b
OR
What is calorific value? What are its units? Classify calorific value.

Answer:
C a l u e : Calorific value of a fuel is defined as the total quantity of heat liberated auring the combustion of

calorie, kilocalorie, British Thermal unit

Oume ot a fuel. It is expressed in various units. They are

Centigrade Thermal Unit. and

Calorie:1 Calorie means, amount of heat which increase the temperature of l gm of water byT

i l o Calorie: 1 kilocalorie means, amount of heat which increases the temperature of 1 kg OI water otC(1.e., 15°C to l6eo.
6°C),.
British Thermal Unit (BTU): 1 BTU means, mount of heat which increases the temperature I pound of water by 1°F (ie.,
60°F to 61°F).

1 BTU =
252 cal =
0.252 k cal
lk cal = 3.968 BTU.

entigrade Heat Unit (CHU): 1 CHU means, amount of heat which increases the temperature 1 pound of water by PC
Ik cal 3.968 BTU
=

=2.2 CHU
The relationship among all these units is,
lk cal 1000 cal 3.968 BTU =2.2 CHU
= =

Higher Calorific Value (HCV): It is also known as Gross Calorific Value (GCV). Higher calorific value is defined as the
total
quantity of heat produced during the combustion of unit mass of fuel and when all combustion products are cooled at
room
temperature.
Usually fuels consists of hydrogen. While measuring calorific value of such fuels, hydrogen converts to steam and then
to
water by releasing latent heat. This latent heat must be considered while calculating calorific value.

HCV is expressed as,

Weight of water X Change in temperature
Volume
Lower Calorific Value (LCV): It is also known as Net Calorific Value
(NCV). Lower calorific value is defined as the total
amount of heat generated during the complete combustion of unit mass of fuel. When all combustion
atmosphere.
products escape into
It is defined as the quantity of heat liberated when one unit of fuel is burnt completely and the products are permitted to
escape.
It is a measure of practically available heat of the fuel.
L C V = HCV - Latent heat of water vapours formed.

Q2. Derive the relationship between HCV and LCV. Write

Dulong's formula to calculate calorific value.
Answer
Model Paper-l, Q5(a)i)
Relationship Between HCV and LCV: LCV =
HCV- Latent heat of condensation
of steam
H,+0,>H,o
2g 16g 18g
lg 8g 9g
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UNIT-4: Energy Sources
65
tthis reaction takes place. Ig of hydrogen produces 9g of water. So, x gof hydrogen produces
f
contain hydrogen, then
fuelc
a t e r and 9x grams of water vapour which intun liberates 9x * L cal of latent heat on cooling

gram
CY HCV- Latent heat of water vapour
HCV- (Mass of hydrogen 9 latent heat of steam)
x x

CY

HCV-9x100 587
HCV-(0.09 H 587)
x

LCV

Where,

in fuel.
H-% of hydrogen
Latent heat of steam is 587 k cal/kg.

Formula: Calorific value of a fuel be calculated theoretically using Dulong's formula, which is given as,
lano's can

High Calorific Value (HC)= TO 8080C+34500 H-+2240s kcalkg

Where,
C- Percentage of Carbon in fuel

H-Percentage of Hydrogen in fuel

0-Percentage of Oxygen in fuel

S - Percentage of Sulphur in fuel1

42 CLASSIFICATION sOLID FUELS: COAL- ANALYSIs OF COAL

PROXIMATE AND ULTIMATE ANALYSIS AND THEIR SIGNIFICANCE
D3. What are fuels? How are they classified? Mention the characteristics of a good fuel.
Answer:

Fuel: A fuel is defined as a naturally occurring or artificial combustile material (with carbon as a main constituent) which on
proper burning acts as a source of heat and light energy.

Classiñcation of Fuels: Fuels can be classified on the basis of following two factors,

1. Occurrence or mode of availability

2. Physical state or state of aggregation.

.
Occurrence or Mode of Availability: Based on the occurrence of fuels, these are classified as,

(i) Primary or natural fuels

i) Secondary or artificial fuels.

1) Primary or Natural Fuels: The fuel that occurs naturally and requires no chemical processing before utilization, is called
primary fuel.
Ezamples: Wood, coal, peat, crude petroleum and natural gas.
() Secondary or Artificial Fuels: The fuel that is produced by changing chemical composition of naturally occurring sub-
stances is called secondary fuel.

Examples: Coke, coal gas and gasoline.

Physical State (or) State of Aggregation: Depending on the physical states of fucls (either primary or secondary), these
are classified as,

0Solid Fuels: Coke, charcoal, petroleum, coal, briquette.

Liquid Fuels: Tar, kerosene, diesel, petrol, fuel oil, synthetic gasoline
Gaseous Fuels: Coal gas, watergas, oil gas, biogas, blast furnace gas, coke oven gas, LPG, CNG.

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 NGIME
66
erates ofn ( u d Vuel he thare teristieo l npn
aeuna ndary r herived 1iyui vueh t, Vetta
petal, uel il, ynthetn asulin atol
uel are,
Advantags
I smld have high e oniu vae

l ave eflie ient detollulble canbnofiun opee

annuotun
I ahonuld ave ptinm ignitin tempetntne hese huele nte tlan
4
shensld release leas amonmt of aoh und elinker ery lorw

D Combaliom itshuld not prudue hauul by Combuustioi ufetalinni liguunl fu

roduets quandity of i

ohonuld prduce lenscmtentosminture ( e, dry Tuet) mnbustiHn urneA

1 should he uitable or euny storage, handlling ho ating the uel upply

Iriansportation Sofge, harudling anud lratiapenlatum td luaid

t should available euaily nd must be les cxpenoive he nccwnnplished withenut any ls
t shuuld ol explode on combustion Liquid uela are suitahe fn ndenal unihaer
10 in S , boilers undyas urhines
I should not cmit harmll paseslike (o, C0, 1 ,ce,
Q4. Dlscuss the advantagos and disadvantagos of Ihese fuels have bigher talrilu valwe udthema.
solld and lquld fuols. hiency than sulied fuels

Answer Disaddvantages
Solld Fues: The fuel
which exist in solid state are called wolid| Sofage of iquid fuels requre speoal cate and et
fucls Ianks
xumples: Primary or Natural solid fuels: wood, peat, ligrite,| 2 Cost of production of liqud fucls 1s
eater tha d.
coal and dung solid fucls
Derlved (or) Secondary Solld Vuels: Coke, Charcal, Petroleun Liquid fucls have bad nir and have
mene rik
Coke and Briquette. hazards
Advantages Liquid fuels require specal burnCfs and
paratus for its combustion
sprayinua
Solid fuels offer safcty ugainst instantancous cxposion.
2 Solid fuchs Theyirc cxpenwve cnnpared to wolid fuels
are cany to
transport.
3. These fuclu have optimum ignition Q5. Write the advantages and
temperature gaseous fuels.
disadvantages o
Production cost of solid fluels in low
Answer
s. Solid fuels have low risk of fire
hazard
6. Solid fuels are cheap and are available
Gaseous Fuels: The fucls which exist in gavenn star et
widely known as gaseous fuels.
Disadvantages Examples: Primary or natural yaeous fucls Natural yas
Solid fucls burn with the formation of large anount o
moke, dust and clinkers Secondary or Derived Gaseous Fuels: Coal yas, walet yas,
gas, biogas, blast furnace gas and cokc oven gas
2 Combustion procewwes of solid fucls cannot be controlled
Advantages
casily
These fuels have high handling costs and require vast Gascous fucls have higher calorific value than wlid ad
placc for storage. liquid fuels.
2. Combustion of yaeous fucl lets anourt dar
. Combustion of solid fuel consume large quantity ofl air. conurnes

Solid fucls have low thernal These fucls burn without smoke, ash and clinke
efficiency. formation.
. Calorific valuc of a solid fuel is relatively low
Transportation of gaseous fuels can he casily dn
Solid fucls are not suitable for internal combustion en
through pipelines.
Hines
These fucls undergo very fast
Liquid Fuels: The fucls which exist or obtained in liquid statle combustion.
are called liquid fucls. Combustion of gascous fucls causes least pollution
snokeless and ashles). Hlence, these are envirnn
Examples: Primary or natural liquid fucl: Crude oil
Lally clean.
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67
UNIT
than solid and liquid fuels.
S
Gaseous
fuels have greater thermal efhiciency
fuels are easy to ignite.
These
of gascous fucls can be readily controlled.
Combustion processes
Caceous fuels are suitable for use in internal combustion engines.

Disadvantages

of gaseous fuel require very large tanks with special care.

storage
Storag
highly inflammable.
Caseous fuels have higher risks of fire hazards, as they are

Production cost of gaseous

fuels is higher than that of solid and liquid fuels.

Give the
comparis between solid, liquid and gaseous fuels.
06. Model Paper-l, 5tb)
Answer:

Solid Fuels Liquid Fuels Gaseous Fuels

Parameter

Physical state Solid Liquid Gaseous

Coal, wood and coke. Crude oil, diesel and petrol Natural gas, coal gas and oil gas.
Examples
2. Gaseous fuels should be stored
Storage of solid fucls is Liquid fuels should be stored
Storage
3. very casy with little care with special care in leak proof carefully in very large tanks
tanks of large volumes. that are leak proof.
in closed containers.
4. Ash content Solid fuels have more Liquid fuels are ashless. Gaseous fuels are ashless.
percentage of ash.

Combustion rate of solid Liquid fuels undergo quick Combustion rate of gaseous
Rate of
.
combustion fuels is very slow. combustion. fuels is very high.

6. | Combustion Controlling of combustion Combustion ofliquid fuels can Combustion process of

of solid fuels is dificult. be controlled easily. gaseous fuel can be controlled
orntrol
easily.
7. Consumption of Solid fuels consume Combustion process of liquid Liquid fuels require least
more oxygen for their fuels require small amount of amount of oxygen for its
oxygen
combustion. combustion.
oxygen.
Solid fuels are less prone to | Risk of fire hazards in liquid Gaseous fuels have high risk
8. Fire hazards
fire hazards. fuels is higher than solid fuels. of fire hazards.
Combustion of solid fuels |Liquid fuels produce less Combustion of gaseous fuels
9. Pollution
gives more pollution. pollution on their combustion. gives least pollution.

10. Calorific value Solid fuels have low Liquid fuels have higher Solid fuels have highest
calorific value. calorific value. calorific value.

Thermal efficiency of solid| Thermal eficiency of liquid Thermal efficiency of gaseous

11. Thermal
fuels is low. fuels is higher than that of solid fuels is higher than solid and
efhcieney
fuels. liquid fuels.
Solid fuels are less Liquid fuels are costlier than Gaseous fuels are costlier than
12. Cost
expensive. solid fuels. solid fuels and liquid fuels.
13. Use in vehicles Solid fuels cannot be usedIt is possible to use liquid fuels Gaseous fuels can be used as
invehicles. invehicles. fuel in vehicles.

Q7. What is coal? How it is formed?

Answer
Coal
For answer refer Unit-IV. Q5, Page No. 81.

Formation of coal is explained using two theories. They are,

. In-situ Theory: In-situ theory states that the coal is formed at the area of vegetation itself. In other words, the place where
the coal is found is the original place of its formation.

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 MISTRY IJNTU-HY
AYDERABAD
ENGINEERING CHEMIST
68
the coal is dis
foundi not the original
rivers to big lake place
where
Drift or
Transportation Theory: Drift theory
states that
the place
was
moved from of
tne various conditionand
trees)
its formatio (such as c
According to this theory, vegetable matter
the vegetable matu d layers
blocked lavers of wood.
of wood.
Due to the various
s (such
decp basins. This lead to the Tomation of various filled and and long time)t he wood
as absence of oxygen,
PCSence
of bacteria, high temperature,
gradual decomposition, thereby leading to the formation ot
excessive pressures
experiencea
cou
U e process ofcoalification consume 10' to 10" years in two sIaged
and other
streptococous,
micrococous

microorgar This
ogeIn this stage vegetable matter converts into peat by
process is called 'Bio chemical coalification".
for 10 to 10 years
due to
o high
hig lemperature (730 C
product
age-2: In this stage chemical changes takes place in the
and pressure.

Vegetable matter transfoms into coal as, coal-Anthracite or hard coal

Plant debris- Peat - Lignite > Sub-bituminous coal -> Bituminous
It contains carbon, hydrogen, oxYgen, nitrogen,
hydrogen,
Finally obtained coal has various components in different percentages. and
amount of carbonin l
Supnur. Quality of coal is determined based on the
8. Explain the proximate analysis of coal and its significance.
Answer:
Proximate Analysis of Coal
Proximate analysis is an empirical method ofanalyzing a sampleofcoal.This method provides essential informationaabou

the practical suitability and commercial ofcoal in any particular

is
application. In other words, this helps in analysis
classificati
assessing the quality of a coal.
of carbon present in the sample ofaeo
ash and fixed amoOunt
t eerines the percentage of moisture, volatile matter,
of moisture are,
1. Mosture: The various steps involved in the determination of percentage
and air dried coal of weight 'y' grams.
) A silica crucible of weight, 'x' grams is filled with a finely powdered

second
Thehour, is to isheat the crucible to a temperature
105-115°C in an electrical oven. After heatine
of about f
(1) an the step
crucible removed using tongs and cooled in a desiccator. Ihis step removes the moisture present n

coal, in the form of water vapour.

(un) The next step is to weigh the cooled crucible, which is considered
as the weight ofcrucible *residue i.e., coal witho
moisture (say z grams).
of crucible is obtained.
(1v) Heating, cooling and weighing is repeated till a constant weight
Loss of weight ot cod x 100
i.e., Percentage of moisture Weight of coal taken
in coal involves the following steps,
Determination of percentage of volatile
matter
2. Volatile Matter:
in the moisture analysis) of known weight is filled in
An anhydrous coal (i.e., coal without moisture obtained
a
(i)
crucible which is provided with a lid.
minutes.
(ü) Heat the crucible in an electric muffle furnace at 950° C for 7
(ii) The crucible is now cooled using a desiccator and weighed. The amount of weight lost gives the amount of volatile
matter present in coal.
Loss in weight due to removal of volatile matter 100
Percentage of volatile matter
=

Weight of coal taken

3. Ash Content: Amount of Ash present in coal is

determined using following steps,
is heated in a crucible without lid. An electric mufle
The residual coal (obtained in the analysis of volatile matter)
furnace which is maintained at 700 C.
taken out, cooled in a desiccator and weighed again.
(ii) After heating for an hour, the crucible is
crucible is continued till a constant weight of ash content is obtained.
(ii) The process of heating, cooling and weighing
Percentage of ash =
Weight of ash
Weight o f coal sample 00

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 UNIT4:E n e
1er9y
arbon: Thc amount of fixed carbon present in coal is calculated as, 69
Fiscd Carbon:
e of fixed carbon - 1 0 - [Percentage of moisture + Volatile matter + Ash content]
4 P e r c e n t a g e

Proximate Analysis
of
ce
Sigoiie

e: Moisture present in coal is

is
evaporatcd during combustion and consumes a significant amount of heat in the
Sformof latent heat of cvaporation. This wastage in heat reduces the effective calorific value of coal. Thus, coal with less
o flatent

of moistu
content is always desirable.
a m o u n t

trile MMatter:
Volatile Presence of large amount of volatile matter in coal leads to incomplete combustion of fuel. It burns
me which considerably reduces the calorific value of coal. Hence, a better quality coal must contain
smoky flame
withlong.
l e s s
f volatile matter in it.
a m o u n t

Content: Ash content in coal is always considered as a trash (or waste) component as it is a non-combustible matter
Ash C
aISCs hindrance to the flow of air and heat, thereby reducing the calorific value of the coal.
3 It caus

h also increases the transport, handling and storage costs of the coal. Moreover, disposal of ash also causes a big
ooblem and adds additional cost to coal. Hence. presence of ash in coal is highly undesirable.
probler

iscd Carbon: Amount ot ixed carbon in coal represents its quality. Greater the percentage of carbon. greater is the
Fixe
combustion efliciency and calorific value of coal. It is used in designing the furnace and shape of the firebox. Thus,a

coal withlargceamount offixcd carbon has better quality

Explain the ultima
mate analysis of a solid fuol and its significance.
09.
A n s w e r :

itimale Analysis ofC'oal: Ultmatc analyss of coal provides percentage contents of carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, sulphur, oxygen
a n da s ash so as
to yicld tbetter quality coal. This analysis is also known as qualitative analysis.
Determination of C'arbon and Hy drogen: The scquence of steps that are to he carried out in determining the percentage
.
ofCand H are.
0) Acombustion tube is filld with a known sample of coal (of weight 'p' grams) and is burned in the presenceof surplus
ox gen

()This comhustion of coal yickds two gasecous products namely CO, and 1 0 and then passed through KOH and CaC1
KOH absorhs CO, and Cacl ahsorhs 0
(1) Amount of carbon prescnt in KOH tube Is detcrmincd us1ng the increasc in the weight of KOH bulb.

Combustion reaction: C-
0, -C0

Absorbingreaction: 2KOH cCO, K.CO, H,O

IncTease in weight of KOH
Percentage of C
Weight of coal sample 100
(iv) Similarly, amount of H, present in CaC1 tube s detcrmined using the inctease in the weight of CaCL bulb.

Combustion reaction: H, 0HO

Absorbing reaction: CaC1, 7H,0-»CaC1, 71H,O
IncTCase in weight of CaC1,
Percentage of H, Weight of coal sample 1 8 10o

Higher the perventage of C and H. higher the quality of coal and its caloritfic valuc
Determination of Nitrogen: Amount of nitrogen prescnt in the sample of coal is determined using Kjeldahl's method.
The sequence of steps involv ed in determining the percentage of nitrogen are.

()Powdered coal of known weight is taken into Kjeldahl's flask (a long-ncckcd flask). The sample is then heated with
a concentrated sulphuric acid (tH,SO) in the prescnce of a catalyst. K,SO, until a clear solution js obtained.
) The clear solution attained made alkaline
by treating with potassium hydroxide (KOH). This process liberates
is

ammonia, which is absorbed in a standard acid solution of known volune.

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 ENGINEERING CHEMISTRY IJNT
70

T h e acid (clear solution) is again treated back with a

standard base
solution (NaOH) in order
.
UNTU-HYDERA
o delermme the

treated acid.

2N+3H.+H,SO, (NH,),SO, determiined as,

in coal is then
Core, the percentage of nitrogen present

Normality Xx I.4
Volume of acidused
Percentage of nitrogen = Weight of coal sampie
x

High quality coal contains less percentage of nitrogen.

3. in coal is
calculated mb
using Bomb calorimeter. In t
Determination of Sulphur: ofsulphur present
Solution whchPto yida
nount

is then treated with

a Barium chloride (BaCl) sals
sulphur is converted
ted into a sulphate. This sulphate
precipitate of Barium Sulphate (BaS0,)
the percentage of sl
ne precipitate so obtained is then filtered, washed and weighed. T heretore, the
percentage ot sulphur in
determined as,
Weight of BaSO, Weight of sulphur
Percentage of sulphur = Weight of coal sample x Weight of BasO, 100

Weight of BaSO
Pereentage of sulphur Weight of coal sample x 233 x10o
=

Significance
1. It increases the calorific value of coal.
2. On combustion it produces SO, and S0, which causes corrosion of metal and ar pollulion.

3. In blast furnace, sulphur reacts with iron and degrades the quality of steel.

4. Determination of Ash: The residual coal is heated at room temperature and weight of ash obtained is calculated
Weightof
Percentage of ash = Weight ofcoal
ash 100

5. Determinatiou of Oxygen: Amount of oxygen present in coal is determined using the expression.
Percentage ofoxygen = 100-[Percentage ofcarbon + Hydrogen + Sulphur + Nitrogen +Ash

Significance: Increase in 1% of O, increases the capacity to hold moisture, which nturn decreases the calorific value by 1

4.3 LIQUID FUELs- PETROLEUM AND ITS REFINING,

CRACKING TYPES
- MOVING BED CATALYTIC CRACKING. KNOCKING OCTANE AND
CETANE RATING, SYNTHETic PETROL
PROCESS
FISCHER-TROPSCH'S
Q10. What are the constituents of petroleum? Describe the origin of petroleum.
Answer:
Petroleum
For answer refer Unit-IV. Q7. Q8 and Q9, Page No. 82.

Origin of Petroleum: Origin of petroleum is explained using two main theories. They are
1. Carbide or Mendeleev's Theory or Inorganic Theory: Carbide theory states thai the metals present in the earth s cns
combine with carbon and form metallie carbides. These carbides on reaction
with moisture or steam form hydrocarhts
which on further hydrogenation yields petroleum. However, carbide theory could not explain the presence of gases sut
as nitrogen, sulphur and optically active compounds
2. Engler's or Organic Theory: Organie theory states that the animal and
to certain natural calamities such as volcanic
vegetable remains got collected in the sed u
eruption. Under the infiuence of high temperature and excessive pres
anaerobic bacteria decompose the vegetable matters into several
hydrocarbons, so as to yield a dark viscous lnqud ale
petroleum.
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 l T - 4 : E n e r g yS o u r c e s

71
account on the refining of petróleum The various steps involved in the
refining of crude oil are,
a 1 1 . W r i t e .

the composition, boiling range 1:

b y e x p l a i n i n g

fractio obtained during Step Separation of Water by Cottrell's Process

u s e s
of different
nd
Water from the crude oil is
refining.
OR separated by passing it
between two highly charged clectrodes. Due to
this, all the
unt of production of petrol from small droplets of waler come together and form big
Give an acco
droplets
of water. These water droplets can be casily
crude oil. separated from
Modol Paper-ll, Q5(a) the crude oil.
Auswer:
f i n i n g o f P e t r o l e
um
u n m
Step 2: Removal of Sulphur Compounds

reler Unit-V, QI0, Page No. 82. The crude oil obtained from the Cottrell's process is
For
answer
Petroleum: :Crude oil present in the deep earth treated with copper oxide to remove sulphur compounds presernt
of
E t r a
ction ling holes in theearth's crust. The pipes are in it. The copper oxide reacts with sulphur and forms copper
eted by drillin
cnt the holes uplofnatural
t h e ns .
the oil-bcaring porous rocks: Due
sulphide. This solid material
gas (present in petroleum), process of filtration.
rostatic pressure o
can be easily removed by the

t ot h eh y d r o s t

out from the holes.

the oil
rushes
Step 3: Fractional Distillation
Figures illustrates
the mining ol crude oil by drilling Fractional distillation is the process of separating
earth's crust.
in the various crude oil components, depending on their boiling
holes
-Natural gas Fractional distillation is caried out in a
point differences.
tall cylindrical tower, known as 'Fractionating Column'. This
column consists of number of horizontal trays with holes (or
loose caps) as shown in figure (3).
>Gases

-Natural
gas

Tray A Petroleum
Brine ether
Chimney
Figure (1: Extraction or Mining of Crude 0il Gasoline
Another method of extracting petroleum is to use lit
pump or
air-lift pump for mechanically crude oil. mining the
Down
spot Naphtha
lift has two co-axial pipes namely outer pipe and inner
The pump
Dipe. These pumps are sinked
into the bottom of the crude oil Kerosene
bed as shown in figure (2).
Compressed air Diesel oil
Oil Loose
cap
Lubricating
oil
Iron retort Fuel oil

> Fractionating
PL column
Brine
Steam
Figure (2: Use of Air-lift for Extracting Petroleum Cude
The outer pipe is provided with compressed air to force oil >Heavy oil
Furnace at
out the oil from earth's crust and the oil is collected from the 400°C
inner pipe. This oil is then transported to refinery through Figure (3): Fractional Distillation of Crude Petroleum
pipelines.
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 ENGINEERING
72

Cnis
ne crude oil
and
is passed into an
the residue (i.e.,
iron retort, where it
petroleum coke
is heated to a high
or asphalt)
remained is
collected at the botom.
"

JNTU-HYDERARLN
A0O°C.This evaporales althe
temperature of400°C.

then allowed to pass througniractionating colimo

the
umn. 5
ne hot vapours or volatile constituents are various heights of the on. thee h.
hot vares
fractional condensation Occurs at
up, they gradually cool down and hence
move

hgh boiling points condense first and those with low boiling points
condense step-by-Step.
Fracions vh
fractional distillation are,
he various fractionation products obtained by
Approximate
Range of Boiling Uses
S.No. Fractionation Product Composition
Points
Domestic and
industrial fuel
. Uncondensed gas Less than 30°C as LPG.
Used as a solvent.
known
2. Petroleum ether 30-70°C C-C
Gasoline or petrol or motor Automobile fuel and solvent.
3.
spirit 40-120°C C-C
4 Naphtha or solvent spirit 120-180°C C-C Used in dry cleaning and as solv a

lUsed as an illuminant, engine

Kerosene oil 180-250°CC
C-C and in the preparation of Jjetlaboratory fuel
6:Diesel oil or fuel oil or gas oil 250-320°C Co-C Used as diesel engine fuel.
7. Heavy oil Used to obtain gasoline by
crackine
320-400C C process.

Asphalt is used as water

proofino
8.
Residue (i.e., asphalt or coke) Greater than 400°C| C and above material
Cokeis used as afuel.
Q12. What is
cracking? What are the advantages of catalytic cracking over thermal cracking?
Answer:
Cracking of Petroleum
For answer
refer Unit-TV, Q12, Page No. 83.
Cracking is mainly done to decompose' the higher boiling fraction into more valuable lower
more suitable for
boiling fraction which can be
practical purpose. Thus, cracking gives improved gasoline by thermal decomposition of heavier fractions.
The two methods of cracking are,
. Catalytic cracking

2. Thermal cracking.
1. Catalytic Cracking: The process of decomposing heavier hydrocarbon molecules into lighter hydrocarbon molecules
using a catalyst (such as Aluminium silicate AL(Si0,), or
takes place in low temperature at 300-450°C and low
Alumina-ALO,) is known as catalytic cracking. This process
-

pressure of1-5 kg/cm:. It is of two types. They are,

1. Fixed-bed cracking
2. Moving-bed cracking
2. Thermal Cracking: The process of breaking down the bigger
hydrocarbon molecules into smaller or lighter hydrocarbon
molecules under the influence of high temperatures and pressures is called thermal cracking. It is also called as Burton
process. It occurs homolytically and produces free radicals.

-CH-CH,CH,-CH, ->CH -H, +H, -CH,

The products obtained through thernal cracking are separated by fractional distillation and the yield is about 7 to 30%.
Themal cracking is of two types, They are,
) . Liquid Phase Thermal Cracking: Through this method liquid oil is obtained at 450-550°C of temperature and 15
to 100 kg/cm ofpressure. Octane number of this number is upto 70.

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IT4: Energy sU
anour
ape Phase Cracking: This method
produces oils of low temperature and 73
cm respectively. It consumes very less time compared to liquid pressure ie., 600-650°C and 10-25
kg/
phase cracking.
Residual gases
Cold oil

Straight-run Gases
Heater at
gasolinefeed
stock 500-600°C Quencher ractionator
85 atm Stripper Stabiliser

Reformed
Steam gasoline

Figure: Thermal Cracking

antages of Catalytie Cracking Over Thermal
Cracking
Catalytic cracking does not
require any other external fuel for cracking
Higher quantity of petrol can be produced when compared to thermal
Better quality of petrol can be obtaincd.
cracking
Aromatic decomposition removes only the side chain and the rings are unbroken.
Olefins formmed during cracking in the form of gaseous fraction can be
polymerized to obtain petrol.
13. How gasoline is obtained from fixed-bed
catalytic cracking?
nswer: Model Paper-|l, Q5(b()
Fixed-bed catalytic cracking helps in improving the quantity and
quality of the synthetic petrol. Figure below illustrates
e apparatus arrangement of fixed-bed catalytic cracking method.

+Pre-heater Catalyst chamber- Fractionatng Cooer-

coumn

Catalyst Cracked
vapour

Vapour

w *

Heater Output
Heavy
Gases,
Heavy oil
charge
Input
Gas

Gasolme

Gasolne
some dssolved
gas
-Stabilizer-

Figure: Fixed bed Catalytic Cracking

This process involves the following sequence of actions for preparing gasoline or petrol.

. Pre-heater: Initially, the vapours of heavy oil are transferred into a pre-healer which is maintained at high temperature of

420 450°C.
2. the oil are led towards the
catalytic chamber which contains
Catalyst Chamber: After heating in the pre-heater, vapours
artificial clay along with zirconium oxide. This chamber is maintained at a high temperature of about 425450°C and

SPECTRUM ALL-IN-ONE JOURNAL FOR ENGINEERINGSTUDENTS

 ENGINEERING CHEMISTRY1JNTU-HYDERA.
74
excessive pressure of 1.5
kg/em?. It also incorporates
rking. Oil vapours
a suitable catalystforitscarbon as a by-product when
working. ERABAD
passed thro
into gasoline while producing (i.e., abou
Wer, transform about 40% ofthe charge
ir the chamber absorbs the carbon and oil vapours
The catalyst bed present in
are moved towards a
jonaing coluo4rmn.
fractionat
3. the difierent fractions of heavy oil.
aCtionating Column: Fractionating column is employed separate
to
Cooler: The fractionatedeoutput from fractionating column is fed to the cooler, which conden ses a
of portion heavy gi
while leaving the rest uncondensed.
into a stabilizer. This helps in obtain
Stabilizer: The cooled gasoline along with few dissolved gases passed
5. is
gasoline by eliminating the dissolved gases.
pPure
Q14. How gasoline is obtained from moving bed catalytic cracking
Answer:
Moving Bed or Fluid Bed Catalytic Cracking: Moving bed catalytic cracking is used to pertorm repeated cracking of
oil. This method ofcracking employs a solid catalyst as its raw material. heavy
Figure below illustrates the apparatus arrangement of moving bed catalytic cracking.
Cracked
vapour Light Cooler
Flue gases fraction

Cyclone

Gases

500°C

Fraction Gasoline + Gas

600°C Matching
Catalyst column Gases
regenerator Reactor
Heavy
oil
Stabilizer
Spent
Catalyst catalyst
Air+ Gasoline
Oil
Spentcatalyst
Air
blower
1 Feed

oil
Figure: Moving-bed Catalytie Cracking
The sequence of actions carried out in moving bed catalytic cracking are,
1. Initially the raw material (solid catalyst) is grind to very fine powder such that it nearly behaves as a fluid.

2. Vapours of heavy oil along with the fluidized catalyst is passed into a large reactor 'bed'. This reactor breaks down the
heavier molecules into lighter molecules.
The reactor is provided with a centrifugal separator (known as cyclone) at its top. This permits the passage of cracked oil
vapours over the fractionating column and blocks the catalyst powder in the reactor itself.
3 The carbon coating makes the catalyst powder heavier in weight. Hence, it gets collected at the bottom of the reactor. This
collected powder is again sent to regenerator using an airblast.
4 The regenerator burns the carbon and produces catalyst again. This regenerated catalyst is allowed to pass through a stand-
pipe inorder to combine with the untreated incoming cracking oil.
5. A separator provided at the top of the regenerator allows only gases to pass through it while retaining the catalyst particle
at the bottom of the regenerator.
6.The gaseous vapours are then moved towards the 'faction matching column' to divide the various fractions ofthe heavyoi
7 The fractionated vapours are now led towards a cooler so as to condense the hot vapours.

8. The cooled gasoline along with few undissolved gases is sent towards a stabilizer, which eliminates the undissolved gaseous
and gives a pure petrol.

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 4: Energy rces

a15 What is knocki Whatare its adverse affects? How it is prevented?

75
OR
What is
meant by knocking? Explain the mechanism of
knocking in chemical terms.
Answer:

K n o c k i n g

Far answer refer Unit-IV, Q14, Page No. 83

Prevention

king
K noc)
can be controlled by adding blending agents or antiknocking
Mehyl Lead (TML) or Diethyl Telluride (C,H), Te. agents such as Tetra Ethyl Lead
(TElL) or Tetra
Ilise of high octane gasoline also prevents knocking of engines.
lacrease in the amount of fucl injection lowers the air to fuel
ratio, which inturn prevents knocking.
Ilse of knock sensors connecled to the ECU (Engine Control Unit)
4
e detected, the ignition timing of helps in detecting a 'knock' before hand. When a
fuel is slowed down. This intum
reduces knocking tendency of the knock
of Knocking in Chemical Term engines.
Mechanism

Chemical composition of fuel has great impact on their knocking

characteristics. Some of the major impacts are,
Increase in the compactness of the molecules, double bonds and
cyclic structure, increases the knocking
fuels capability of the
lecrease in the hydrocarbon chain of the normal paraffins, decreases their
anti-knocking tendencies.
Table below illustrates the octane number of the normal
paraffins.
S.No. Parafin Octane Number
Remark
n-butane 90 Decrease in the
2.
octane number,|
n-pentane 60 decreases knocking in the fuel.
3. n-hexane 29
4 D-heptane 0

Table
3. Paraffins of branched chain characteristics show higher anti-knocking
capability than that of normal isomers.
Antiknock properties of olefins is much higher than their
respective paraffins.
. Benzene and toluene (i.e., Aromatic hydrocarbons) knock severely as these have high octane numbers.
g16. What is octane number and cetane number? Give the differences between them.

Answer:
Model Paper-l, 5(a)
Octane Number

Octane number is arbitrary

an scale that
gives the measure of knocking characteristics of an internal combustion engine
uel. It can be defined as the percentage of Iso-octane' present in a mixture of 'n-heptane' and Iso-octane', that resembles the
ombustion characteristics of fuel under test.
Cxample: A fuel with octane number 86 implies that it has same combustion characteristics as 86:14 mixture of iso-octane and
-heptane.
A fuel with
greater octane number offers greater resistance to knocking. For instance, n-heptane which has an octane
umber equal to zero knocks severely whereas iso-octane with octane number equal to 100 offers
high resistance to knock
g

ignificance
Dctane number helps in expressing the knocking characteristies of a fuel.

) Itis also used in determining the quality of a fuel.

SPECTRUM AL-IN-ONEJOURNAL FOR ENGINEERINGSTUDENTS

 ENGINEERING CHEMISTRY(JNTU-HYDe.
76
Cetane Number
DERABADI
It can be definedas
d as the p
fuel under compression.
Cctanc number gives the measure of ignition capability
re
capability of a uc
ofignition ofa holene. that resembles the ignition char of

etane (or n-hexa decane) present in a mixture of cetanc and a-meuy

of fucl under test.

that it has the

same ignition characteristics as
60:
mixture
40 mixture
of
cetane and
number60 implies
a-methyl naphthalene.
A uel with greater cetane number has verv short ignition delay. For instance, cetane o Ccane (Cetaner
has longer ignition delay.
(cetane number =0)
gnition delay whereas a-methyl naphthalene
Significance
i) Cetane number helps in expressing ignition characteristics of
a fuel.

knoOCK.
i) uel with greater cetane number has better quality as it eliminates diesel

Differences between Octane Number and Cetane Number

Cetane Number
Octane Number
ane number gives the measure of knocking 1.| Cetane number gives the measure of igniti
Octar n
diesel.
characteristics of a fuel
or
characteristics of an internal combustion engine fuel
(or gasoline).

Hydrocarbons with poor diesel fuel characteristics 2. | Hydrocarbons with poor gasoline fuel characteristie
CS
serve as good gasoline fuels.
are used a good diesel fuels.

Suraight chain hydrocarbon molecules have low 3. Straightchain hydrocarbon molecules have high cetane
Octane number. numbers. Hence, these are considered as best fuels.
Hence, these are considered as worst
fuels.
4. Themostcommonadditives used for increasing the 4. The most common additives used lor increasing the
Octane number are Tetraethyl Lead (TEL) and cetane number ofa fuel are "pre-ignition dopes' such

Diethyl Telluride as ethyl nitrite,isoamylnitriteand acetone peroxide.

Q17. Define octane number of gasoline. What is its significance and how is it measured? Why ethylene
dibromide is added when TEL is used as an antiknock reagent?
Answer

Octane Number
For answer refer Unit-V, Q16, Topic: Octane Number, Page No. 75.
An "80-octane" fuel is one which hasthe same combustion characteristics as a 80: 20 mixture in iso-octane and n-heptane
Gasoline with octane rating as high as 135 ar used for aviation purposes. The octane number of poor fuels can be increased by
adding highly toxic materials as tetraethyl lead (C,H,), Pb and diethyl telluride (C.H,)Te).
Measurement of Octane Number
Octane number is determined using the expression,
Octane number= Fower number-100
Where power number is an arbitrary number proportional to the power being extracted from the engine.
The higher the octane numbe, theloweris the tendency to knock and better is the quality ofthe fuel. In general,straight
chain hydrocarbons have low octane numbers.
Addition of Anti-knock Reagent

Tetraethyl Lead (TEL) an antiknock, gets transformed into a cloud of finely divided lead oxide particles over the motor
engines. This deposition of ead oxide particles is harmful to the engine life. To eliminate lead oxide from the engine, ehtylene
dibromide is added, which removes lead oxide in the form of a volatile lead bromide along with the exhaust gases.
Pb CHBr-CHBR PbBr CHCH,
(Ethylene dibromide) (Lead ethylene bromide)
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T-4: E n e r g yS o u r c e s

8
petrol and diesel oil with respect to,
C o m p a r ep e t r
77
Knocking characteristics (i) Octane number and cetane number

Blending and doping

agents.
i)

SwCr:

Property
Petrol Diesel
Ánocki
Characteristics 1. Knocking in petrol is due to the|1. Knocking is due to the delay in the
instantaneous combustion of the last instantaneous combustion of the first part
portion of the fuel. of the fuel.
Knocking characteristics are expressed |2. Knocking characteristics are expressed in|
in terms of octane numbers. terms of cetane numbers.
Knocking characteristics of petrol in |3. Knocking characteristics of diesel in decreasing
decreasing order is given as, order is given as:
n-alkanes> branched chain alkanes>
cyclo alkanes > alkenes> aromatics. n-alkanes> naphthenes(or cycloalkanes)>
alkenes> is0-alkanes> aromatics.
Octane Number and Octane number is the percentage of|1. | Cetane number is the percentage of cetane in|
2 Centane Number iso-octane present in a mixture of
iso- amixture ofcetane and a-methyl naphthalene
octane and n-heptane which matches which matches the ignition characterisites of|
the combustion characteristics of fuel the fuel under test.
under test.
|2. High octane number represents less 2. High cetane number indicates less knocking
|knocking and higher combustion| ie., very short ignition delay).
characteristics.
Petrol (iso-octane) with octane number |3. The diesel oil with a cetane number 100 has
100 offers high
resistance to knocking. very short ignition delay and least knocking
4. n-heptane knocks severely and its 4. a-methyl napthalene has a long ignition delay
octane number is zero.
and its cetane number is zero.
3 Blending and Doping 1. The octane number of petrol can be |1. The cetane number of diesel can be raised by
Agents raised by adding blending agents like,| adding doping agents like
Tetraethyl lead (TEL)-Pb{C,H), Ethylnitrite Iso-anryl nitrate
Tetramethyl lead (TME)-Pb{CH,), | Acetone Peroxide
Mixed methylethyl lead. Ethylnitrate
A crude oil that gives petrol of high |2. A crude oil that gives diesel ofhigh cetane
octane number will give diesel oflow number will give petrol of low octane|
cetane number. number.

19. How do you synthesize petrol by Fischer-Tropsch process?

inswer: Model Paper-ll, Q5(b)

iscber-Tropsch Process: Fischer-Tropsch process employs coal as a raw material for synthesizing petrol.
Figure below illustrates the arrangement of apparatus used in Fischer - Tropsch process.

Catalyst
(CO+Th+ Mg0
+Kieselguhr) Cooler

Fe0, Fe,0
+ +Gasoline
Water gas Na,CO,
(CO+H Heavy Cracking
oil Gasoline

H Purification Compressor Fractionating

Column
of gas (5-25 atm)
Figure: Fischer:Tropsch Method

SPECTRUMALL-IN-ONE JOURMAL FORENGINEERING STUDENTS

 78
he sequence of actions involved in the preparation ofsynthetic peirol
ENGINEERING CHEMISTRY

over red-hot coKe

ITU-HYDERABAD
yields water
reaction with steam gas
.

Cal is transformed into hard coke, which on

i.e., C
+HO C0 +
H
(Water gas)
The water gas obtained is then mixed with
hydrogen.
3. ure are
The
unwanted components such as H,S and other organic suphur co1 removed by
passing it through Fe,0, and Fe,O, + Ña,CO,respectively
4. in the compressor
purined gas is then compressed to about 5 -25 atmosphere
contains a suitable catalyst and is m
5. converter which
uput irom compressor (i.e., compressed gas) is sent to the ined
(both saturated and unsaturated
at a
temperature of about 200 300°C. This yields a mixture of hydrocarbons
-

i.e., nCO+2nH, > C.H,+ nH{O

nCO +(2n+ 1)H, -> C.H t nH,O
CO +H,OCO, +H,
nis process is exothermic in nature i.e., it liberates hot gaseous vapours.

6. The mixture of hot vapour is sent to a cooler which yiclds a crude oi.

7. Ihe crudeoil is fractionated to yield gasoline (or) synthetic petrol and high-boiling
heavy oi.

8. High-boiling heavy oil can be further used to increase the yield of petroleum.

4.4 GASEOUS FUELS-cOMPOSITION AND USES OF NATURAL GAS, LP

AND CNG
Q20. Write short notes on natural gas.
Answer Model Paper-ll, Q5(b)i)
Natural Gas
For answer refer Unit-IV, Q16, Page No. 84.
Ocurrence: Natural gas is also known as Marsh Gas'. It is extensively produced in oil tields associated with petroleum and
crude oil. The natural gas associated with petroleum is termed as Wet gas'. This gas contains hydrocarbon such as pronana
butane, pentane and hexane. On the other hand, natural gas that occurs along with the erude oil is known as Dry gas', This oae
contains methane and ethane as major constituent along with impurities such as CO,. CO, H,, 1,S, N, and inert gases. Harmful

gases like HS can be eliminated using 2-amino ethanol.

Calorific Value
Calorific value of a natural gas varies from 12,000 to 14,000 kCal/m.

Uses
Natural gas can flow over large distance through pipelines.
. lt is extensively used as domestic and industrial fuel.
Natural gas can be used as a raw material in synthesizing carbon black, hydrogen and other chemicals such as methanol
.

and formaldehyde.
4 Microbiological fermentation of methane (i.e., the major constituent as
natural gas) can yield synthetic proteins which can
be used as animal feed.
5. It is used to prepare ammonia.

a21. Write short note on LPG.

Model Paper-IV, 05(a)
Answer
Liquefied Petroleum gas (LPG)
Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG) is a non-renewable energy source which can be prepared from natural gas or by cracking
and
heavy petroleum products. It contains propane and butane along with other hydrocarbons like isobutane, butylene, propene in
to store
ethane. These gaseous hydrocarbons when treated under high pressures attain liquid state. LPG can be compressed
containers or cylinders.

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 Bourcas

IT 4:
Energy
19
dvautagrsu fLPM

pli is cnvirnmemall
ally safe as 1 gves em nu ypses (wuh as C) snd waes vapnrj m ts unsvian

ts Lalorile value 1s abend 25JM#) kealln

ahnyatin od.P yielda nuserate heal, kess cartandinde and untnart bydrv.atns
caues least peilluaun
it
Hence,
of luquelied petroleun yas is sirmple
suay
can be casily mined with air
LPi
LPg is smklevs and ashles
Combustium of

t highly resists knunkin

Lakaye of LPj can be detested by adding small quanities of sulphua umnpnnds

levs Expensive than yasmline

LPG is

isadvantages

LPG becones dangernus

on its leakaye
Ue of LPG
as fuel is quite difficuh
tis not suilable in engines with lrw Connpressum Katio(CK)

pplications
LPG is Cxlensively used as domestic fuel and auo fuel

It is alvo used in the preparation of nurnber of chenicas and olefins.

Industries employ LPG in portable blorw lampn, hardening, annealing, steel cutsin and weldiny
. What is CNG? What are its advantages and disadvantages?

nswer:
CNG means conpressed natural gas When ratural gas is compreved a high pressue of hora 1rC nd unled n-
wrc, it ransforms to CNG. It is stored in steel cylinders. During umbusticn, it produes very lesspoibarts

dvantages
It ignites at high temperature. So, it is better connpared to petrol and dievel
Operating cost is low

It can be stored easily

Production cost is also low.

t liberates very less pollutants like CO and unburnt hydrocarbons.

Its octane number is high, so there is no need for anti-knocking agent

Vehicles which use CNG have long life

Spark plugs of engines which are using CNG are not carbonifed.

CNG carries out regular combustion

sadvantages
It does not blend easily
CNG has faint odour.

If there is any leakage. it cannot be detected

CNG tanks occupy more space.

Rcfueling is very expensive.

SPECTRUMALLIN-ONE JoURMAL FOREMGINEERIHGSTUDENTS

 ENGINEERING CHEMISTRY IJNTU-HYne.
80

BIODIESEL TRANSESTERIFICATION, ADVANTAGESs

HYDERABAD
023. Explain the concept of trans-esterification.
Answer: Model Papet-V, G
Trans-esterification
to biodiesc!. In this proces,
reaction for conversion of vegctable oil yeri

feacted with alcoholchemical

DCrcation is a
like methanolor cthanol in the preference of catalyst like lye: Aller the chenical react
chenically reacto vatu
components of vegetable oil break down to form new compounds.
chemical name of biodiesel. If methanol is
The triglycerides converted into esters, which is the ued m
are formed alkyl
arc
csters while if ethanol is uscd than ethyl csters are lorned. Both thecse com
chemical reaction, methy
DIOICBCI Tuels with different chemical combination. In the chemical reaction alcohol replaces BIy cerin npoundy ate
O

R'OH + R"OH
RO R
R'O R

Alcohol+ Ester Different alcohol Diflerent ester

lycerin that has been separated during trans-esterification process is released as the by-product of the chemical teac
Gilycerin will ither sink to the bottom of reaction vessel or come to the surface depending on 1s phase. It can be casily separae
eaction.
iraled
by the centrifuges. This whole process is called as trans-esterification
The biodiesel produced by process oftrans-esterification has much lesser viscosity, which makes it capable to r9placete
troleum diesel in the diesel engines. The by-product ofthe trans-esterification chemical reaction 1s glycerin that originally fomed
bond between the chains of fatty acids. Glycerin can be used for various purposes. Thus, during trans-esterifhication process noth
ing goes wasted, all the products and by-products are utilized for various purposes.

Q24. What are the advantages of biodiesel?

Answer: Model Paper-IV, Q5(b

Advantages
. Biodiesel is the diesel fuel prepared from vegetable oil, animal fats and grease
2. Chemically, it is fattyacid alkyl esters, Fatty Acid Methyl Esters (FAME) and long chain monoalkyl esters.

3 Generally, petroleum is added to biodiesels to produce a biodiesel blend that can be used to run different vehicles.

4. Vehicles using biodiesel are safe.

It is biodegradable, non-toxic and does not harm the environment as it produces less pollutants and greenhouse gases.

6. Biodiesel is good for a country's economy because the resources to make the biodiesel can be grown within the couniry
itself, thus decreasing the dependence on other countries for fuel supplies.
7 If demand for biodisel increases, prices come down.

Disadvantages
Currently it is expensive than other traditional fuels
2. It has low fuel economy and power.
However, as people begin to realize the benefits of biodiesel fuel and with the growth in demand, the price of biodiesel s
ikely to drop.

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 1 4 : E n e r g yS o u r c e s

VERY
SHORT QUESTIONS WITH 31

a t . Definefuel.
SOLUTIONS (VsQs)
AnSWer:
isdefined
e
as a naturally occuring or artificial combustile Model Paper-, Clg)
F r e tA
ek
fuel
ng aacts as a source of heat and light energy. material (with carbon as
per buning ctsa a main
0 Classiy fuels.
constituenn) which on
AnSWer:

Fuels
can be c
e
classified as primary and secondary ruels. Ihey may be
classificationof fuels based on their solid, liquid or
gaseous according to the state
gurebelor occurence and
physical state.
of phase.
Fuels

Natural/Primary fuels
Artifcial Secondary fuels

Solid Liquid Gaseou Solid

(Ex: Wood) (Kerosene) (Nanural gas) (Charcoal, coke) Liquid Gaseous
(Petrol) (Coal gas)
Figure: Clasification of Fuels
43 What
Wha are primary and:secondary fuels? Give examples.

Answer:

Cuel: The fuel that occurs

Primary Fuel: naturally and requires no chemical processing before utilization is
called primary fuel.
Examples: lood, coal, peat, crude petroleum and natural gas.

andary Fuel: The fuel that is produced by chang1ng chemical composition of

naturally occurring substances is called secondary
fuel.
gasoline. and
Examples: Coke,coal gas
04. Write any five advantages of liquid fuels over solid fuels?

Refer any five)

Answer:

The advantages of liquid fuels over solid fuels are,

Liquid fuels do not form ash, clinkers and dust during combustion.
The calorific value of liquid fuels is higher than that of solid fuels.
Liquid fuels undergo quick combustion and causes less pollution than solid fuels.
3
Unlike solid fuels, combustion processes of liquid fuels can be controlled easily by monitoring its supply.
4
of than solid fuels for their complete combustion.
Liquid fuels require less furmace space (or less amount oxygen)
than solid fuel.
6. A liquid fuel is much lighter in weight (typically 30% less)

Volume of a liquid fuels is 50% less than that of solid fuels.

Unlike solid fuels, liquid fuels are extensively used as fuel in automobiles (1.C engines).
B.
5. What is coal? How it is formed?
Mod aper-1, Q1(h)
Answer:
of
of energy.
non-renewable source It is a highly carbaneous mater which consists
primary solid fuel which is a
Coal: Coal is a

Oxygen(0) and Non-combustile inorganic substances.

Cabon(C), Hydrogen(H), Nitrogen(N),
which are decomposed under
vegetable and animal matters,
of Coal: Coal is naturally formed by decomposition the of
rormation pf vegetable and animal matters into coal is
known as coalification.
and pressures. This process of conversion
mperatures
ENGINEERING STUDENTS
SPECTRUMALL-IN-ONE JOURNAL FOR
 ENGINEERING CHEMIS 1JNTU-HYDERAB
82
ABADI
coal.
Q6. Differentiate proximate and ultimate analysis o
Answer:
Ultimate Analysis

Proximate Analysis an
elemental od
method of analyzin
analysis Is
method of | I |Ulimate
Proximate analysis is an empirical coal.
the net nt of constituent:
amount
analyzing coal It gives
information on

garding the
practical| 2. coal.
It provides information sample of
present in
a

percentage or carbon, hydropen

suitability ofcoal. 3. |It determines the en,
volatile| present in a sample
the percentage of moisture,
ash
oxygen and
t detemines
n
nitrogen, sulphur,
matter, ash and fixed amount of carbon present
of coal.
a sample of coal. 4. Ultimate analySIs
IS nol as
usenul
as proXImateanalvis
better than ultimate
roximate analysis is relatively

analysis.
Q7. What is petroleum?
Model Paper-|l, a1(g)
Answer:
Petroleum: Petroleum or crude oil is one of the important liquid fuels which forms the basis Ior various secondary liguid
inner

as a mineral oil which is naturally formed under the inn.

considered
Tuels (such as kerosene and diesel). It is generally
crust of the earth.
Q8. Write the characteristics of crude oil or petroleum

Answer:
follows.
The characteristics of a crude oil or petroleum are as

1. Nature Viscous liquid

2. Color - Dark-greenish brown

3. Odour Unpleasant
crude oil.
Give the average composition of petroleum
or
Q9.

Answer :

mixture of organic and inorganic compounds. lable illustrates an approximate composition of

Petroleum is a complex
petroleum (or crude oil).

S.No. Constituents Percentage

. Carbon 80-87.1%

11.1 - 15%
2. Hydrogen
. Sulphur 0.1 -3.5%

4. Nitrogen .0.4-0.9%

Oxygen 0.1-0.9%

Table: Composition of Petroleum

Q10. What is meant by refining of petroleum?

Answer: Model Paper-ll, Q1h)

Refining of Petroleum: Petroleum obtained directly from the earth's erust is a complex mixture of various hydrocarbons. It also

contains unwanted impurities such as sand, water and compounds of sulphur. These impurities of petroleum must be removed
prior to its use in automobiles. The process of eliminating the unwanted impurities by fractionalising petroleum into dirieren
fractions is known as 'Refining of Petroleum'.

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T 4 : Eneray u r s

What are the

varius fraction onained uring rhininy d snudo W

urins
N a i n n d

s
f
iwnder
Pendeu ether

(n uivent spirt)
hdha

meant by eracking of poosum?

dLWmat is

eind th pruaa rl vmvertings hozurs vydrs attuni nohossoa ndoy

igd yreun: 1ukng vd prioun s as

arVstvn maeostes
ula y
Hiper 1ukn nalles mvalles urnaludrs
rydrrvattun malerule aurald rydrnaastun hydrra atun

paie Crakiny f a
tdea musle (,}1,) ywlds tury smaller pentann muersee

(nentane) (yntatnj
o13. DiMerertiats betwe6n thermal and tatalytc cracking

Thermal Craking Catalytie Crarkinz

1hemalraking er piaz udahizh vanpraurs aalyu eruking tikrs ples user muh kower vangers
ard preowur
This tye d eraking wurs in tie stens il a2 atalyin. sraxkimgws in tepreun sh a taaly
aly
Thermal cracking imulves the tamadvn d rz invnlvesthe tamalun sdsatuniuan um mtenoduao

4 y i s evs anurrt f yard 4 Amnut tA yorl prdusd tnnv aalyn ouking io mah
yearthan tha id ttermal crukiny
u n i pnd f bu qiality
Prbusun uet chtuernal raking is very high Caalyis eracking is less erpennrve tha themal eraxeny

on4. hat is meat by knocking in 1C. engine? What are ts adverse efferts?

Anwuer
Ksukin Kncking can e detnet asa type vd erghniun uhich rdurs a ttling vrnd n nterral vnnbnvdun (1 fj mr
a nanly twwt dn v te intatatesrs umntun h ta last pnn of the ful
Me V.Merds: The varivn atveru etens f kronking are,
sunking resus tte eieieny td te interral unmnustium enujres. In ogter wnd, ksuskina, prndur toraud ymee

h ceeteaing d te cylinder yerns, terey revutiny in the mehanital failure d te nayre

h as isascs te rar th hea traster in te vytean.
susking rbur une, tunes nd e-ipitun in te ntnal unbuntwn enare

PECTRUM ALLAHOHE JOURHAL FOR EHGIMEERIHG STUDENTS

84
Q15. What is
meant by 'synthetic petrol'?
ENGINEERING CHEMISTRY (JNTU-HYDe
TU-HYDERABADI
Answer: Model Paper-N, Ql
from low
molecular weight fractions ot.
from coal
yntnetie petrol is a man-made petrol which is synthesized either
etrdleum or
fractions of petroleum (Such a
from low molecular weight olefins and
des O preparation of synthetie petrol
1s Known as polymerization. On the other hand, the processes which make Ue o al for preparation of synthetio
petroj
are
Fischer-Tropsch method and Bergius process.
016. Give the composition of natural
gas.
Answer:
below illustrales tne approximate comne
Natural gas is a fossil fuel with methane as its major constituent. Table on of
a natural gas.

S.No. Constituents Percentage

1. Hydrocarbons
70- 90%
Methane (CH
Ethane (C, H) + Propane (C, H) + Butane (C, H,) 0-20%

2. Other gases
0-7%
&Carbondioxide (CO)
0-5%
Nitrogen (N,)
0-5%
Hydrosulphuric acid(H,S)
0- 1%
Hydrogen (H,)
0-0.2%
Oxygen (0.)
Table: Composition of Natural Gas

Q17. Abbreviate CNG. Mention any two advantages.

Answer Model Paper-/V, 01h)

CNG-Compressed Natural Gas.
Advantages of CNG

. CNG ignites at a higher temperatures than gasoline and diesel. Due to this, use of CNG is considered to be much safer
than gasoline.

2. Amount of pollutants (such as CO and unburnt hydrocarbons) released during the combustion of CNG is less.

3 CNG is less expensive than gasoline.

Q18. What is meant by Combustion'?
Answer

Combustion may be defined as an exothermic chemical reaction that releases a significant amount of heat on reaction of
air with substances (maintained at their ignition temperatures).

Q19. What is meant by Calorific value of a fuel?

Answer:

Caloriic Value

Calorific value of a fuel is defned as the total quantity of heat developed during the combustion of a unit mas or uni
volume) of a fuel. It is measured in calories, kilo calories, British Thermal Units and Centigrade Heat Unit.

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NIT-4: Energy Sources 85
iferentiate between HCV and LCVof fuel.
20.
nSwer:

Lioher Calorifie Value (HCV)/ Gross Calorific Value
(GCV)
Higher calorifie value is defined as the total quantity
of heat produced during the combustion ofunit mass
of fuel and condensing of combustion products to
room temperature (15°C or 60°F or 288°K)
Lower Calorifie Value (LCv/ Net Calorific Value
(NCV)
Lower calorific value is defined as the total amount|
of heat generated during the complete combustion of
unit mass of fuel and escaping of products obtained
in the process.

It is a measure of total heat of fuel. It is a measure of practical heat offuel

Higher calorific value includes the latent heat of 3. Lower calorific value does not include latent heat of|
condensation of steam. condensation of steam.
The total heat energy recovered after the combustion 4 Heat energy recovered after the complete combustion
of fuel is comparatively less.
of fuel is comparatively high.
21. What is ignition temperature?
Inswer:
Ignition temperature is the lowest temperature at which fuel starts burning smoothly when pre-heated.

22. Why moderate ignition temperature is required for an ideal fuel?

nswer:

If an ideal gas has low ignition temperature, then it leads to fire hazards. Also storing and transporting the fuel is dificult.
fan ideal gas has high ignition temperaure, then igniting the fuel is diffeult. So, due to these reasons, an ideal fuel should have
noderate ignition temperature.
023. Which form of coal has highest rank? What is its calorific value?

Answer:
Anthracite has highest rank and ts calorifie value ranges between 8650 to 8700 k cal/kg.
024. Write the importance of proximate analysis of coal.
Answer:

PrOximate analysisofcoalgivescomplete detailsregarding its practical utility

025. What is the reason behind measuring fixed carbon content in the coal?
Answer

Folowing are the reasons for measuring fixed carbon content in the coal,
If the fixed carbon content is high, then calorific value of coal is high.
2. Coal with high fixed carbon is the best quality of coal.
3. By determining fixed carbon content, furnace and shape of fire box can be designed.
026. Whose calorific value is high between coal and producer gas? Why?
Answer
Calorifhc value of coal is 4,900 k calhm' and of producer gas is 1300 k calm. So, calorific value of coal in hicher than
OUCT gas because, coal has 90% of combustible gases, where as producer gas has only 30-40% of combustible gases.

SPECTRUM ALL-IN-ONE JOURNAL FOR ENGINEERINGSTUDENTS

 ENGINEERING CHEMISTRY (JNTU-HYDER
86 RABADI
FREQUENTLY ASKED AND IMPORTANT
QUESTIONS
1Qs)
(FA&IQs)
value c solid fuel.
of calorific
Q1. ddnt by calorific value? Explain
determination
Nov./Dec.17, Set-3, 03/a)
LApolas
2
What is calorific value? Write the formula of HCV.
OR
Times
AprilMay-18, Set-1, 01(b)
Answer

For answer refer Unit-4, QI, Pae No. 64

formula to calCulate calorific value.
Derive the relationship between HCV and LCV. Write Dulong's
Important Question
Answer:

For answer refer Unit-4, Q2, Page No. 64,.

Q3. Give the comparison between solid, liquid and gaseous Tueis
Important Question
Answer:

For answer refer Unit-4, Q6, Page No. 67.

Q4. Explain the ultimate analysis of a solid fuel and its significance.
Important Question
Answer :

For answer refer Unit-4, Q9, Page No. 69.

the composition, boiling range and uses
Q5. Write an account on the refining of petroleum by explaining
of different fractions obtained during refining.
Answer:
Important Question
For answer refer Unit-4,Q11, Page No. 71.
Q6. What is cracking? What are the advantages of catalytic cracking over thermal cracking?

Important Question
Answer
For answer refer Unit-4, Q12, Page No. 72.

Q7. How gasoline is obtained from fixed-bed catalytic cracking?

Answer :
Important Question

For answer refer Unit-4, Q13, Page No. 73.

Q8. What is knocking? What are its adverse affects? How it is prevented?

Answer : Important Question

For answer refer Unit-4, Q15, Page No. 75.

Q9. How do you synthesize petrol by Fischer-Tropsch process?

Important Question
Answer:

For answer refer Unit-4, Q19, Page No. 77.

a10. What is CNG? What are its advantages and disadvantages?

Important Question
Answer
For answer refer Unit-4, Q22, Page No. 79.

a11. Explain the concept of trans-esterification.

Important Question
Answer

For answer refer Unit-4, Q23, Page No. 80.

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