MSM 111 - Limits and Continuity

MSM 112: MATHEMATICAL METHODS II
LIMITS AND CONTINUOUS FUNCTIONS
LECTURE NOTES 5
Matindih L. K. M.
DEPARTMENT OF MATHEMATICS AND STATISTICS, MULUNGUSHI

UNIVERSITY
2022/2023
Matindih L. K. M. (MU/SNAS/DMS) MSM 112-MATHEMATICAL METHODS II 2022/2023 1 / 70

Lecture Notes 5- Outline
1 Limits
2 One-Sided limits
3 Finite limits at Infinity (x −→ ±∞)
4 Limits at Infinity of Rational Functions

Sinθ
5 Special Limits Involving θ
6 Horizontal Asymptotes
7 Oblique Asymptotes
8 Infinite limits at Finite

9 Vertical Asymptotes
10 Continuity

1. Limits
The limit of a function is the foundation stone of differential calculus.This

concept is a central idea that distinguishes calculus from algebra and
trigonometry. Let us begin with an informal definition of limit, postponing
the precise definition until we’ve gained more insight.
Definition 1 (Limits of a Function)

Let f (x ) be defined on an open interval about xo except possibly at xo
itself. If f (x ) gets arbitrarily close to L (as close to L as we like) for all x
sufficiently close to xo we say that f approaches the limit L as x
approaches xo and we write
lim f (x ) = L
x −→xo
which is read “the limit of f (x ) as x approaches xo is L".

Example 2 (Behavior of a function near a point)
How does the function given belwow behave near x = 1
x2 − 1
f (x ) =
x −1
Solution.
The given formula defines f for all real numbers x except x = 1 for we
cannot divide by zero. For any x 6= 1 we can simplify the formula by
factoring the numerator and canceling common factors:
x2 − 1 (x + 1)(x − 1)
f (x ) = = =x +1 x 6= 1
x −1 x −1
The graph of f is thus the line y = x + 1 with the point (1, 2) removed.
This removed point is shown as a “hole" as shown in Figure 1 as Table
1

Solution Contin’d.
Figure 1: The graph of f (x ) = (x 2 − 1)/(x − 1)
Even though f (1) is not defined, it is clear that we can make the value of
(x ) as close as we want to 2 by choosing x close enough to 1, see table
1.1. The closer x gets to 1, the closer f (x ) = (x 2 − 1)/(x − 1) seems to
get to 2
−1)
Values of x below and above 1 (x +1)(x
 
x −1 6 1
= x + 1, x =
 0.9 1.9
 

 1.1 2.1
 

 
 0.99 1.99 
 
 1.01 2.01 
 
 0.999 1.999
 

 1.001 2.001
 

 
0.999999 1.999999 
1.000001 2.000001
(1.1)
We say that f (x ) approaches the limit 2 as x approaches 1, and write
(x + 1)(x − 1)
lim f (x ) = lim = 2.
x −→1 x −→1 x −1

The next example shows that, the limit value does not depend on how the
function is defined at xo .

Example 3
The function f in Figure 2 has limit 2 as x −→ 1 even though f is not
defined at x = 1. The function g has limit 2 as x −→ 1 even though
2 6= g(x ). The function h is the only one whose limit as x −→ 1 equals its
value at x = 1. For h, we have lim f (x ) = h(1).
x −→1
Figure 2: The limit of f (x ), g(x ) and h(x ) all equal 2 as x approaches 1.

However, only h(x ) has the same function value as its limit at x = 1.

Sometimes lim f (x ) can be evaluated by calculating f (xo ). This holds,
x −→xo
for example, whenever f (x ) is an algebraic combination of polynomials and
trigonometric functions for which f (xo ) is defined as the next example
illustrates.
Example 4 (Finding limits by calculating f (xo ))

We have
(i) lim (5x − 3) = 10 − 3 = 7

x −→2
−6+4
(ii) lim 3x +4 = −2+5 = − 23
x −→−2 x +5
2x 2 +2x −5 2(3)2 +2(3)−5 18+6−5 19

(ii) lim 3 2 = (3)3 −(3)2 +3+1
= =
x −→3 −x +x +1
x 27−9+3+1 22
The Identity and Constant functions have limits at every point as the next
definition points out.
Definition 5
If f is:
(a) an identity function f (x ) = x then for any value of xo
lim f (x ) = lim x = xo .
x −→xo x −→xo
For instance, lim x = 3.

x −→3
(b) is a constant function f (x ) = k (function with the constant value k),

then for any value of xo
lim f (x ) = lim k = k.
x −→xo x −→xo
For instance, lim 4 = 4, lim 4 = 4, lim (4) = 4 , lim 7 = 7

x −→−7 x −→2 x −→−2 x −→−13 3 3
and so on.

Theorem 6 (Limit Laws)
If L, M, c and k are real numbers and
lim f (x ) = L and lim g(x ) = M,

x −→c x −→c
then
(i) Sum Rule: lim (f (x ) + g(x )) = L + M

x −→c
The limit of the sum of two functions is the sum of their limits.
(ii) Difference Rule: lim (f (x ) − g(x )) = L − M

x −→c
The limit of the difference of two functions is the difference of their

limits.
(iii) Product Rule: lim (f (x ) · g(x )) = L · M

x −→c
The limit of a product of two functions is the product of their limits

(iv) Constant Multiple Rule: lim (k · f (x )) = k · L
x −→c
The limit of a constant times a function is the constant times the

limit of the function.
f (x ) L
(v) Quotient Rule: lim = M
x −→c g(x )
The limit of a quotient of two functions is the quotient of their limits,

provided the limit of the denominator is not zero.
(vi) Power Rule: If r and s are integers with no common factor and
s 6= 0 then
r r
lim (f (x )) s = L s
x −→xo
r
provided that L s is a real number. (If s is even, we assume that
L > 0). The limit of a rational power of a function is that power of
the limit of the function, provided the latter is a real number.

Example 7 (Using the Limit Laws)
Using the limit laws, find the following limits
x 4 +x 2 −1
√
(i) lim (x 3 + 4x 2 − 3) (ii) lim 2 (iii) lim 4x 2 − 3.
x −→c x −→c x +5 x −→−2
Solution.
(i) lim (x 3 + 4x 2 − 3) = lim x 3 + lim 4x 2 − lim 3 = c 3 + dc 2 − 3.
x −→c x −→c x −→c x −→c
4 2 −1
lim (x 4 +x 2 −1) lim x 4+ lim x 2 − lim 1)
c 4 +c 2 −1
(ii) lim x +x
2 = x −→c
(x 2 +5)
= x −→c x −→c x −→c
lim x 2 + lim 5
= c 2 +5
x −→c x +5 lim
x −→c x −→c x −→c
(iii)
p r r
lim 4x 2 − 3 = lim (4x 2 − 3) = lim 4x 2 − lim 3
x −→−2 x −→−2 x −→−2 x −→−2
q
= 4(−2)2 − 3
√ √
= 16 − 3 = 13

Generally, to evaluate the limit of a polynomial function as x approaches
c, merely substitute c for x in the formula for the function. Also, limits of
rational functions can be found by substitution if the limit of the
denominator is not zero. That is, if P(x ) and Q(x ) are polynomials and
Q(c) 6= 0 then
P(x ) P(c)
lim =
x −→c Q(x ) Q(c)
If the denominator is zero, canceling common factors in the numerator

and denominator or rationalizing the denominator may reduce the
fraction to one whose denominator is no longer zero at c. If this happens,
we can find the limit by substitution in the simplified fraction.

Example 8 (Canceling a common factor)
x 2 +x −2
Evaluate lim x 2 −x
.
x −→1
Solution.
We cannot substitute x = 1 because it makes the denominator zero. We
test the numerator to see if it, too, is zero at x = 1. It is, so it has a
factor of (x − 1) in common with the denominator. Canceling the (x − 1)
gives a simpler fraction with the same values as the original for x 6= 1
x2 + x − 2 (x + 2)(x − 1) x +2
2
= =
x −x x (x − 1) x
Using the simpler fraction, we find the limit of these values as x −→ 1 by
substitution:
x2 + x − 2 (x + 2) (1 + 2) (3)
lim = lim = = =3
x −→1 x2 − x x −→1 x 1 1

Example 9 (Creating and canceling a common factor)
Evaluate
√
x 2 + 100 − 10
lim
x −→0 x2
Solution.
In this situation, we cannot substitute x = 0, and the numerator and
denominator have no obvious common factors. We can create a common
factor by multiplying both numerator and denominator by the expression
p
x 2 + 100 − 10
(obtained by changing the sign after the square root). This is called
rationalization. The preliminary algebra rationalizes the numerator:

Solution.
√ √ √
x 2 + 100 − 10 ( x 2 + 100 − 10) ( x 2 + 100 + 10)
= · √
x2 x2 ( x 2 + 100 + 10)
x 2 + 100 − 100
= √
x 2 ( x 2 + 100 + 10)
x2
= √
x 2 ( x 2 + 100 + 10)
1
=√ .
x 2 + 100 + 10
Therefore,
√
x 2 + 100 − 10 1 1 1
lim 2
= lim √ =√ = .
x −→0 x x −→0 x 2 + 100 + 10 02 + 100 + 10 20

Now that we have gained some insight into the limit concept, working
intuitively with the informal definition, we turn our attention to its precise
definition even though will not be used in this course instead in the higher
courses.
Definition 10 (Limit of a function)

Let f (x ) be defined on an open interval about xo except possibly at xo
itself. We say that the limit of (x ) as x approaches xo is the number L,
and write
lim f (x ) = L
x −→xo
if, for every number > 0 there exists a corresponding number δ > 0 such
that for all x,
0 <| x − xo |< δ =⇒| f (x ) − L |< .

2. One-Sided limits
In this part of the lecture, we extend the limit concept to one-sided limits,
which are limits as x approaches the number xo from the left-hand side
(where x < xo ) or the right-hand side (x > xo ) only. We also analyze the
graphs of certain rational functions as well as other functions with limit
behavior as x approaches ±∞.
To have a limit L as x approaches c, a function f must be defined on both

sides of c and its values f (x ) must approach L as x approaches c from
either side. Because of this, ordinary limits are called two-sided. If f fails
to have a two-sided limit at c, it may still have a one-sided limit, that is, a
limit if the approach is only from one side. If the approach is from the
right, the limit is a right-hand limit. From the left, it is a left-hand limit.

Consider the function f (x ) = |xx | in Figure 3. f has limit 1 as x approaches
0 from the right, and limit −1 as x approaches 0 from the left. Since
these one-sided limit values are not the same, there is no single number
that f (x ) approaches as x approaches 0. So f (x ) does not have a
(two-sided) limit at 0.
Figure 3: Different right-hand and left-hand limits at the origin

Definition 11
If f (x ) is defined on an interval
(i) (c, b), where c < b and approaches arbitrarily close to L1 as x

approaches c from within that interval, then f has right-hand limit
L1 at c. We write
lim f (x ) = L1
x −→c +
The symbol x −→ c + means that we consider only values of x

greater than c,as in Figure 4.
(ii) (a, c), where a < c and approaches arbitrarily close to L2 as x

approaches c from within that interval, then f has left-hand limit L2
at c. We write
lim f (x ) = L2
x −→c −
The symbol x −→ c − means that we consider only values of x less

than c, see Figure 4.
Figure 4: (a) Right-hand limit as x approaches c. (b) Left-hand limit as x
approaches c.
x
For the function f (x ) = |x | in Figure 3 we then have
lim f (x ) = −1 lim f (x ) = 1
x −→0− x −→0+
One-sided limits also satisfies all the laws of limits. One-sided limits are
related to limits in the following way.

Theorem 12
A function f (x ) has a limit as x approaches c if and only if it has
left-hand and right-hand limits there, and these one-sided limits are equal:
lim f (x ) = L lim f (x ) = L lim f (x ) = L

x −→c + x −→c − x −→c
Remark 13
The formal definition of the limit is readily modified for one-sided limits.

Example 14 (One side limits)
Find the limits of the function graphed in Figure 5
Figure 5: Graph for computing one side-limits

Solution.
From the figure 5, we have that, at
(i) x = 0: lim f (x ) = 1, lim f (x ) and lim f (x ) does not exist.

x −→0+ x −→0− x −→0
The function is not defined to the left of x = 0.
(ii) x = 1: lim f (x ) = 0 even though f (1) = 1, lim f (x ) = 1,

x −→1− x −→1+
lim f (x ) does not exist. The right-hand limit and the left-hand limit
x −→1
are not the same.
(iii) x = 2: lim f (x ) = 1, lim f (x ) = 1, lim f (x ) = 1 even

x −→2− x −→2+ x −→2
though f (2) = 2.

Proof.
(iv) x = 3: lim f (x ) = 2, lim f (x ) = 2, lim f (x ) = 2 and
x −→3− x −→3+ x −→3
f (3) = 2.
(v) x = 4: lim f (x ) = 1 even though f (4) 6= 1, lim f (x ) and

x −→4− x −→4+
lim f (x ) does not exist. The function is not defined to the right of
x −→4
x = 4.
At every other point c in [0, 4], f (x ) has limit f (c).

3. Finite limits at Infinity (x −→ ±∞)
The symbol for infinity (∞) does not represent a real number. We use ∞
to describe the behavior of a function when the values in its domain or
range outgrow all finite values.
Figure 6: The graph of y = 1/x

When x is positive and becomes increasingly large, x1 becomes decreasingly
small. When x is negative and its magnitude becomes increasingly large, x1
again becomes small. We summarize from these observations by saying
that f (x ) = x1 has limit 0 as x −→ ±∞ or that 0 is a limit of f (x ) = x1 at
infinity and negative infinity. Here is a precise definition.
Definition 15 (Limit as x approaches ∞ or −∞)

We say that f (x ) has the limit L as x approaches
(i) infinity and write lim f (x ) = L if, for every number > 0 there
x −→∞
exists a corresponding number M such that for all x
x > M =⇒| f (x ) − L |< .
(ii) negative infinity and write lim f (x ) = L if, for every number > 0
x −→−∞
there exists a corresponding number N such that for all x
x < N =⇒| f (x ) − L |< .

Intuitively, lim f (x ) = L if, as x moves increasingly far from the origin in
x −→∞
the positive direction, f (x ) gets arbitrarily close to L. Similarly,
lim f (x ) = L if, as x moves increasingly far from the origin in the
x −→−∞
negative direction, f (x ) gets arbitrarily close to L.
The strategy for calculating limits of functions as x approaches infinite or

negative infinite is similar to the one for finite limits. endframe
Hence, for the function f (x ) = x1 , we have
1 1
lim f (x ) = lim = 0 and lim f (x ) = lim = 0.
x −→∞ x −→∞ x x −→−∞ x −→−∞ x
Limits at infinity have properties similar to those of finite limits.

Theorem 16 (Limit Laws as x −→ ±∞)
If L1 , L2 and k are real numbers, lim f (x ) = L1 and
x −→±∞
lim g(x ) = L2 . Then:
x −→±∞
(i) Sum Rule: lim (f (x ) + g(x )) = L1 + L2

x −→±∞
(ii) Difference Rule: lim (f (x ) − g(x )) = L1 − L2

x −→±∞
(iii) Product Rule: lim (f (x ) · g(x )) = L1 · L2

x −→±∞
(iv) Constant Multiple Rule: lim (k · f (x )) = k · L1

x −→±∞
(v) Quotient Rule: lim f (x ) = L1

L2
x −→±∞ g(x )
(vi) Power Rule: If r and s are integers with no common factor and
r r r
s 6= 0 then lim (f (x )) s = L1s provided that L s is a real number.
x −→±∞

Example 17 (Using Theorem 16)
Compute
√
1 π 3
(a) lim 5+ x (b) lim x2
x −→∞ x −→−∞
Solution.
Here, we have that

1 1
(a) lim 5+ x = lim 5 + lim = 5 + 0 = 5.
x −→∞ x −→∞ x −→∞ x
(b)
√ !
π 3 √ 1 1
lim 2
− = lim π 3 · ·
x −→−∞ x x −→−∞ x x
√ 1 1
= lim π 3 · lim · lim
x −→−∞ x −→−∞ x x −→−∞ x
√
=π 3·0·0=0

4. Limits at Infinity of rational functions
To determine the limit of a rational function as x −→ ±∞ we can divide
the numerator and denominator by the highest power of x in the
denominator. What happens then depends on the degrees of the
polynomials involved.
Example 18 (Numerator and Denominator of same degree)

5x 2 +8x −3
Compute lim 3x 2 +2
.
x −→∞
Solution.
1
5x 2 + 8x − 3 x2
(5x 2 + 8x − 3)
lim = lim 1
x −→∞ 3x 2 + 2 x −→∞
x2
(3x 2 + 2)
5 + (8/x 2 ) − (3/x 2 ) 5+0+0 5
= lim = =
x −→∞ 3+ 2/x 2 3+0 3

Example 19 (Degree of Numerator less than degree of
denominator)
Compute lim 11x3 +2 .
x −→−∞ 2x −1
Solution.
Hence, dividing each term by x 3 and then taking the limit, we obtain
1
11x + 2 x3
(11x + 2)
lim = lim 1
x −→−∞ 2x 3 − 1 x −→−∞ (2x 3 − 1)
x3
(11/x 2 ) + (2/x 3 )
= lim
x −→−∞ 2 − (1/x 3 )
0+0
=
2+0
0
= =0
2

Sinθ
5. Special Limits Involving θ
Below are some of the spacial limits that are used frequently:
Sinx 1−cosx
(i) lim x =1 lim x = 0.
x −→0 x −→0
x 1
1
(ii) lim 1+ x =e lim + (1 + x ) x = e.
x −→∞ x −→0
e x −1
(iii) lim =1 lim x −1 =1
x −→0 x x −→1 ln x

6. Horizontal Asymptotes
If the distance between the graph of a function and some fixed line
approaches zero as a point on the graph moves increasingly far from the
origin, we say that the graph approaches the line asymptotically and that
the line is an asymptote of the graph.
Looking at f (x ) = x1 , see Figure 6, we observe that the x -axis (or y = 0)

is an asymptote of the curve on the right because lim x1 = 0 and on the
x −→∞
1
left because lim = 0. We say that the x -axis is a horizontal
x −→−∞ x
asymptote of the graph of f (x ) = x1 .

Definition 20 (Horizontal Asymptote)
A line y = b is a horizontal asymptote of the graph of a function y = f (x )
if
lim f (x ) = b or lim f (x ) = b
x −→∞ x −→−∞

Example 21
Determine the horizontal asymptote of the rational function
5x 2 + 8x − 3
f (x ) =
3x 2 + 2
Solution.
−3 2
This rational fraction f (x ) = 5x3x+8x
2 +2 has the line y = 5
3 as a horizontal
asymptote on both the right and the left because
5x 2 8x 3
! !
5x 2 + 8x − 3 x2
+ x2
− x2
lim f (x ) = lim = lim 3x 2
x −→∞ x −→∞ 3x 2 + 2 x −→∞ + 2
x2 x2
+ x8 3
!
5 − x 2
= lim
x −→∞ 3 + x22
5+0−0 5
= =
3+0 3

Soluton Contin’d.
Similarly,
5x 2 8x 3
! !
5x 2 + 8x − 3 x2
+ x2
− x2
lim f (x ) = lim = lim 3x 2
x −→−∞ x −→∞ 3x 2 + 2 x −→−∞ + 2
x2 x2
+ x8 3
!
5 − x 2
= lim 2
x −→−∞
3+ x2
5+0−0 5
= =
3+0 3

7. Oblique Asymptotes
If the degree of the numerator of a rational function is one greater than

the degree of the denominator, the graph has an oblique (slanted)
asymptote. We find an equation for the asymptote by dividing numerator
by denominator to express f as a linear function plus a remainder that
goes to zero as x −→ ±∞. Here’s an example.

Example 22 (Finding an oblique asymptote)
Find the oblique asymptote for the graph in figure 7 of
2x 2 − 3
f (x ) =
7x + 4
Figure 7: An example of the graph of a function with an oblique asymptote.

Solution.
By long division, we have
2x 2 − 3 2 8 −115

f (x ) = = x− +
7x + 4 7 49 49(7x + 4)
−115
As x −→ ±∞ the remainder 49(7x +4) , whose magnitude gives the vertical
distance between the graphs of f and g, goes to zero, making the slanted
line
2 8
g(x ) = x −
7 49
an asymptote of the graph of f , see Figure 7. The line y = g(x ) is an
asymptote both to the right and to the left.
In the next part of the lecture, you will see that the function f (x ) grows
arbitrarily large in absolute value as x approaches a value where the
denominator becomes zero Figure 7.

8. Infinite limits at Finite
We next extend the concept of limit to infinite limits, which are not limits
as before, but rather an entirely new use of the term limit. Infinite limits
provide useful symbols and language for describing the behavior of
functions whose values become arbitrarily large, positive or negative. We
continue our analysis of graphs of rational functions from the last section,
using vertical asymptotes and dominant terms for numerically large values
of x .
Let us recall the function f (x ) = x1 . As x −→ 0+ the values of f grow

without bound, eventually reaching and surpassing every positive real
number. That is, given any positive real number B, however large, the
values of f become larger still as in Figure 8. Thus, f has no limit as
x −→ 0+ . It is nevertheless convenient to describe the behavior of f by
saying that f (x ) approaches ∞ as x −→ 0+ . We write

1
lim + f (x ) = lim + = ∞.
x −→0 x −→0 x
In writing this, we are not saying that the limit exists. Nor are we saying
that there is a real number ∞, for there is no such number. Rather, we
are saying that lim + x1 does not exist because x1 becomes arbitrarily large
x −→0
and positive as x −→ 0+ .
As x −→ 0− the values of f (x ) = x1 become arbitrarily large and negative.
Given any negative real number −B the values of f eventually lie below
−B, see Figure 8. We write
1
lim f (x ) = lim = −∞.
x −→0− x −→0− x

Figure 8: One-sided infinite limits: lim 1 and lim 1
x.
x −→0+ x x −→0−

Example 23 (One-Sided infinite limits)
Find
((i)) lim 1 (ii) lim 1

x −1 .
x −→1+ x −1 x −→1−
Solution.
We have two ways of evaluating the solution:
1
1. Analytical solution: The graph of y = x −1 is the graph of y = x1
1
shifted 1 unit to the right (Figure 9). Therefore, y = x −1 behaves
near 1 exactly the way y = 1/x behaves near 0:
1 1
lim + = ∞ and lim = −∞.
x −→1 x −1 x −→1− x −1
2. Analytic Solution: Think about the number x − 1 and its reciprocal.

As x −→ 1+ we have (x − 1) −→ 0+ and 1/(x − 1) −→ ∞. As
x −→ 1− we have (x − 1) −→ 0− and 1/(x − 1) −→ −∞.

Figure 9: The graph of y = 1/(x − 1) is the graph of y = 1/x shifted 1 unit to
the right
Example 24 (Two-sided infinite limits)
Discuss the behavior of
1 1
(i) f (x ) = x2
near x = 0, (ii) g(x ) = (x +3)2
near x = −3,
Solution.
(i) As x approaches zero from either side, the values of 1/x 2 are positive
and become arbitrarily large, see Figure 10
1
lim f (x ) = lim = ∞.
x −→0 x −→0 x2

Figure 10: The behavior of f (x ) = 1/x 2 near 0.

(ii) The graph of g(x ) = 1/(x + 3)2 is the graph of f (x ) = 1/x 2 shifted 3
units to the left, see Figure 11. Therefore, g behaves near −3 exactly
the way f behaves near 0.
1
lim g(x ) = lim = ∞.
x −→−3 x −→−3 (x + 3)2
Figure 11: The behavior of f (x ) = 1/(x + 3)2 near −3.

Remark 25
The function y = 1/x shows no consistent behavior as x −→ 0. We have
1/x −→ ∞ if x −→ 0+ but 1/x −→ −∞ if x −→ 0− . All we can say
about lim x1 is that it does not exist. The function y = x12 is different.
x −→0
Its values approach infinity as x approaches zero from either side, so we
can say that lim x12 = ∞.
x −→0
Rational functions can behave in various ways near zeros of their

denominators.

Example 26
(x −2)2 (x −2)2 (x −2)
(i) lim 2 = lim −2)(x = lim =0
x −→2 x −4 x −→2 (x +2) x −→2 (x +2)
(x −2) (x −2) 1 1
(ii) lim 2 = lim = lim =
x −→2 x −4 x −→2 (x −2)(x +2) x −→2 (x +2) 4
(x −3)
(iii) lim x2−3 = lim + (x −2)(x +2) = −∞
x −→2+ x −4 x −→2
(x −3)
(iv) lim x2−3 = lim =∞
x −→2− x −4 x −→2− (x −2)(x +2)
x −3 x −3
(v) lim 2 = lim does not exists
x −→2 x −4 x −→2 (x −2)(x +2)
(2−x ) −(x −2) −1

(vi) lim 3 = lim 3 = lim 2 = −∞
x −→2 (x −2) x −→2 (x −2) x −→2 (x −2)
In parts (i) and (ii) the effect of the zero in the denominator at x = 2 is
canceled because the numerator is zero there also. Thus a finite limit
exists. This is not true in part (vi), where cancellation still leaves a zero in
the denominator.
9. Vertical Asymptotes
Notice that the distance between a point on the graph of y = 1/x and the
y -axis approaches zero as the point moves vertically along the graph and
away from the origin (Figure 12).
Figure 12: The coordinate axes are asymptotes of both branches of the hyperbola
y = 1/x .
1
This behavior occurs because lim + x2
= ∞ and lim 12 = −∞.
x −→0 x −→0− x
We say that the line x = 0 (the y -axis) is a vertical asymptote of the

graph of y = 1/x .
Observe that the denominator is zero at x = 0 and the function is

undefined there.
Definition 27 (Vertical Asymptote)

A line x = a is a vertical asymptote of the graph of a function y = f (x )
if either
lim f (x ) = ±∞ or lim f (x ) = ±∞
x −→a+ x −→a−

Example 28 (A rational function with degree of numerator
same as degree of denominator)
Find the horizontal and vertical asymptotes of the curve
x +3
y=
x +2
Solution.
We are interested in the behavior as x −→ ±∞ and as x −→ −2 where
the denominator is zero. The asymptotes are quickly revealed if we recast
the rational function as a polynomial with a remainder, by dividing (x + 2)
into (x + 3) and this gives
1
y =1+
(x + 2)
1
We now see that the curve is the graph of x shifted 1 unit up and 2 units
left as in the Figure 13.

x +3
Figure 13: The lines y = 1 and x = −2 are the asymptotes of the curve y = x +2 .
The asymptotes, instead of being the coordinate axes, are now the lines
y = 1 and x = −2
Our next example illustrates that an asymptotes need not be two-sided.
Example 29 (A rational function with degree of denominator
greater than the degree of numerator)
Find the horizontal and vertical asymptotes of the graph of
8
f (x ) = −
x2 −4
Solution.
We are interested in the behavior as x −→ ±∞ and x −→ ±2 where the
denominator is zero. Notice that f is an even function of x , so its graph is
symmetric with respect to the y -axis.
(a) The behavior as x −→ ±∞. Since
lim f (x ) = 0
x −→∞
the line y = 0 is a horizontal asymptote of the graph to the right.

By symmetry it is an asymptote to the left as well, see Figure 14.
Figure 14: Graph of f (x ) = −8/(x 2 − 4).

Notice that the curve approaches the x -axis from only one side.
Asymptotes do not have to be two-sided
(b) The behavior as x −→ ±2. Since
lim f (x ) = ∞ and lim f (x ) = −∞.

x −→2− x −→2+
the line x = 2 is a vertical asymptote both from the right and from
the left.
Also, since
lim f (x ) = ∞ and lim f (x ) = −∞,

x −→−2+ x −→−2−
the line x = −2 is a vertical asymptote both from the right and from
the left.
There are no other asymptotes because f has a finite limit at every other
point.
Example 30 (A rational function with degree of numerator one
greater than degree of denominator)
Find the asymptotes of the graph of
x2 − 3
f (x ) = .
2x − 4
Solution.
We are interested in the behavior as x −→ ±∞ and also as x −→ 2 where
the denominator is zero. We divide 2x − 4 into x 2 − 3 we have that
x2 − 3 x 1
f (x ) = = +1+
2x − 4 2 2x + 4
Since lim + f (x ) = ∞ and lim f (x ) = −∞, the line x = 2 is a

x −→2 x −→2−
two-sided vertical asymptote. As x −→ ±∞, the remainder approaches 0
and f (x ) −→ x2 + 1. The line y = x2 + 1 is an oblique asymptote both to
the right and to the left, see Figure 15.

x 2 −3
Figure 15: The graph of f (x ) = 2x −4 has a vertical asymptote and an oblique
asymptote
10. Continuous Function
Any function y = f (x ) whose graph can be sketched over its domain in

one continuous motion without lifting the pencil is an example of a
continuous function. We next investigate more precisely what it means for
a function to be continuous. We also study the properties of continuous
functions, and see that many of the function types presented in the
previous subsection are continuous.

Definition 31 (Continuous at a point)
A function y = f (x ) is continuous at:
(i) Interior point: an interior point c of its domain if
lim f (x ) = f (c)
x −→c
(ii) Endpoint: a left endpoint a or is continuous at a right end point b of

its domain if
lim f (x ) = f (a) or lim f (x ) = f (b),

x −→a+ x −→b −
respectively.
If a function f is not continuous at a point c, we say that f is

discontinuous at c and c is a point of discontinuity of f . Note that c need
not be in the domain of f .

Definition 32
A function f is
(i) right-continuous (continuous from the right) at a point x = c in its

domain if
lim f (x ) = f (c).
x −→c +
(ii) left-continuous (continuous from the left) at c if
lim f (x ) = f (c).
x −→c −
Thus, a function is continuous at a left endpoint a of its domain if it is

right-continuous at a and continuous at a right endpoint b of its domain if
it is left-continuous at b. A function is continuous at an interior point c of
its domain if and only if it is both right-continuous and left-continuous at
c.
Example 33 (A function continuous throughout its domain)
√
The function f (x ) = 4 − x 2 is continuous at every point of its domain,
[−2, 2], including x = −2 where f is right-continuous, and x = 2 where f
is left-continuous, see Figure 16.
√
Figure 16: A function f (x ) = 4 − x 2 is continuous at every domain point
We summarize continuity at a point in the form of a test.
Theorem 34 (Continuity Test)

A function f (x ) is continuous at x = c where c lies in the domain of f if
and only if it meets the following three conditions.
(i) f (c) exists,
(ii) lim f (x ) exists. That is, lim f (x ) = lim + f (x ),

x −→c x −→c − x −→c
(iii) lim f (x ) = f (c), the limit equals the function value.
x −→c

Example 35 (The unit step function has a jump discontinuity)
Discuss continuity of the unit step function

 1,
 if x ≤0
g(x ) =

 0, if x <0
at x = 0.
Solution.
Using the continuity test, we have that
(i) f (0) = 1 as such, f is defined at x = 2
(ii) lim f (x ) = 0 and lim + f (x ) = 1. Since lim f (x ) 6= lim + f (x ),

x −→0− x −→0 x −→0− x −→0
it implies lim f (x ) does not exist.
x −→0
Since condition (ii) is not satisfied, we infer that the function is not
continuous at x = 0.
Example 36
Is h continuous at x = 1, where h is defined by
(x +2)(x −1)


 x −1 , if x 6= 1
h(x ) =

2, if x =1

Solution.
Using the continuity test, we have that
(i) h(1) = 2 so, h is defined at x = 1,
(ii) lim h(x ) = 3 and lim + h(x ) = 3. Since

x −→1− x −→1
lim h(x ) = 3 = lim + h(x ) it implies lim h(x ) exists.
x −→1− x −→1 x −→1
(iii) lim h(x ) = 3 6= 2 = h(1) implying condition (iii) is not satisfied.

x −→1
Therefore, the function h is not continuous at x = 1.

Remark 37
Algebraic combinations of continuous functions are continuous wherever
they are defined.

References
[1] Buckhouse, J. K and Houldsworth, S.P.T. (1985), Pure Mathematics 1. Longman.

[2] Goodman, A. W. (1969), Analytic Geometry and the Calculus, Second Edition,
Collier-Macmillan.
[3] Larson R. and Bruce H. E. (2010), Calculus, 9th Edition Brooks/Cole, Belmont,
USA.
[4] Smith, R. T. and Minton, R. B. (2007), Calculus: Early Transcendental
Functions, Boston, McGraw-Hill.
[5] Spiegal M. R. and Wrede M. (2002, 1963). Advance Calculus, Theories and
Problems. Schaum’s Outline Series, Second Edition, McGraw-Hill Companies. Inc,
USA.
[6] Stewart, J. (2008), Calculus: Concepts and Contexts, Second Edition, Belmont,.
[7] Stewart, J. (2008), Calculus: Early Transcendentals, Sixth Edition, Belmont,
Thomson Brooks/Cole.
[8] Thomas, J. (2008), Calculus Including Second-Order Differential Equations,
Eleventh Edition,.
[9] Zill D. E. (1985), Calculus with Analytic Geometry. Prindle Welber and Shmidt,
Boston

.
END OF LECTURE NOTES 5 - LIMITS & CONTINUITY

MSM 111 - Limits and Continuity

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MSM 112: MATHEMATICAL METHODS II

LIMITS AND CONTINUOUS FUNCTIONS

DEPARTMENT OF MATHEMATICS AND STATISTICS, MULUNGUSHI

Matindih L. K. M. (MU/SNAS/DMS) MSM 112-MATHEMATICAL METHODS II 2022/2023 1 / 70

4 Limits at Infinity of Rational Functions

8 Infinite limits at Finite

Matindih L. K. M. (MU/SNAS/DMS) MSM 112-MATHEMATICAL METHODS II 2022/2023 2 / 70

The limit of a function is the foundation stone of differential calculus.This

Definition 1 (Limits of a Function)

which is read “the limit of f (x ) as x approaches xo is L".

Matindih L. K. M. (MU/SNAS/DMS) MSM 112-MATHEMATICAL METHODS II 2022/2023 3 / 70

Matindih L. K. M. (MU/SNAS/DMS) MSM 112-MATHEMATICAL METHODS II 2022/2023 4 / 70

Figure 1: The graph of f (x ) = (x 2 − 1)/(x − 1)

We say that f (x ) approaches the limit 2 as x approaches 1, and write

Matindih L. K. M. (MU/SNAS/DMS) MSM 112-MATHEMATICAL METHODS II 2022/2023 6 / 70

Matindih L. K. M. (MU/SNAS/DMS) MSM 112-MATHEMATICAL METHODS II 2022/2023 7 / 70

Figure 2: The limit of f (x ), g(x ) and h(x ) all equal 2 as x approaches 1.

Matindih L. K. M. (MU/SNAS/DMS) MSM 112-MATHEMATICAL METHODS II 2022/2023 8 / 70

Example 4 (Finding limits by calculating f (xo ))

(i) lim (5x − 3) = 10 − 3 = 7

2x 2 +2x −5 2(3)2 +2(3)−5 18+6−5 19

(a) an identity function f (x ) = x then for any value of xo

For instance, lim x = 3.

(b) is a constant function f (x ) = k (function with the constant value k),

For instance, lim 4 = 4, lim 4 = 4, lim (4) = 4 , lim 7 = 7

Matindih L. K. M. (MU/SNAS/DMS) MSM 112-MATHEMATICAL METHODS II 2022/2023 10 / 70

lim f (x ) = L and lim g(x ) = M,

(i) Sum Rule: lim (f (x ) + g(x )) = L + M

(ii) Difference Rule: lim (f (x ) − g(x )) = L − M

The limit of the difference of two functions is the difference of their

(iii) Product Rule: lim (f (x ) · g(x )) = L · M

The limit of a product of two functions is the product of their limits

Matindih L. K. M. (MU/SNAS/DMS) MSM 112-MATHEMATICAL METHODS II 2022/2023 11 / 70

The limit of a constant times a function is the constant times the

The limit of a quotient of two functions is the quotient of their limits,

Matindih L. K. M. (MU/SNAS/DMS) MSM 112-MATHEMATICAL METHODS II 2022/2023 12 / 70

Matindih L. K. M. (MU/SNAS/DMS) MSM 112-MATHEMATICAL METHODS II 2022/2023 13 / 70

If the denominator is zero, canceling common factors in the numerator

Matindih L. K. M. (MU/SNAS/DMS) MSM 112-MATHEMATICAL METHODS II 2022/2023 14 / 70

Matindih L. K. M. (MU/SNAS/DMS) MSM 112-MATHEMATICAL METHODS II 2022/2023 15 / 70

Matindih L. K. M. (MU/SNAS/DMS) MSM 112-MATHEMATICAL METHODS II 2022/2023 16 / 70

Matindih L. K. M. (MU/SNAS/DMS) MSM 112-MATHEMATICAL METHODS II 2022/2023 17 / 70

Definition 10 (Limit of a function)

0 <| x − xo |< δ =⇒| f (x ) − L |< .

Matindih L. K. M. (MU/SNAS/DMS) MSM 112-MATHEMATICAL METHODS II 2022/2023 18 / 70

To have a limit L as x approaches c, a function f must be defined on both

Matindih L. K. M. (MU/SNAS/DMS) MSM 112-MATHEMATICAL METHODS II 2022/2023 19 / 70

Figure 3: Different right-hand and left-hand limits at the origin

Matindih L. K. M. (MU/SNAS/DMS) MSM 112-MATHEMATICAL METHODS II 2022/2023 20 / 70

(i) (c, b), where c < b and approaches arbitrarily close to L1 as x

The symbol x −→ c + means that we consider only values of x

(ii) (a, c), where a < c and approaches arbitrarily close to L2 as x

The symbol x −→ c − means that we consider only values of x less

Matindih L. K. M. (MU/SNAS/DMS) MSM 112-MATHEMATICAL METHODS II 2022/2023 22 / 70

lim f (x ) = L lim f (x ) = L lim f (x ) = L

Matindih L. K. M. (MU/SNAS/DMS) MSM 112-MATHEMATICAL METHODS II 2022/2023 23 / 70

Figure 5: Graph for computing one side-limits

Matindih L. K. M. (MU/SNAS/DMS) MSM 112-MATHEMATICAL METHODS II 2022/2023 24 / 70

(i) x = 0: lim f (x ) = 1, lim f (x ) and lim f (x ) does not exist.

(ii) x = 1: lim f (x ) = 0 even though f (1) = 1, lim f (x ) = 1,

(iii) x = 2: lim f (x ) = 1, lim f (x ) = 1, lim f (x ) = 1 even

Matindih L. K. M. (MU/SNAS/DMS) MSM 112-MATHEMATICAL METHODS II 2022/2023 25 / 70

(v) x = 4: lim f (x ) = 1 even though f (4) 6= 1, lim f (x ) and

At every other point c in [0, 4], f (x ) has limit f (c).

0 <| x − xo |< δ =⇒| f (x ) − L |< .

x > M =⇒| f (x ) − L |< .

x < N =⇒| f (x ) − L |< .