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McCormick
Siegel
Eighth Edition
Criminology in Canada
Criminology
in Canada
Theories, Patterns, and Typologies
Larry J. Siegel / Chris McCormick
and Typologies
Theories, Patterns,
Eighth
Edition
9781774747827_cvr_hr.indd All Pages 30-01-2023 17:24:23

Synopsis of Criminological Theories
CLASSICAL THEORY POSITIVIST THEORY
ORIGIN About 1764 ORIGIN About 1810
FOUNDERS Cesare Beccaria, Jeremy Bentham FOUNDERS Franz Joseph Gall, Johann
Spurzheim, J. K. Lavater, Cesare Lombroso,
MOST IMPORTANT WORKS Beccaria, On Crimes
Enrico Ferri, Raffaele Garofalo, Earnest
and Punishments (1764); Bentham, Moral
Hooton, Charles Goring
Print Collector/Hulton Archive/Getty Images

Calculus (1789)
MOST IMPORTANT WORKS Lombroso, Criminal
CORE IDEAS People choose to commit crime
Man (1863); Garofalo, Criminology (1885);
after weighing the benefits and costs of their
Ferri, Criminal Sociology (1884); Goring, The
actions. Crime can be deterred by certain,
English Convict (1913); William Sheldon,
severe, and swift punishment.
Varieties of Delinquent Youth (1949)
MODERN OUTGROWTHS Rational Choice Theory,
CORE IDEAS Some people have biological and
Routine Activities Theory, General Deterrence
mental traits that make them crime prone.
Theory, Specific Deterrence, Incapacitation
These traits are inherited and are present at
birth. Mental and physical degeneracies are
Cesare Lombroso
the cause of crime.
MODERN OUTGROWTHS Biosocial and
Psychological Theory, Cognitive Theory,
Behavioural Theory, Evolutionary Theory,
Arousal Theory
Marka/Universal Images Group/Getty Images
MARXIST/CONFLICT THEORY
ORIGIN About 1848

Cesare Beccaria
FOUNDERS Karl Marx, Willem Bonger, Ralf
Dahrendorf, George Vold
MOST IMPORTANT WORKS Marx and Friedrich
Engels, The Communist Manifesto (1848);
The Print Collector/Alamy Stock Photo
Bonger, Criminality and Economic Conditions

(1916); George Rusche and Otto Kircheimer,
Punishment and Social Structure (1939);
Dahrendorf, Class and Class Conflict in
Industrial Society (1959)
CORE IDEAS Crime is a function of class
struggle. The capitalist system’s emphasis
on competition and wealth produces an
economic and social environment in which
Jeremy Bentham
crime is inevitable.
MODERN OUTGROWTHS Critical Theory, Conflict
Theory, Radical Theory, Radical Feminist
Theory, Left Realism, Peacemaking,
Power-Control Theory, Postmodern Theory,
Reintegrative Shaming, Restorative Justice
SOCIOLOGICAL THEORY
ORIGIN 1897
FOUNDERS Émile Durkheim, Robert Ezra
Park, Ernest Burgess, Clifford Shaw, Walter
Reckless, Frederic Thrasher
MOST IMPORTANT WORKS Durkheim, The
Division of Labor in Society (1893), and
Pictorial Press Ltd/Alamy Stock Photo

Suicide: A Study in Sociology (1897); Park,
Burgess, and John McKenzie, The City
(1925); Thrasher, The Gang (1926); Shaw
et al., Delinquency Areas (1925); Edwin
Sutherland, Criminology (1924)
CORE IDEAS A person’s place in the social
structure determines his or her behaviour.
Disorganized urban areas are the breeding
ground of crime. A lack of legitimate Émile Durkheim
opportunities produces criminal subcultures.
Socialization within the family, the school,
and the peer group controls behaviour.
MODERN OUTGROWTHS Strain Theory, Cultural
Deviance Theory, Social Learning Theory,
Social Control Theory, Social Reaction
Theory, Labelling
MULTIFACTOR/INTEGRATED THEORY
ORIGIN About 1930

FOUNDERS Sheldon and Eleanor Glueck
MOST IMPORTANT WORKS Sheldon and Eleanor
Glueck: Five Hundred Delinquent Women
(1934); Later Criminal Careers (1937);
Criminal Careers in Retrospect (1943);
Juvenile Delinquents Grown Up (1940);
Unraveling Juvenile Delinquency (1950)
CORE IDEAS Crime is a function of
© Boston/FayFoto
environmental, socialization, physical,

and psychological factors. Each makes an
independent contribution to shaping and
directing behaviour patterns. Deficits in these
Sheldon and Eleanor Glueck areas of human development increase the
risk of crime. People at risk for crime can
resist antisocial behaviours if these traits and
Clu/DigitalVision Vectors/Getty Images
conditions can be strengthened.

MODERN OUTGROWTHS Developmental Theory,
Life Course Theory, Latent Trait Theory
Karl Marx
47827_fm_hr_i-xxiv.indd 1 06/02/23 3:52 PM

Colin Temple/Alamy Stock Photo
Eighth Edition
Criminology
in Canada
Theories, Patterns, and Typologies
Larry J. Siegel
Professor Emeritus, University of Massachusetts, Lowell
Chris McCormick
St. Thomas University
Australia • Brazil • Canada • Mexico • Singapore • United Kingdom • United States

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and Typologies, Eighth Edition
Larry J. Siegel, Chris McCormick Adapted from Criminology, Eighth Edition, by Larry J. Siegel. Copyright
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Library and Archives Canada Cataloguing in Publication:
Title: Criminology in Canada : theories, paterns, and typologies /

Larry J. Siegel, Professor Emeritus, University of Massachusets,
Lowell, Chris McCormick, St. Thomas University.
Names: Siegel, Larry J., 1947– author. | McCormick, Chris, 1956– author.
Descripton: Eighth editon. | Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identfers: Canadiana (print) 2023014828X | Canadiana (ebook) 20230148409 |

ISBN 9781774747827 (sofcover) | ISBN 9781778412127 (EPUB)
Subjects: LCSH: Criminology—Textbooks. |

LCSH: Crime—Canada—Textbooks. | LCGFT: Textbooks.
Classifcaton: LCC HV6025 .S54 2023 | DDC 364.971—dc23
ISBN: 978-1-77474-782-7
Ebook ISBN: 978-1-77841-212-7
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Print Number: 01 Print Year: 2023
47827_fm_hr_i-xxiv.indd 4 07/02/23 11:39 AM

This book is dedicated to my children, Eric,
Julie, Rachel, and Andrew; my grandchildren,
Jack, Brooke, and Kayla Jean; my sons-in-law,
Jason Macy and Patrick Stephens; and my
wife, partner, and best friend, Therese J. Libby.
—Larry J. Siegel
For my students, to inspire them with a

multidisciplinary way of thinking about today’s
problems of crime, deviance, and control in a
way that is critical and progressive.
—Chris McCormick

Brief Contents
Preface xv Section 3
About the Authors xxiii Crime Typologies 317
Chapter 10
Section 1 Violent Crime 318
Concepts of Crime, Law, and Chapter 11

Property Crimes 349
Criminology 1
Chapter 12
Chapter 1 Crimes of Power: White-Collar, Corporate,
Crime and Criminology 2 Green, and Organized Crime 380
Chapter 2 Chapter 13
The Criminal Law and Its Process 27 Public Order Crimes: Legislating
Chapter 3 Morality 415
The Nature and Extent of Crime 55 Chapter 14
Chapter 4 Crimes in the 21st Century 449

Victims and Victimization 96
Glossary 481
Section 2 Index 487
Theories of Crime Causation 133
Chapter 5
Choice Theory 134
Chapter 6
Trait Theories 171
Chapter 7
Social Structure Theories 207
Chapter 8
Social Process Theories 245
Chapter 9
Social Conflict Theory 284
vii

Contents
Preface xv The Interactionist View of Crime 16
Defining Crime 17
About the Authors xxiii
Concept Summary 1.4: The Definition of Crime Affects
How Criminologists View the Cause and Control of Illegal
Section 1 Behaviour and Shapes Their Research Orientation 17
Concepts of Crime, Law, and The Politics of Crime 18
Criminology 1 Doing Criminology 18
Survey Research 18
Chapter 1 Longitudinal (Cohort) Research 18
Aggregate Data Research 19
Crime and Criminology 2 Experimental Research 19
Introduction 3
What Is Criminology? 4 Focus on Research: Canadian Crime Trends, 2019 20
Criminology and Criminal Justice 5 Analyzing Policy 21
Criminology and Deviance 5 Observational and Interview Research 21
Key Court Case: R. v. Sharpe (2001) 7 Ethical Issues in Criminology 21
Profile of a Crime: Canada’s Deadliest

Concept Summary 1.1: Criminology, Criminal Justice, and Serial Killers 22
Deviance 7
Summary 23
A Brief History of Criminology 7
Classical Criminology 8 Applying Criminology 24
19th-Century Positivism 8
Positivist Criminology 9
Cesare Lombroso and the Criminal Man 9
The Development of Sociological Criminology 10 Chapter 2
The Chicago School and the McGill School 11
Conflict Criminology 11
The Criminal Law and Its Process 27
Criminology Today 11 Introduction 28
The Origins of Law 28
Concept Summary 1.2: The Major Perspectives of Early Legal Codes 28
Criminology 12 Early Crime, Punishment, and Law 29
What Criminologists Do: The Criminological Enterprise 12 Origins of Common Law 29
Criminal Statistics 12 The Common Law 30
Common Law and Statutory Law 31
Concept Summary 1.3: The Criminological Enterprise 13
Concept Summary 2.1: Common-Law Crimes 31
Sociology of Law 13
Theory Construction 14 The Development of Law in Canada 32
Criminal Behaviour Systems 14 Classification of Law 33
Penology 14 Criminal and Civil Law 33
Victimology 14 Indictable and Summary Offences 34
How Do Criminologists View Crime? 15 Mala in Se and Mala Prohibitum 35
Functions of the Criminal Law 35
Crime, Conflict, and Disorder: Unmarked Burials Found at
Providing Social Control 35
Former Residential School 15
Discouraging Revenge 37
The Consensus View of Crime 16 Expressing Public Opinion and Morality 37
The Conflict View of Crime 16 Deterring Criminal Behaviour 37
viii

Focus on Research: What Happens When People Go Outside Tertiary Sources of Crime Data 78
the Law to Uphold Justice 38 Meta-Analysis and Systematic Review 78
Data-Mining 78
Maintaining the Social Order 39
Crime-Mapping 78
The Legal Definition of a Crime 40
Crime Patterns 79
Actus Reus 40
The Ecology of Crime 79
Mens Rea 40
Social Class and Crime 80
Strict Liability 41
Age and Crime 81
Criminal Defences 41
Ignorance or Mistake 41 Key Court Case: The Murder of Reena Virk 82
Not Criminally Responsible on Account of Mental
Gender and Crime 84
Disorder 41
Criminal Careers 86
Intoxication 43
Summary 89
Duress 43
Necessity 43 Applying Criminology 89
Self-Defence 44
Entrapment 44
The Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms 44
Profile of a Crime: Wrongfully Convicted 46 Chapter 4

Changing the Criminal Law 47 Victims and Victimization 96
Key Court Case: Legal Rights and the Charter 48 Introduction 97
Summary 51 Crime, Conflict, and Disorder: Police Shootings and the

Reaction 98
Crime, Conflict, and Disorder: Lobster Fishery Dispute and
the Rule of Law 52 Problems of Crime Victims: Loss and Suffering 99
The Perception of the Risk of Being a Victim 100
Applying Criminology 52 Problems of Crime Victims: Antisocial Behaviour 102
The Nature of Victimization 102
The Social Ecology of Victimization 103
Victim Characteristics 103
Repeat Victimization 107
Chapter 3
Profile of a Crime: A Woman Who Killed 108
The Nature and Extent of Crime 55
Theories of Victimization 109
Introduction 56
Victim Precipitation Theory 109
The Uniform Crime Report (UCR) 56
Key Court Case: R. v. Keegstra 112
Crime, Conflict, and Disorder: The Pandemic and Crime
Patterns, 2020 57 Lifestyle Theories 114
Routine Activities Theory 116
Collecting the UCR 57
Caring for the Victim 118
The Accuracy of the UCR 60
The Government’s Response 120
Self-Report Surveys 63
Victim Impact Statements 120
Concept Summary 3.1: Data Collection Methods 63 Victim Compensation 121
The Focus of Self-Reports 63 Court Services 121
The Accuracy of Self-Reports 64 Public Education 121
The “Missing Cases” Issue 64 Focus on Research: The Impact of Wrongful Convictions on
Victim Surveys 65 Crime Victims 122
Are Crime Statistics Sources Compatible? 66
Crisis Intervention 123
Alternative Sources of Information 67
Victim–Offender Reconciliation Programs 123
Explaining Crime Trends 68
Victims’ Rights 123
Focus on Research: The Politics of Statistics 71
Focus On Research: Victims’ Rights 124
What the Future Holds 76
Self-Protection 124
Profile of a Crime: A Serial Killer Stalked Toronto’s Gay Reasons for Not Reporting Crime 124
Village 77 Fighting Back 125
Contents ix

Community Organization 126 Key Court Case: Effects of the Charter on Deterrence 160
Summary 126
Incapacitation Strategies 161
Applying Criminology 127 The Logic of Incarceration 161
Selective Incapacitation: The Special Case of Three
Concept Summary 4.1: Victim Theories 127 Strikes and You’re Out 162
Policy Implications of Choice Theory 162
Concept Summary 5.2: Choice Theories 163

Summary 164
Section 2 Applying Criminology 164
Theories of Crime Causation 133
Chapter 5
Choice Theory 134 Chapter 6
Introduction 135 Trait Theories 171
The Development of Classical Theory 135
Introduction 172
Choice Theory Emerges 136
Biological Trait Theory 173
Does Crime Pay? 137
Development of Biological Theories 173
The Concepts of Rational Choice 137
Biochemical Conditions and Crime 175
Profile of a Crime: The Curious Career Choice of Edwin
Concept Summary 6.1: Biosocial Theories of Crime 175
Alonzo Boyd 138
Offence and Offender Specifications 138 Focus on Research: Diet and Crime: An International
Rational Choice and Routine Activities 139 Perspective 176
Is Crime Rational? 143 Neurophysiological Conditions and Crime 179
Are Street Crimes Rational? 143
Crime, Conflict, and Disorder: Environmental Factors
Focus on Research: How Auto Thieves Plan Their Implicated in Crime 180
Crimes 144
Genetics and Crime 182
Is Drug Use Rational? 145
Can Violence Be Rational? 145 Focus on Research: Teenage Behaviour: Is It the Brain? 183
What Are the Seductions of Crime? 145 Evolutionary Views of Crime 184
Evaluation of the Biological Branch
Crime, Conflict, and Disorder: MAID and the Right to
of Trait Theory 185
Choose 146
Psychological Trait Theories 186
Eliminating Crime 146 Psychodynamic Perspective 186
Situational Crime Prevention 146
Concept Summary 6.2: Psychological Trait Theories 186
Concept Summary 5.1: Crime Control Strategies Based on
Rational Choice 148 Profile of a Crime: Kenneth Parks, Sleepwalker 188
Crime Prevention Strategies 148 Behavioural Theories 189

Targeting Specific Crimes 149 Key Court Case: Women and Insanity in Canadian
Crime Discouragers 150 Society 190
Ramifications of Situational Prevention 151
General Deterrence 151 Cognitive Theory 191
Certainty of Punishment 151 Mental Illness and Crime 192
Severity of Punishment 153 Personality and Crime 192
Perception and Deterrence 154 Intelligence and Crime 195
Informal Sanctions 154 Social Policy Implications 197
Public Surveillance 155 Summary 198
General Deterrence in Review 157 Concept Summary 6.3: Biological and Psychological
Specific Deterrence in Review 157 Theories 199
Pain versus Shame 158
Rethinking Deterrence 160 Applying Criminology 200
x Contents

Peer Relations 249
Chapter 7 Institutional Involvement and Belief 250
Branches of Social Process Theory 250
Social Structure Theories 207 Social Learning Theory 251
Introduction 208 Differential Association Theory 251
Sociological Criminology 208
Economic Structure and Crime 209 Profile of a Crime: Brock Turner 252
Inequality 209 Differential Reinforcement Theory 254
Are the Poor Undeserving? 211 Neutralization Theory 255
Unemployment and Crime 211 Are Social Learning Theories Valid? 257
Social Control Theories 257
Profile of a Crime: Seeds of Hope at the Missing and
Self-Concept and Crime 257
Murdered Indigenous Women Inquiry 212
Containment Theory 257
Branches of Social Structure Theory 212 Social Control Theory 258
Social Disorganization Theory 214
Concentric Zone Theory 214 Profile of a Crime: Fateful Turns in the Difficult Life Course
The Social Ecology School 216 of Tyrone Conn 261
Focus on Research: Carl Dawson and the McGill School 218 Labelling Theory 261
Crime and Labelling Theory 262
Concept Summary 7.1: Social Disorganization Theories 222 Differential Enforcement 262
Strain Theory 222 Becoming Labelled 264
Anomie Theory 222 Consequences of Labelling 264
Primary and Secondary Deviance 264
Profile of a Crime: Women Who Kill Their Children 224 General Theory of Deviance 265
Institutional Anomie Theory 224 Differential Social Control 265
Relative Deprivation Theory 225 Research on Labelling Theory 266
Is Labelling Theory Valid? 266
Key Court Case: Henry Morgentaler 226
Key Court Case: John Martin Crawford 267
General Strain Theory 227
Concept Summary 7.2: Strain Theories 231 New Directions in an Integrated Developmental Theory 267
Cultural Deviance Theory 231 Focus on Research: Women, Desistance, and Fearful
Conduct Norms 231 Futures 268
Focal Concerns 231 Overview of Integrated Theories 269
Theory of Delinquent Subcultures 232 The Social Development Model (SDM) 269
Theory of Differential Opportunity 234 Elliott’s Integrated Theory 270
Concept Summary 7.3: Cultural Deviance Theories 235 Integrated Structural Marxist Theory 271
The Glueck Research 271
Evaluation of Social Structure Theories 236
Life Course Emerges 271
Crime, Conflict, and Disorder: Muskrat Falls and the An Evaluation of Social Process Theory 272
Controversy over Hydro Development 236 Social Process Theory and Social Policy 272
Social Structure Theory and Social Policy 237 Crime, Conflict, and Disorder: Systemic Racism and
Community Policing 237 Changing Perceptions 273
Summary 238
Summary 274
Applying Criminology 238
Concept Summary 8.1: Social Process Theories 275
Concept Summary 7.4: Social Structure Theories 239
Chapter 8
Chapter 9
Social Process Theories 245 Social Conflict Theory 284
Introduction 246
Introduction 285
Social Processes and Crime 246
Family Relations 246 Crime, Conflict, and Disorder: Capitalism Destroys the
Educational Experience 248 Planet 287
Contents xi

Marxist Thought 287 Substance Abuse 324
Productive Forces and Productive Relations 287 Firearm Availability 324
Marx on Crime 288 Sexual Assault 325
Developing a Social Conflict Theory of Crime 288 History of Rape 326
Willem Bonger 288 Sexual Assault and the Military 326
Ralf Dahrendorf 288 Incidence of Sexual Assault 326
George Vold 288 Types of Rapists 327
Modern Conflict Theory 288 Types of Rape 328
Conflict Criminology 289 The Cause of Sexual Assault 328
Research on Conflict Theory 291
Focus on Research: Masculinity and Sexual Violence among
Focus on Research: Wrongful Convictions 293 the Urban Poor 329
Sexual Assault and the Law 329
Key Court Case: R. v. Gladue 294
Homicide 330
Degrees of Homicide 330
Profile of a Crime: The Case of Colten Boushie 295
Analysis of Conflict Theory 295 Key Court Case: Arthur Lucas and Ronald Turpin 331
Marxist Criminology 296 The Nature and Extent of Homicide 332
The Development of a Radical Criminology 297 Murderous Relations 332
Fundamentals of Marxist Criminology 297 Homicide Networks 334
Economic Structure and Surplus Value 298 Types of Murderers 334
Instrumental Marxism 298 Serial Homicide 335
Structural Marxism 299 Assault 337
Research on Marxist Criminology 300 Assault in the Home 337
Critique of Marxist Criminology 301 Causes of Child Abuse 338
Other Directions in Critical Criminology 302 Spouse Abuse 339
Left Realism 303 Robbery 340
Feminist Theory 304 The Ecology of Robbery 340
Deconstructionism 307 Robber Typologies 341
Restorative Justice 308 Evolving Forms of Violence 341
Peacemaking Criminology 309 Workplace Violence 341
Summary 310 School Violence 342
Summary 343
Concept Summary 9.1: Social Conflict Theories 311
Section 3
Chapter 11
Crime Typologies 317 Property Crimes 349
Introduction 350
Chapter 10
Some Basic Patterns 350
Violent Crime 318
Crime, Conflict, and Disorder: Fairy Creek and Competing
Introduction 319
Definitions of Commodity 351
Crime, Conflict, and Disorder: London, Ontario,
A Brief History of Theft 352
Van Attack 320
Modern Thieves 352
The Roots of Violence 321 Occasional Criminals 353
Professional Criminals 353
Profile of a Crime: Two Killers 321
Focus on Research: On the Run 354
Personal Traits 322
Ineffective Families 322 The Non-professional Fence 356
Evolutionary Factors/Human Instinct 323 Theft 357
Cultural Values 323 Theft Today 358
Regional Values 323 Shoplifting 358
xii Contents

Auto Theft 360 The Self-Control View 399
False Pretences or Fraud 363 Controlling White-Collar Crime 399
Identity Theft 365 White-Collar Law Enforcement Systems 400
Bad Cheques 367 Corporate Policing 400
Computer Fraud 367 White-Collar Control Strategies: Compliance 400
Credit Card Fraud 368 White-Collar Control Strategies: Deterrence 401
Embezzlement 368 Organized Crime 402
Break and Enter 369 Characteristics of Organized Crime 402
The Extent of Break and Enter 369 Activities of Organized Crime 402
Careers in Burglary 370 Organized Crime and Legitimate Enterprise 403
Burglars on the Job 370 The Concept of Organized Crime 403
The Female Burglar 371 The Development of a Syndicate 403
Arson and Vandalism 372 Organized Crime Groups 404
Transnational Organized Crime 405
Key Court Case: Arson and a Wrongful Conviction 373
Profile of a Crime: Human Trafficking 406
Profile of a Crime: Protesting for the Environment: Arson,
Controlling Organized Crime 408
Vandalism, and the Case of Wiebo Ludwig 374
The Future of Organized Crime 408
Cybervandalism: Crime with Malicious Intent 374 Summary 409
Summary 375
Chapter 13
Chapter 12 Public Order Crimes: Legislating
Crimes of Power: White-Collar, Corporate, Morality 415
Green, and Organized Crime 380 Introduction 416
Introduction 381 Law and Morality 416
White-Collar Crime 383 Debating Morality 417
Redefining White-Collar Crime 383
Profile of a Crime: The Case of Everett Klippert 417
The White-Collar Crime Problem 383
International White-Collar Crime 383 Criminal or Immoral? 418
Components of White-Collar Crime 384 Moral Crusades 418
Types of White-Collar Crime 385 Illegal Sexuality 419
Stings and Swindles 385 Paraphilia 419
Chiselling 385 Sex Work 419
Individual Exploitation of Institutional Position 386 Pornography 422
Influence Peddling and Bribery 387 Distributing Illegal Sexual Material 423
Embezzlement and Employee Fraud 387 Controlling Sex for Profit 424
Client Frauds 389 Substance Abuse 424
Corporate Crime 389 When Did Drug Use Begin? 425
Alcohol and Its Prohibition 425
Focus on Research: Is Chicken Farming Foul? 391 Commonly Used and Abused Drugs 426
Green Criminology 391 The Extent of Substance Abuse 428
AIDS and Drug Use 430
Key Court Case: Deepwater Horizon 392
The Cause of Substance Abuse 431
Defining Green Crime 394
Crime, Conflict, and Disorder: The Opioid Epidemic 432
Forms of Green Crime 395
Drugs and Crime 433
Crime, Conflict, and Disorder: Wet’suwet’en Protest against
Research Methods 433
Pipeline 395
The Cycle of Addiction 434
The Causes of White-Collar Crime 398 Drugs and the Law 434
Greedy or Needy? 398 Alcohol Abuse 435
Corporate Culture Theory 398 Drug Control Strategies 435
Contents xiii

Source Control 435 Cybercrime 455
Cybertheft: Cybercrime for Profit 455
Focus on Research: Drug Courts 436
Cybervandalism: Cybercrime with Malicious Intent 459
Law Enforcement Strategies 436 Cyberstalking 462
Community Strategies 437 Cyberbullying 463
Drug Testing Programs 437 Cyberspying 464
Legalization 438 Cyberwarfare: Cybercrime with Political Motives 465
Other Issues 439 The Extent and Costs of Cybercrime 465
Euthanasia 439 International Treaties 466
Gambling 439
Key Court Case: The Lost Boy Case 466
Key Court Case: Sue Rodriguez 440
Cybercrime Enforcement 467
Prostitution 442
Concept Summary 14.1: Types of Cybercrime 467
Cannabis (Marijuana) 442
Summary 443 Terrorism 467
A Historical Perspective on Terrorism 468
Focus on Research: Transnational Terrorism 468
Forms of Terrorism 469
How Are Terrorist Groups Organized? 472
Chapter 14 Funding Terrorist Activities 473
What Motivates Terrorists? 473
Crimes in the 21st Century 449 Cyberterrorism: Using Cyberspace to
Introduction 450 Inflict Terror 474
The Nature of Political Crimes 450 The Extent of Terrorism 475
Becoming a Political Criminal 451 Responses to Terrorism since 9/11 476
Types of Political Crimes 451 Summary 477
Development of High-Tech Crime 452
Profile of a Crime: Edward Snowden 453
Crime, Conflict, and Disorder: Dark Commerce: Globalization

and Crime 454 Glossary 481
Cybercrime: An Overview 455 Index 487
xiv Contents

Preface
W
riting a preface is the last thing, and one of the and Dean Lisowick. McArthur was married and had children,
hardest things, to do in writing a book. It must but the media reported that by 1999, he was socializing with
introduce the book without saying too much. members of Toronto’s gay community, including Skandaraj
It must be inviting and interesting enough to Navaratnam, a gay man who went missing in 2010. Targeting
inspire more reading. It must embody the challenge of dif- predominantly men of colour, McArthur dismembered his
ference and the warmth of familiarity. For this reason, using victims and buried them in planters on a property where he
interesting stories is a good way to begin each edition. worked as a gardener. He had a criminal record for assault,
This is because stories about criminal acts capture public was prohibited from using amyl nitrate, and was also prohib-
attention in a way that nothing else does. Think Paul Ber- ited from associating with male sex workers. The media por-
nardo, Karla Homolka, Luka Magnotta, Karl Toft, Clifford trayed him as Toronto’s Pickton. This parallel is a shorthand
Olson, Alan Legere, Marc Lepine, Robert Pickton, Russell way to make sense of the killings, but it also masks important
Williams, Bruce McArthur, Richard Leung, and so on. These differences in the crimes. For example, there is an allegation
names are so familiar they are part of popular culture. Yet that police were disinclined to investigate cases of missing gay
our ability to determine the validity of those news stories, men of colour, something they of course have denied. But in
television documentaries, and magazine articles is compro- 1980, police were responsible for raids on gay bathhouses,
mised because most of us have little independent knowledge an event that became a lightning rod for gay rights activism,
of crime and criminal justice. Unless you hang out with cops which some have compared to the Stonewall Riots in New
(or criminals), what you know about crime is more than York in 1969. They were also accused of ignoring reports of
likely superficial, gleaned from the media without important gay bashing in the 1980s, a complaint that helped introduce
nuances. To start with, these are murderers, but they are in community policing to Toronto.
different categories: mass murder, serial homicide, femicide, The McArthur case and its comparison to Robert Pickton’s
contract killers, and so on. Each has its own motivations and is a good introduction to this book because it is sensational but
methods. also illustrates the ambiguous role the media play in modern
In the case of the Pickton murders, for example, we can society. The media do a good job of reporting crime, but they
analyze a type of murder and also the role of the media. also seem to have an inordinate interest in notorious killers,
Dozens of women had gone missing from Vancouver’s Down- serial murderers, drug lords, and sex criminals. It is not sur-
town Eastside in the 1980s in a series of slayings that had prising then that many of us are more concerned about vio-
people convinced that a serial killer was operating in their lent crime than about almost any other social problem. We
midst, an idea the media popularized. However, the police worry about becoming victims of violent crime, having our
denied it, and despite geographic profiling evidence that houses broken into, or having our cars stolen, even though the
confirmed links between the cases, they failed to make the odds are quite low. We alter our behaviour to limit the risk of
connection until more than 50 women had been murdered. victimization, and we question whether legal punishment alone
If this case were used today, it would be updated to include can control criminal offenders. We are shocked by graphic news
reference to more than 600 missing Indigenous women, some accounts of shootings, police brutality, and prison riots. We are
of whom vanished along the infamous Highway of Tears in fascinated by books, movies, and TV shows about law firms,
British Columbia. Pickton has literally become a metaphor for clients, fugitives, and hardened killers. Yet the media do little
the serial killer, and untangling his motives and methods is to enlighten us as to the causes of criminal behaviour or its pre-
the work of criminology. Also, what do we know about those vention. Furthermore, they encourage us to think of problems
laws and police practices that forced women into the shadows as requiring crime-related solutions, rather than better health
where a serial killer could work? Answering that question is care, education, and welfare programs.
the work of criminal justice studies. In a more current example, Alexandre Bissonnette, who
Similarly, in 2018, Bruce McArthur was charged with first- murdered six people in a Quebec City mosque in 2017, is
degree murder in connection with disappearances in Toronto’s back in the news. At issue is whether his eventual eligibility
Gay Village. It is possible that he is responsible for even more for parole will be weighed consecutively for each first-degree
murders yet unknown. In 2019, McArthur pled guilty to eight conviction or concurrently. Under a 2011 “getting tough
counts of first-degree murder, including the deaths of Andrew on crime” law, he faced the former. However, in 2022, the
Kinsman, Selim Esen, Majeed Kayhan, Soroush Mahmudi, Supreme Court ruled that this was unconstitutional, for it
xv

amounted to cruel and unusual punishment. The law repre- view aggressive, antisocial behaviour as a product of mental
sented a conservative attitude to punishment, fuelled by the and physical abnormalities that persist throughout the life
media and moral outrage. course. Genetic, neurological, and physiological factors are
This book addresses more fundamental questions about also felt to influence criminality. Still another view is that
crime, such as why offenders behave the way they do. What crime is a rational choice of greedy, selfish people who can be
causes one person to become violent and antisocial, while deterred only through the threat of harsh punishments. For
another channels their energy into work, school, and family? these people, there can be no treatment—only punishment.
How do we explain the at-risk kid in a high-crime neighbour- As new research uncovers factors that affect crime, the debate
hood who successfully resists the temptations of the streets? over the nature and cause of crime develops.
What accounts for the behaviour of the multimillionaire Debate also continues over how the criminal justice system
who cheats on their taxes and engages in other fraudulent should best treat known criminals. Should they be punished by
schemes? The former has nothing, yet is able to resist crime; being locked up? Or should they be given a second chance and
the latter has everything and falls prey to its allure. Is behav- diverted into alternative justice programs? Should the correc-
iour a function of personal characteristics or of upbringing tional system be retributive or restorative? Should crime control
and experience? Is it influenced by culture or environment? policy focus on punishment or rehabilitation, or even on med-
Or is it a combination of all these? And why are there regional ical treatment? If the underlying cause is poverty, how can this
differences—for example, why so many mass shootings in the be remedied? Many of these questions are tied to the current
US compared to Canada? events we learn about through the media. When a group of
This text addresses some of these difficult questions teenagers was accused of luring Reena Virk to a secluded spot
through a typology-based approach. This means looking for only to assault and then kill her, it fuelled the call for reforms
patterns to better predict behaviour and to learn how to con- to juvenile justice. When Melanie Carpenter was abducted
trol it. It may mean looking at the role of gender or the influ- in broad daylight from her place of work in Surrey, British
ence of social class. It may mean looking at opportunities for Columbia, sufficient public alarm ensued that the dangerous
deviant behaviour and the influence of peer groups. It may offender legislation was amended. Similarly, when Georgina
mean looking at the role of government regulation in disas- Leimonis was shot in a Toronto café, the public called for the
ters such as the railcar explosion in Lac-Mégantic, Quebec— deportation of violent criminals. Other events involving the sui-
regulation that allowed a train carrying highly explosive oil cides of Amanda Todd and Rehtaeh Parsons have fuelled debate
to sit idle on a siding with no one on board, only to slip over cyberbullying, sparked changes to cybercrime laws, and
away during the night and coast downhill into the middle renewed the focus on the victim.
of a town, where it derailed and exploded, killing almost 50 Because interest in crime and justice is so great and so
people. Such a disaster could have been predicted, and thus timely, this text reviews these ongoing issues and covers the
prevented, if only our attention hadn’t been so distracted by field of criminology in an organized and comprehensive
serial killers, perhaps. manner. It is meant as a broad overview of the field, designed
As a professor of criminology, I have taught thousands to whet the reader’s appetite and encourage further and more
of students. To me, what is important is communicating my in-depth exploration. Numerous students have kept this book
interests in crime, law, and justice to my students and inspiring throughout university, using it as a criminology reference text
them to explore their interests, whether their eventual goal is beyond first year. That has inspired me to keep working to
policing or social work. My goal has always been to help stu- design this book to suit student needs, while meeting my
dents understand a very broad field in a way that is easy to interest in communicating my enthusiasm for a rich, growing
grasp. What could be more important or fascinating than a field of study.
field of study that deals with such wide-ranging topics as the And to throw a wrench in the works, in a once-in-a-
motivation for mass murder, the association between media generation-event, we also must consider the effects of the
violence and interpersonal aggression, the family’s influence COVID-19 pandemic. These are addressed in various chapters,
on drug abuse, the causes of wrongful convictions, and the but to throw out just a few highlights, it is apparent that some
history of organized crime? Criminology is a dynamic field, crime trends have gone down, while some have increased.
changing constantly with the release of major research studies, For example, firearm-related homicides increased 5 percent
Supreme Court rulings, and government policy. Its dynamism from 2019 to 2020. Increases in child sexual exploitation and
and diversity make it an important and engrossing area of abuse also increased during the first year of the pandemic.
study, for it incorporates history, psychology, economics, and In addition, cybercrime in general increased 31 percent in
more. In this edition, I have sought to find examples and cases 2020, child pornography was 35 percent higher, and online
that make the field come alive. sexual offences were up 10 percent. Decreases were noted
What makes criminology difficult, but also interesting, is in many crimes because of pandemic lockdowns, but while
the ongoing debate regarding the nature and extent of crime interpersonal violence decreased in general, domestic violence
and the causes and prevention of criminality. Some people increased. It will remain for research to tease out the rela-
view criminals as society’s victims, who are forced to violate tionship between pandemic measures and crime rates. The
the law because of poverty and lack of opportunity. Others anomalies need to be researched.
xvi Preface

In this eighth edition, I have made every effort to make “Crime, Conflict, and Disorder: The Pandemic and
the presentation of material interesting, balanced, objective, Crime Patterns, 2020”; new discussion on the pandemic
and, especially, as distinctly Canadian as possible. There is and its impact on the economy and crime trends, and
a strong theme of social justice and protest, but otherwise, new discussion and data on hate crimes
no single political or theoretical position dominates the text; ■ Chapter 4: Victims and Victimization: Updated material
instead, this text presents the multitude of views that are con- on victimization, including new victimization survey data
tained within criminology and that display the field’s diverse and figures; updated discussion on victim-blaming; new
nature. This multidisciplinary field ranges from biology to features, “Crime, Conflict, and Disorder: Police Shootings
sociology and many disciplines in between. The text analyzes and the Reaction” and “Focus on Research: The Impact of
the most important scholarly works and scientific research Wrongful Convictions on Crime Victims”
reports, while also presenting topical information on recent
Section 2: Theories of Crime Causation outlines the
cases and events. The cases should inspire and inform, as well
theoretical issues of criminology. It contains five chapters that
as educate and excite the reader to study criminology.
cover the main theories: criminal choice (Chapter 5); biolog-
—Chris McCormick
ical and psychological views (Chapter 6); structural, cultural,
and ecological theories (Chapter 7); social process theories
that focus on socialization and include learning and control
Organization of the Text and What (Chapter 8); and theories of social conflict (Chapter 9). Of
particular interest are the materials on closed circuit televi-
Is New in This Edition sion (CCTV) in Chapter 5, real cases of sleepwalking used
as a defence in Chapter 6, early research done at McGill Uni-
versity on sexuality in the 1920s in Chapter 7, and research
The text has been carefully structured to cover relevant mate- on ethnicity and criminality in Chapter 9. All these chapters
rial in a comprehensive, balanced, and objective fashion. With address ongoing issues such as inequality and life chances—
marginal notes and clearly defined learning objectives, lesson for example, how the risk of crime in a society increasingly
concepts are also easy to understand. The text has three main oriented toward mandatory minimum sentences connects the
sections or topic areas. individual to wider social structures. New and updated mate-
Section 1: Concepts of Crime, Law, and Criminology rials in this section include
provides a framework for studying criminology and lays
■ Chapter 5: Choice Theory: Updated discussion on
out the basic issues in criminology. Chapter 1 defines the
crime mapping, with a new figure; new features, “Focus
field and discusses its most basic concepts: the definition
on Research: How Auto Thieves Plan Their Crimes”; and
of crime, the component areas of criminology, its history,
“Crime, Conflict, and Disorder: MAID and the Right to
research methods, and the ethical issues that confront the
Choose”
field. Chapter 2 covers criminal law and its functions. Some
■ Chapter 6: Trait Theories: New feature, “Crime,
controversial issues are discussed, such as how wrongful
Conflict, and Disorder: Environmental Factors
convictions illustrate that mistakes can happen in even the
Implicated in Crime”
most rationally organized legal system. Chapter 3 deals with
■ Chapter 7: Social Structure Theories: New exhibits,
the nature, extent, and patterns of crime, covering the var-
“Childhood Poverty” and “Social Class and Living
ious ways we learn about crime in our society: police sta-
Conditions,” in the discussion on economic structure
tistics, victimization surveys, and the media. Criminologists
and crime; new discussion on “storylines” about how
attempt to reconcile these different sources to understand
people cope with strain; new features, “Crime, Conflict,
crime patterns. Chapter 4 is devoted to an important and
and Disorder: Muskrat Falls and the Controversy
relatively new area of criminology: the nature of victims,
over Hydro Development” and “Experiments with a
theories of victimization, and programs designed to help
Guaranteed Income,” related to social structure theory
them. A section on hate crime is especially relevant, as we
and social policy
see a rise in anti-Asian hate crime during the pandemic. New
■ Chapter 8: Social Process Theories: New section on
and updated materials in this section include
family relations relating to social processes and crime;
■ Chapter 1: Crime and Criminology: Updated material new material on family violence, retrospective reading,
on sociology of law and victimology, and updated and labelling; new features, “Focus on Research:
discussion and data on Canadian crime trends Women, Desistance, and Fearful Futures” and “Crime,
■ Chapter 2: The Criminal Law and Its Process: A new Conflict, and Disorder: Systemic Racism and Changing
feature, “Crime, Conflict, and Disorder: Lobster Fishery Perceptions”
Dispute and the Rule of Law” ■ Chapter 9: Social Conflict Theory: New feature,
■ Chapter 3: The Nature and Extent of Crime: “Profile of a Crime: The Case of Colten Boushie”; new
Extensively updated crime statistics and data, including section on queer criminology; updated discussion and
new figures from Statistics Canada; a new feature, data on restorative justice.
Preface xvii

Section 3: Crime Typologies, is devoted to the major forms Definitions of Commodity”; new discussion on basic
of criminal behaviour. Chapters 10 to 13 cover violent crime, crime patterns during the COVID-19 pandemic;
common theft offences, white-collar and organized crimes, updated discussion and data on auto theft; updated
and public order crimes, including sex offences and substance discussion and data on fraud, including computer fraud
abuse. These chapters on crime patterns and trends lay out and credit card fraud
current and controversial issues and highlight the most recent ■ Chapter 12: Crimes of Power: White-Collar,
information, such as statistics on patterns of violent crime in Corporate, Green, and Organized Crime: New
Chapter 10 (i.e., murder, sexual assault, and family v iolence). feature, “Crime, Conflict, and Disorder: Wet’suwet’en
Chapter 11, with its focus on property crime, discusses trends Protest against Pipeline”; new material on deferred
such as those in auto theft, while Chapter 12 highlights crimes prosecution and the case of SNC-Lavalin; updated
of power, such as white-collar crime, green crime, and orga- discussion and data on organized crime groups,
nized crime. Chapter 13 looks at moral issues and crime, such including new figure
as medical assistance in dying (MAID). Chapter 14 looks at ■ Chapter 13: Public Order Crimes: Legislating
crimes that are evolving in the 21st century, from cybercrime Morality: New discussion on sex work, the internet and
to terrorism. New and updated materials in this section sex tourism; updated discussion on the opioid fentanyl;
include updated discussion and data on drug use among youths,
including new figures
■ Chapter 10: Violent Crime: New feature, “Crime, ■ Chapter 14: Crimes in the 21st Century: Updated
Conflict, and Disorder: London, Ontario, Van Attack”;
discussion on cyberwarfare; new feature, “Focus on
updated discussion using the 2019 General Social
Research: Dark Commerce: Globalization and Crime”;
Survey; updated discussion on workplace violence
updated discussion and data on ransomware, phishing,
■ Chapter 11: Property Crimes: New feature, “Crime,
and cyberbullying
Conflict, and Disorder: Fairy Creek and Competing
xviii Preface

cedure indicates that people who are violence-prone are able questions about institutional abuse, exploitation of margin-
to answer much more quickly than the nonviolent, especially alized communities, and the role of the state in investigating
when the images depict aggression and bloodshed. When used the treatment of Indigenous peoples. And furthermore, any
with samples of adolescents, the procedure has been able to and all of these issues must be considered in context—for
distinguish the violence-prone with 75 percent accuracy. The example, how society changed during the COVID-19 pan-
criminologist who devised the procedure believes it could help demic beginning in 2020.
reduce violence rates if children were tested and those identi-
fied as violence-prone were carefully monitored by teachers and
Key Features social service professionals. Those at risk for future violence
could be placed in special programs as a precaution. Although
the program seems worth considering, a number of important
ethical issues must still be addressed:
Thematic Connections link the material being currently dis- Connections
cussed with1.relevant
Is it fair or ethical to label people as potentially criminal
information located elsewhere in the text. Knowing how criminology studies crime means under-
and violent, even though they have not yet exhibited any
Connections either expand on the subject matter or show how it
antisocial behaviour? standing the system within which crime is defined and
can be applied
2. Is there a chance or
to other areas topics. In prophecy—kids
of self-fulfilling such a comprehensive
labelled its control enforced. In the next chapter, we look at a
book, these connections
as potentially violent become violent because ofthe
help organize and coordinate thematerial
stigma history of the Canadian criminal justice system, how
between chapters
theyfornowquicker
carry? learning. it has evolved, and some current developments and
3. Do the risks of such a procedure outweigh its benefits? controversies.
Another feature, Profile of a Crime, highlights cases

his father, and he became a bully, killing later charged with obstruction of justice for
local dogs and cats. He was later assaulted concealing a set of videotapes Bernardo had that illustrate the application of theoretical concepts.
Key Terms
by guards in a reformatory. His criminal made of his assaults. He was denied parole
Profile career eventually included sexual assault, for the second time in 2021. For example, in Chapter 3, police are looking at links
break and enter, forgery, and dangerous
of a Crime driving. In 2010, while in custody, he alleg- He Did It for Money between alleged serial killer Bruce McArthur and other
edly killed his cellmate in Rocky Mountain Yves “Apache” Trudeau, 58, a former hit
Penitentiary. man for Hells Angels, became a police infor- 40-year-old murders in Toronto’s gay community.
anomie p. 10 criminal
mant after justice
discovering that system
Hells Angels had p. 3 intimate violence p. 3
atavistic anomalies
A Deal with a Devil
(or traits) put out a contract for his death. In exchange Within that community, there were rumours of a serial
Clifford Robert Olson had p. 9 his-
a criminal criminological
for placement enterprise
in a witness protection pro- p. 12 longitudinal research p. 18
killer, but it took years for McArthur to be caught and
Canada’sbourgeoisie Deadliest p. 11 tory that included break and enter, bur-
glary, fraud, and theft. As a child, he also
criminologist p. 4
gram, Trudeau confessed to 43 murders
and helped put 42 former associates behind
moral entrepreneurs p. 17
Serial Killers Chicago Schooltormented p. 11neighbourhood dogs and cats. In bars. Incriminology
2004, Trudeau facedp. 4
a number brought to justice. In other chapters,
positivism p. 8 features include
1978, he was charged with indecent assault of new charges for sexually assaulting a
classical criminology in Nova Scotiap.and8then imprisoned for fraud cross-sectional
minor, which missing
research p. 18
revoked his parole. Automati- and murdered Indigenous
proletariat p. 11 women and envi-
The Pig Farmer in Saskatchewan. In 1981, he killed 11 chil- cally facing a life sentence, he returned to
cohort p. 18 dren in British Columbia. Two weeks after the
Robert Pickton began trial in 2006 on prison decriminalization
a marked man as a child molester p. 6 ronmental protest and activism. Each
utilitarianism p. 8 seeks to highlight
first murder, he raped a teen prostitute (Janet and informant. In 2008, stricken with cancer
criminal anthropology p.declined
9 to press charges. deviant he was released onp. 5 important issues in
a wheelchair,behaviour the news crime
white-collar relevant
p. 14to living in the
27 cases of first-degree murder. He was
charged in connection with the disappear- Henry), but police and using
In a widely criticized deal with the RCMP, parole. Technically, he would not qualify as
ance of more than 60 sex-trade workers.
Beginning in 1983, women went missing Olson was paid $100,000 in exchange for a serial killer because he did it for money. 21st century.
from Vancouver streets in an area known for information about the murders and the loca-
Toronto’s Pickton
drug dealing, addiction, homelessness, and tion of 6 bodies police had been unable to
Review Questions
find. In 1996, he applied under section 745, In 2018, media outlets reported that police
violence. Police wrapped up their $70 mil-
the faint hope clause, to have his 25-year had investigated over a dozen properties
lion investigation in late 2003 at Pickton’s pig
parole ineligibility period reviewed, but he where Bruce McArthur, a self-employed
farm in Port Coquitlam, British Columbia. In
was turned down. landscape gardener, had worked. Human
2007, Pickton was convicted of murder and
remains had been found in planters and in
sentenced to six concurrent life sentences. The Terror of the Miramichi a shed where he stored his tools. He also
1. Define what Allancriminology
Legere, born in 1948,is and 3. What are the elements that 4. List and briefly describe the
In a scary connection, one of Pickton’s vic-
had a long his- had been linked to disappearances in the
tims, Janet Henry, reported missing in 1997,
tory of crimes, including peeping through Gay Village in 2010. He appeared to have
what it is not.
had also been victimized by Clifford Olson in constitute a crime? different views of crime.
Key Court Case features
the 1980s. precedent-setting and
windows, theft, and possession of stolen been targeting men of colour. McArthur, in
2. What are the subareas of
property. In 1989, he escaped from custody, his late sixties, faced eight counts of first-
important
Canada’s First Serial cases
Killer? to illustrate
criminology? principles from the text.
where he was being held for murder, and
went on a six-month crime spree. Between
degree murder. In 2019, he pled guilty
to those counts and was sentenced to life
his Vancouver home. Among the materials
seized were more than 500 photos of 91
possession, and received a four-month con-
ditional sentence.
Dr. Thomas Neill Cream, born in Glasgow
For example,
and a graduate whether
of McGill (1876), is estimated it is the Lost Boy indictment,
May and November 1989, he beat four in prison. He is the oldest serial killer in different boys engaged in sexual activity Sharpe was arrested again in 2003 for
to have killed seven women in Great Britain
people to death in New Brunswick. His was Key Court
Canada. He has been compared to the serial and a collection of personal stories entitled indecent assault against a man who had
Sharpe, Keegstra,
and North America. Some think he or Gladue,
was Jack we see court cases
the first trial in Canada to use DNA evidence
to obtain a conviction in the absence of any
that set
killer working in Vancouver’s Downtown East-
Case
side in the 1980s, Robert Pickton. In 2003,
“Kiddie Kink Classics.” Sharpe was charged
with two counts each of possessing and
come forward after police issued a public
appeal to those pictured in the seized pho-
the Ripper, responsible for the murder of
the precedent
prostitutes. for the
He worked occasionally as anfuture. Similarly, Wiebo Ludwig,
other evidence. he had a psychological assessment after
attacking a man with a pipe while he was
distributing child pornography, but he was
acquitted by the British Columbia Supreme
tographs. In July 2004, at the age of 71,
Sharpe was handed a prison sentence of 2
abortion provider, and at one point, he was The Scarborough Rapist
Henry Morgentaler,
convicted of murder for adding strychnine to and Sue Rodriguez
Paul Bernardo was convicted in 1995 of
became key
high on amyl nitrate “poppers”; disturbingly,
the doctor found no evidence of psychosis
Court in 1999. years less a day. Controversy regarding the
After the province’s Court of Appeal Supreme Court ruling prompted the Lib-
a patient’s prescription.
newsmakers and changed the course of criminal
killing teens Leslie Mahaffy and Kristen
French with the help of his wife, Karla
jus-
or personality disorder. He was given a con-
ditional sentence for assault causing bodily
upheld the ruling, Sharpe’s case was heard eral government to introduce legislation in
Killer in the Making
tice in Canada. These features develop
Homolka. Both girls were held captive
key issues R. v. Sharpe (2001) had to decide whether child pornography December
harm and for assault with a weapon.
before the Supreme Court of Canada, which 2002 that would tighten the defi-
nition of artistic merit by introducing a stan-
Michael Wayne McGray of Nova Scotia before being sexually assaulted and killed.
Critical Thinking laws violated the freedom of expression guar- dard of “contribution to the public good.”
that are part of our
pleaded guilty in 2000 to 4 counts of
criminal justice history,
Bernardo and Homolka were also implicated
such asof serial
|
Parliament took less than six weeks to enact antee in section 2 of the Charter of Rights However, the bill died on the ledger when
murder and implicated24 Section
himself in 16 1 in the death Concepts of
of Homolka’s sister, Crime,
Tammy. Law,
The and
incidence Criminology
homicide is small in
child pornography legislation in 1993, and and Freedoms (described in Chapter 2). In the 2004 election was called.
the sleepwalking defence,
others. He testified that he found victims at
random, driven by a “boiling urge” to kill.
the wrongfully convicted,
Bernardo pleaded guilty to more than 50
sexual assaults and was declared a dan-
society, and yet there is a lot of publicity and
section 163.1 of the Criminal Code of Canada
concern around such cases. Is such concern
2001, the Court attempted to strike a bal-
has been a source of relentless debate ever ance between the need to protect children Critical Thinking
women who kill, andandserial
In 1991, he killed two gay men in Mon-
treal, sparking fears of a serial murderer.
killers. For example,
gerous offender. Police had interviewed him
obtained a forensic sample, but it was
disproportionate, or does it reflect the danger
since. Though not the first case of its kind,
posed by such unusual killers?
from sexual exploitation and the need to
Does artistic merit override the need to pro-
Sharpe is noteworthy because it challenged protect fundamental rights and freedoms.
Angelique Lyn Lavallee was
As a child, McGray was violently beaten by
a battered woman in a vio-
months before it was tested. His lawyer was
the federal law against producing, dealing, Although section 163.1 of the Criminal Code
tect children from exploitation? And is this
case in any way about homosexuality, or
and possessing child pornography. was declared constitutional, exceptions were
lent common-law relationship who killed her partner John Robin Sharpe was arrested at the outlined in certain cases: for materials that
would heterosexual images be treated in the
same way?
Canada–US border in 1995 after customs have artistic, educational, or scientific merit
late 47827_ch01_hr_001-026.indd
one night. This case24eventually resulted in a deci- officers found in his possession nude photos and for purely personal materials that do not
Sources: Various media sources, 2002–2004;
03/02/23 4:43 PM
of underage boys and sexually explicit involve children in their production. Sharpe’s
sion
22 Section by the Supreme
1 | Concepts of Crime,Court of Canada (1990) that set
Law, and Criminology
written material on several computer disks. case was retried, and he was found not guilty
Robert Sharpe, Katherine Swinton, and Kent
Roach, The Charter of Rights and Freedoms,
Police later executed a search warrant at in relation to distribution but convicted on 2nd ed. (Toronto: Irwin Law, 2002).
the legal framework for what has become known as
the “battered wife syndrome” defence. Justice Minister
47827_ch01_hr_001-026.indd 22 03/02/23 4:43 PM
Allan Rock then agreed to consider extending that

Concept Summary 1.1
principle to some pre-1990 cases. In this example, we see the origin of an important doctrine
Criminology, Criminal Justice, and Deviance
of Canadian criminal justice and consider the significance of gender in criminal cases.
Criminology explains the origin, extent, and nature of crime in Deviance refers to the study of behaviour that departs from social
society. norms, such as joining a nudist colony. Not all crimes are deviant
or unusual acts, and not all deviant acts are illegal.
Criminal justice is the study of agencies of social control that
handle criminal offenders, specifically police departments, the Overlapping areas of concern: Under what circumstances do
courts, and correctional facilities. Scholars seek more effective deviant behaviours become crimes? For example, when does
methods of crime control and offender rehabilitation. sexual material cross the line from merely suggestive to obscene
and therefore illegal? Or, if an illegal act becomes a norm, should
Overlapping areas of concern: Criminal justice experts cannot begin
society re-evaluate its criminal status? For example, debate
to design effective programs of crime prevention or rehabilitation
continues regarding the legalization and/or decriminalization of
without understanding the nature and causes of crime. To that abortion, recreational drug use, possession of handguns, and
end, they test the effectiveness of crime control and prevention
assisted suicide.
programs.
A Brief History of Criminology they were restricted to defining crime and setting punish-
ments. What motivated people to violate the law remained a
The scientific study of crime and criminality is a relatively

matter of conjecture.
Preface
During the Middle Ages, people who violated social norms xix
recent development. Although written criminal codes have or religious practices were believed to be witches or pos-
existed for thousands of years, and oral systems even longer, sessed by demons. The prescribed method for dealing with
Chapter 1 | Crime and Criminology 7

state care than there were during the residential school era, In a quasi-experiment, researchers may want to measure
where they experienced similar trauma. Special social work, the effectiveness of a new law that sets a lower blood alcohol
welfare, and educational support needs to be addressed. threshold for impaired driving and survey how it is being
Each chapter also has a Focus on Research feature that shows

The police-reported crime rate rose 7 per- Indigenous people, it is six and a half times
rdo and Homolka research
increase in related policing and to criminology.
stricter penaltiesChapter for crime rather 6, forthan example, dis- cent in 2019 but was 9 percent lower than a
decade earlier, continuing an upward curve
higher than for the non-Indigenous popula-
tion. Indigenous people are 5 percent of the
They came from a increasedsome
cusses budgetsissues for social programs. Furthermore,
concerning the relationship 76 per- between Focus on since falling precipitously in the early 1990s. total population but account for 27 percent
In terms of severity, fraud was up 8 percent, of all homicide victims. The impact of a
homes, and sports cent of Toronto residents believed thatcourtrooms, lenient judges
for example. Onewere
route by which victim’s rights Research
th a bright future.
teenage behaviour and aggression.
allowing gun crime to flourish in Canada’
have come Isto the
teen
centre ofaggression related
public attention recently has been
sexual assault 7 percent, threats 20 percent,
and child pornography 46 percent. However,
history of colonization—including residen-
tial schools, work camps, forced relocation
thesinternational
cities—and it Matter
Black Lives didn’t movement, which focuses as discussed in Chapter 3, the victimization to reserves, and other discriminatory poli-
understandable if to
help brain
that one chemistry
of the suspects and structure?
charged inon theCould
the Boxing policies
treatment of minorities
Canada, theDay gun- or opportu-
by the police and the justice survey showed that less than one third of cies—resulted in marginalization, the result
Christopher Katsarov/Canadian Press Images

system. In Idle No More movement and, more crimes were reported to the police. being higher rates of trauma, violence,
o were the product nities
fight was beout putoninparole place at to
theaddress
time of the this, such
incident. as summer jobs for
2 Every Child Matters movement have
recently, the Indigenous
gone in a different direction, based on discoveries of abuse in
One crime in particular that is very and gender-based harms. The Homicide
homes? Research Concerns about crime and the need Canadian Crime report-sensitive is sexual assault. Only about Survey was amended in 2019 to include
at-risk youth? Chapter 12 looks at togreen

residential
survivors
develop
schools effec-
criminologists,
and the impact
and their families. who
those abuses have had on
For a discussion of victimization
Trends, 2019
5 percent of sexual assaults are reported,
though that figure has risen in the wake of
more ethnic data, after which it found that
31 percent of homicide victims were from
ur is often learned tive measures to control criminal behaviour have
risk, see Chapter 4. spurred
and parents serve
favour the harms perspective that hurting animals—not just
the development of criminology. This academic discipline
the #MeToo social media movement. It is
also definition-sensitive, in that police prac-
a visible minority group.
So, changes in reporting practices and
There are several reasons for changes in tice has changed to treat a report as true in definitions account for some changes in
ence then persists people—should

is devoted to the study be of a crime,
crime patterns and Chapter and trends9 and highlights
to issues the crime rate: (1) there is a real increase or unless there is evidence otherwise. This is crime rates, as do changes in enforcement.
How Do Criminologists decrease depending on underlying reasons, contrary to past practice, which assumed A rise of 19 percent in impaired driving
onsidered normal involving
the development wrongful of valid convictions. In addition,
and reliable information
People participate in the Every Child Matters Walk on Canada Day, there are research
regarding such as a change in the economy; (2) there that a report was not true unless there was offences was due to legislative changes
2021, in downtown Toronto. View Crime? is a change in the definition of crime, such corroborating evidence. And a rapid rise in but also to the increased use of oral fluid
ssible to deter the the causes
pieces on ofmasculinity
crime. For example, and sexual researchers
violence, havethe linked politics Criminologists
of sta- as the decriminalization of cannabis in 2018; the crime of child pornography has been screening devices. Opioid-related offences
(3) there is a change in enforcement, such at least partly due to an increase in police rose 48 percent, mostly due to possession
rable victims? Do violent behaviour to a number of psychological influences, use a variety of research methods, as roadside sobriety checks; and (4) there resources designed to increase reporting and trafficking, which are mainly discover-
ting such horrific

tistics,
including
and
Applying transnational
tion of crime, observational
Criminology
learning
and designing services for
terrorism.
probabilities of victimization risk, studying victim precipita- As you will see in this text, criminology is multidisciplinary,
from violent
victims. Victimology drawing onTV shows,
biology, sociology, and other fields. cross-sectional surveys, longitudinal cohort
trau-
psychology, including is a change in reporting, due perhaps to and awareness and to detect the use of able through enforcement. Methamphet-
changes in social awareness. The year 2019 computers for accessing and sharing amine trafficking increased 17 percent.
has taken on greater importance, as more criminologists
A criminologist studies,
In addition, professional criminologists align experiments,
themselves and observations. In doing research,
victim’shas come up with
event.a test withthat they believe can saw various crime rate changes, for all these pornography. Overall, crime statistics are a useful crimi-
orted at first in the matic childhood
focus their attention on the experiences, role in the criminal mental illness,underlying impaired
philosophical cog-
perspectives: the consensus,
perspectives. criminologists must be concerned about ethical standards
reasons, and more. Because crime statistics One definition-related strategy has been nology tool, but the reasons for changes in
Another areapredict futuremore
that has become violent behaviour.
prominent is the victim’The s procedure
conflict, andinvolves having
interactionist Each perspec-
nitive processes,
rights movement and
and how victims’ a psychopathic
needs can be addressed—in personality
tive maintains its own structure.
view of what constitutesbecause criminal
are such an important tool for criminologists,
their findings can have a significant impact on indi-
to continue to identify ethnocultural factors crime rates can easily relate to reporting,
subjects sit in front of a computer screen in order to watch it is useful to know their potential, as well as in crime. For example, when disaggre- enforcement, legislative changes, and
the public. When Chapter 6images, reviews the most prominent
some peaceful and placid and others extremely violent; of these explanations their limits.
viduals and groups. Those with a particular social justice gating the homicide rate, we see that for changes in social awareness.
about one third of of violence. Criminology

the subjects are thencombines asked to respond various to adisciplines
battery of ques- such leaning can see opportunities Another
Table 1.1 Changes infeature,
mediain thereports
Crime Crime,
Rate for critical-Conflict, and Disorder, is a new
ing alone in their as history,tions. sociology, psychology,
The test quantifies biology,
federal Indian Act, to be operated by the
the substance andanswers
of the
Catholic Church in service of colonial prac-
economics as well in edge
responsible for the residential schoolresearch.
system.
Most notably, the former Ryerson University
The Kamloops
addition Residential
Total Crime Rate that School
highlightsNumber scandal
2019 that Rate 2019
contemporary events
% Change 2018–19 that % Changetest our
2009–19
Crime, as theatime it takes totices respond. Research
state. Thosevalidating therecently
pro-use wasTorontoshowcased at theTotal
beginning of this chapter opens up 1,277
more likely to be whatConflict,
is truly multidisciplinary study.
of the Canadian
Criminologists
practices has been renamed Met- violent 480,004 11 −3
cedure indicates that people included forced relocation to reserves, which

who are violence-prone ropolitan University—Egerton Ryerson, for
are able questions about understanding
classical
Homicide
institutional theory
abuse, hasof
exploitation crime
evolved 678 and
of into
margin- control.
rational 1.8 choice For example,
and 2 deter- in Chapter −1 The writings of Marx and his followe
out of proportion scientific
and to methods to study were theoftennature,
sited on poorextent,
land, the banningcause,of and
whom con-
it was named, had been involved in
Sexual assault 1 30,285 81 7 32
answer much morecultural quickly than
practices suchtheas thenonviolent,
potlatch, the especially alized school
the development of the residential communities,12, rence
and the
the theories,
role Wet’
of the sdiscussed
uwet’en in protest
state in investigating Chapter 5.over Choice a theorists
pipeline argue run through influential. Today, conflict criminologists s
anadians thought trol of criminal
Disorder when thebehaviour.
images depictgovernance Because
replacement
aggression ofand the
of traditional chiefthreat
systems with
bloodshed. ofWhen
crime andpathologists
system. Forensic
used the
today are able
treatment of
Firearms
Indigenous peoples. And
3,503
furthermore, any
9 21 81
that
theirRobberycriminals
traditional are rational 23,296
territory and use available
is highlighted. 62 information 2
It 5shows how to political
−36 conflict as the root cause of crime
−15 there
organized by the federal Depart- to reveal tuberculosis, abuse, and malnutri-
rates of victimiza- the socialwith problems
samples it of represents,
adolescents,
ment of Indian thethe field
procedure
Affairs, of has
and experimentscriminology
been
on tionable
on theto hasof even and
basis skeletal remains.
all of these issues must be considered crimeinis161,291 context—for
Total property 1,319,562 3,510
ere no more likely gained prominencedistinguish theasviolence-prone

the starvation of children. Rumours had cir-
an academic area of study.
The TRC has estimated that at least 4,000 decide whether worthwhile, while deterrence −1 theory inherently unfair economic structure of a
with
culated for decades 75 percent
about abuses accuracy.
at these bodies wereTheburied in moreexample,
than 400 burialhow society issaysincreasing
changed duringconflict
Break & enter
Fraud this choice is structured
the COVID-19 142,140
over pan-
by the Indigenous
fear
429
378 of punishment.
rights 8
and economic −30
countries
64 is the engine that drives high crim
r break and enter This criminologist
Unmarked chapter Burials who devised
introduces schools,thebutprocedure
the lack of records
criminology: believes
itsmade it it could helpthe country. (For
sites across
were,definition,
tion, see majorits demic
more informa-
beginning in 2020.
reduce violence rates ifhowchildren
difficult to identify who the victims
were tested
or
andhadthose identi-
media sources such as the
development,
Child pornography
Criminal from
anthropology Muskrat
8,815
has also Falls 23
evolved in Newfoundland
considerably,
46
as to
449
occurs Fairy
in two ways: first, the lack of resourc
Found
goals, andatitsFormer history. It also addresses
many. The lack
questions
of school records
like
Vancouver
these:
Sun, the CBC, and the National Traffic—alcohol 72,818 194 9 −25
tant barometer of HowResidential

fied as violence-prone were
do social
criminologistsSchool define
been noted at the Truth and Reconciliation
carefully monitored by teachers
crime? How
Commission (TRC) hearings. The news that
do had
Post.)
theyCriticalconduct
and Creek
seen inin
Traffic—drugs British
Chapter Columbia.
6. Although 6,453 criminologists 17 no longer43 believe to
297 commit crimes, such as prostitution; and
service professionals. unmarked Thoseburials of at riskchildren

missing for future violence Thinking
that
Source:a single
Statistics trait
Canada, “Table or inherited
1 Police-reported characteristic
crime increases can
in 2019,” The Daily, October explain
29, crime, erful
2020, https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/daily- are able to define the actions of the p
heir communities. research? What
could thebe
ethical
placed te in
issues programs
been
Sec-special
face those
discovered at the
as awanting
site
precaution.to
fuelled fresh pro- Howconduct
can personal narratives be used to under-
Although
quotidien/201029/t001a-eng.htm (accessed August 18, 2022).
hood of crime in
On May 31, 2021,
criminological
wépemc First theNation
Tk’emlúps
research?
programannouncedseems that And
tests against political leaders and religious
worth do these
considering,
organizations that had beenissues
ainvolved
number change
stand the experience of institutional abuse?
in
in whatof important times some believe that biological and mental traits interact with view is discussed in more detail in Chapter
adictory evidence
ground-penetrating radar had detected 215
of unmarked ethical
socialburials on theissues
upheaval must
and
has been described as “cultural genocide.”
stillNew
formerheightenedbepressure
addressed: social anxiety,
Courtney Dickson and Bridgette
such“Remains
Sources:
as ofa 215 childrenFirst environmental factors to influence all human behaviour, Criminology, then, has had a rich histo
at former B.C. residential school,Connections
site of the Watson, found buried
nfluence of other
The feature
Kamloops
global
Applying
Indian Residential
Columbia.pandemic?
School in British
Itethical
is tosheer
Criminology,
ones
to take down statues,
of John A. Macdonald, are now part
speculation
found
such as
of says,” at the May end
27, 2021, ofhttps://each
Nation
including
20 Section 1 criminality.
| Concepts of Crime, Biological
Law, and Criminologyand psychological theorists an important influence. These major pers
movement. Asat well,this
there point, but Criminologists use a va
1. ofIstheitchildren
Some fair orbelieved tothelabel people
decolonization
as potentially criminal CBC News,
www.cbc.ca/news/canada/british-columbia/
chapter, asks
and students
wereviolent,
thought to even has to
be as though ause
been they movehave reasoning
notstreets, build- from
yetpunitive
exhibited any the chapter Knowing tohow criminology
study the studies
associationcrime means between under- criminal behaviour and such marized in Concept Summary 1.2.
Applying Criminology
be buried on the site to rename tk-eml%C3%BAps-te-secw%C3%A9pemc-215-
eople do not rely doyoung
people become
as 3. Residential more
schools were estab- conservative, more
ings, and institutions previously named in at such
children-former-kamloops-indian-residential-
standing the system within which crime is defined and including cross-sectional su
antisocial behaviour? school-1.6043778 (accessed August 18,
traits as diet, hormonal makeup, personality, and intelligence.
the likelihood of understand
lished in 1890 under
times? Do2. the afeelings
criminal
the authority of the
justice underscore
of isolation scenario. the
honour of those who had been involved in or
Is there a chance of self-fulfilling prophecy—kids labelled
The need
2022).
questions for accom-
its control enforced. InSociological the next chapter, we look at a back to Quetelet and Dur- studies, experiments, and obs
w from the media. social control more A criminologist
47827_ch01_hr_001-026.indd 20
theories,
has come tracing up with a test that they believe can 03/02/23 4:43 PM
panying this itemsoare

as potentially thanabecome
violent ingood ordinary self-test
violent times?
becauseof These chapter
of the are theconcepts.
stigma history of the Canadian criminal justice system, how
kheim,predict maintain that individuals’
futuredevelopments
violent behaviour. lifestyles and living condi- criminologists must be conce
urveys often show sorts of questions they nowwe carry?will need to ask. it has evolved, and some current and The procedure involves having
ation from year to 3. Do the risks of such a procedure outweigh its benefits? | controversies. tions directly control their criminal
subjects sit in front of a computer screen in order to watch behaviour. Those at the because their findings can hav
What Criminologists Do:
Chapter 1 Crime and Criminology 15
increased in their bottomimages, of the some social peacefulstructure andcannotplacid and achieve others success
extremely and, violent;
as viduals and groups. Those w
a result, experience are failure and frustration.
to respondThis to atheorybatterytoday leaning can see opportunities
orism and aggres-
of public anxiety
47827_ch01_hr_001-026.indd 15
the subjects then asked
is called the structural perspective, which is described in detail
03/02/23 4:43 PM
tions. The test quantifies the substance of the answers as well
of ques-
Criminological Enterpris
edge research. The Kamloops R
What Is Criminology? in Chapter 7.
as the time it takes to respond. Research validating the pro- was showcased at the beginn
eightened feelings Some sociologists who have added a social psycholog-
Each
ical cedure chapter
dimension indicates includes
to that people
their views a of who areoutline,
chapter crime violence-prone
causation a
find list are
that of able
key terms
Regardless questions about
of their theory institutional
background, Wolfa
isk of cybercrime, Key Terms to answerlearning
ear. Digital crimes Criminology is the scientific approach to the study of criminal contained
individuals’ inmuch the chapter,more quickly than
experiences andand conceptthe nonviolent,
socialization summaries. especiallywrite that
directly A runningalized communities,
“a criminologist is oneand
whosethepro
ro
whentheir
control the imagesbehaviour. depictChildren aggression learn andbybloodshed.modelling When
their usedoccupational the treatment
role, and of Indigenous
pecuniary reward pa
important to note behaviour. anomie In p.their 10 classic definition, criminologists criminal justice Edwin system p. 3 marginal
intimate
with samples
glossary
violence provides the
p.of3adolescents, concise
procedure
definitions
has been
of key terms
able tocentratedand
ing exposed more Sutherland andanomalies
Donald (or Cresseytraits) state,
behaviour after others; criminal offenders are people whose on aallscientific
of these issues to,
approach must
andbs
atavistic p. 9 criminological enterprise p. 12 used
life throughout
longitudinal
distinguish
experiences
research
the have
p.the
18
violence-prone text. their
shattered withsocial75 percentbonds to accuracy.
society. Theof, the phenomenon of crime and changed
criminal
bourgeoisie p. 11 criminologist p. 4 moral entrepreneurs p. 17 example, how society
Criminology is the body of knowledge regarding crime This criminologist
view, the who
social devised
process the procedure
perspective, believesin
is described it could
detail help Within the broader arenainof2020.
criminolog
ong-term effects, Chicago School p. 11 criminology p. 4 positivism p. 8 demic beginning
as aclassical
social criminology
phenomenon. p. 8 It includes within its scope research p. 18
cross-sectional inproletariat
Chapter
reduce p. 8.11
violence rates if children were tested and those identi-areas that, taken together, make up the crim
e and the courts, thecohort
processes p. 18of making laws, of breaking decriminalization laws, and of p. 6 utilitarianism
fied as violence-pronep. 8 were carefully monitored by teachers andprise. Criminologists may specialize in a su
ents for offenders. criminal anthropology p. 9 deviant behaviour p. 5 white-collar crime p. 14
agenda, resulting social service professionals. Those at risk for future violenceway that psychologists might specialize in a
ng resources into could be placed in special programs as a precaution. Althoughdevelopment, perception, personality, psy
In 2005, after the Concept
the program Summaryseems worth 1.2considering, a number of importantsexuality. Some of the more important crimi
Review Questions
criminology The scientific study of the nature, extent, are described in this section and are summ
Street that killed TheethicalMajor issues must still be
Perspectives of addressed:
Criminology
cause, and control of criminal behaviour. Summary 1.3. Connections
esidents surveyed
1. Define what criminology is and 3. What are the elements that 4.1.List Is andit fair or ethical
briefly describe tothelabel people as potentially criminal
ming more violent, criminologists Academics who bring objectivity and The focus is on individual factors (biological, psychological, and Knowing how criminology s
what it is not. constitute a crime? and violent,
different views of even crime. though they have not yet exhibited any
uld rather see an method choice theories), social factors (structural and process theories),
2. to What theare study of crimeofand its consequences.
the subareas antisocial behaviour? standing the system within
criminology?
political and economic factors (conflict), and multiple (integrated)
2. Is there a chance of self-fulfilling prophecy—kids labelled
factors.
CriminalitsStatistics control enforced. In the
as potentially violent
Classical/Choice Situationalbecome forces:violent
Crimebecause is a function of theof stigma
The subareahistory
of of thestatistics
criminal Canadian cri
involv
w, and Criminology amount and it trends
has evolved, andactivity.
of criminal some H
they now carry? free will and personal choice. Punishment is
Perspective
3. Do the risks of such a deterrent to crime. outweigh its benefits?
a procedure occurs annually? Who commits it? When
controversies.
As always, an effort has been made to cite new research, retain features Biological/ that stand the test of forces: Crime is a function of
Internal it occur? Which crimes are the most seriou
time, create new features, highlight Canadian criminology, and showcase Canadian cases.
Psychological chemical, neurological, genetic, personality, interested in criminal statistics try to create
Perspective intelligence, or mental traits. measurements of criminal behaviour. For ex
24 Section 1 | Concepts of Crime, Law, and Criminology
03/02/23 4:43 PM Structural Ecological forces: Crime rates are a the records of police and court agencies to
Perspective function of neighbourhood conditions, of what crimes occur and how they are dea
cultural forces, and norm conflict. develop survey instruments to determine
Process Perspective Socialization forces: Crime is a function of people who commit crimes and those who
47827_ch01_hr_001-026.indd 24
Key Terms upbringing, learning, and control.
03/02/23
parents, and teachers influence behaviour.
4:43 PM Peers,
by the justice system. They also develop te
tify the victims of crime and what percenta
Conflict Perspective Economic and political forces: Crime is a
police. The study of criminal statistics is a
anomie p. 10 function of competition for limited resourcesjustice system p. 3
criminal intimate
and power. Class conflict produces crime.
xx Preface atavistic anomalies (or traits) p. 9 criminological enterprise p. 12 longitudi
Integrated Multiple forces: Biological, social-
bourgeoisie
Perspective p. 11 psychological, economic, and political
criminologist p. 4 moral en
Chicago School p. 11 forces may combine to producecriminology
crime. p. 4criminological enterprise The totality
positivism
classical criminology p. 8 which includes
cross-sectional research p. 18 many fields, orproletaria
subareas,
cohort p. 18 decriminalization p. 6 utilitarian
criminal anthropology p. 9 deviant behaviour p. 5 white-co
47827_fm_hr_i-xxiv.indd 20 12 Section 1 | Concepts of Crime, Law, and Criminology 06/02/23 3:52 PM
Feature Boxes Chapter 5 How Auto Thieves Plan Their Crimes (new)
Chapter 6 Diet and Crime: An International Perspective;
Teenage Behaviour: Is It the Brain?
Here is a list of feature boxes throughout the book. Chapter 7 Carl Dawson and the McGill School
Key Court Case Chapter 8 Women, Desistance, and Fearful Futures (new)
Chapter 1 R. v. Sharpe (2001) Chapter 9 Wrongful Convictions
Chapter 2 Legal Rights and the Charter Chapter 10 Masculinity and Sexual Violence among the
Urban Poor
Chapter 3 The Murder of Reena Virk
Chapter 11 On the Run
Chapter 4 R. v. Keegstra
Chapter 12 Is Chicken Farming Foul?
Chapter 5 Effects of the Charter on Deterrence
Chapter 13 Drug Courts
Chapter 6 Women and Insanity in Canadian Society
Chapter 14 Transnational Terrorism
Chapter 7 Henry Morgentaler
Chapter 8 John Martin Crawford Crime, Conflict, and Disorder (new feature)
Chapter 9 R. v. Gladue
Chapter 1 Unmarked Burials Found at Former
Chapter 10 Arthur Lucas and Ronald Turpin Residential School
Chapter 11 Arson and a Wrongful Conviction (new) Chapter 2 Lobster Fishery Dispute and the Rule of Law
Chapter 12 Deepwater Horizon Chapter 3 The Pandemic and Crime Patterns, 2020
Chapter 13 Sue Rodriguez Chapter 4 Police Shootings and the Reaction
Chapter 14 The Lost Boy Case Chapter 5 MAID and the Right to Choose
Profile of a Crime Chapter 6 Environmental Factors Implicated in Crime
Chapter 7 Muskrat Falls and the Controversy over
Chapter 1 Canada’s Deadliest Serial Killers
Hydro Development
Chapter 2 Wrongfully Convicted (updated)
Chapter 8 Systemic Racism and Changing Perceptions
Chapter 3 A Serial Killer Stalked Toronto’s Gay Village
Chapter 9 Capitalism Destroys the Planet
Chapter 4 A Woman Who Killed
Chapter 10 London, Ontario, Van Attack
Chapter 5 The Curious Career Choice of Edwin Alonzo
Chapter 11 Fairy Creek and Competing Definitions of
Boyd
Commodity
Chapter 6 Kenneth Parks, Sleepwalker
Chapter 12 Wet’suwet’en Protest against Pipeline
Chapter 7 Seeds of Hope at the Missing and Murdered
Chapter 13 The Opioid Epidemic
Indigenous Women Inquiry (new)
Chapter 14 Dark Commerce: Globalization and Crime
Chapter 8 Brock Turner (new)
Chapter 9 The Case of Colten Boushie (new)
Chapter 10 Two Killers (updated)
Chapter 11 Protesting for the Environment: Arson, Ancillaries
Vandalism, and the Case of Wiebo Ludwig
Chapter 12 Human Trafficking (updated)
Chapter 13 The Case of Everett Klippert Instructor Resources
Chapter 14 Edward Snowden MindTap
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Preface xxi

gives you complete ownership of your course. With it, you can learning management system, the classroom, or wherever an
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xxii Preface

About the Authors
Larry J. Siegel was born in the Bronx. While living on Jerome Avenue
and attending City College of New York in the 1960s, he was swept up
in the social and political currents of the time. He became intrigued
with the influence contemporary culture had on individual behaviour:
Did people shape society, or did society shape people? He was able to
apply his interest in social forces and human behaviour to the study of
crime and justice when he was accepted into the first class of the newly
opened program in criminal justice at the State University of New York
at Albany. Dr. Siegel began his teaching career at Northeastern University,
where he was a faculty member for nine years. He also held teaching
positions at the University of Nebraska–Omaha and Saint Anselm College
in New Hampshire before being appointed a full professor in the School
of Criminology and Justice Studies at the University of Massachusetts,
Lowell. Dr. Siegel has written 16 books in the area of crime and justice,
including books on juvenile law, delinquency, criminology, criminal justice,
corrections, the court system, and criminal procedure. He is a court-
certified expert on police conduct and has testified in numerous legal
cases. The father of four and grandfather of three, Larry Siegel and his wife,
Terry, now reside in Naples, Florida, with their dog, Sophie.
Chris McCormick lives in Fredericton with his human family and a

succession of dogs who were rescued from shelters by the National
Brittany Rescue Association to live a wonderful life in New Brunswick.
He has degrees from Acadia, Queen’s, and York Universities and taught
at many universities, including Acadia, Mount Saint Vincent, and Saint
Courtesy of Chris McCormick

Mary’s University in Halifax, before moving to St. Thomas University
to co-found the Criminology and Criminal Justice program. This is
one of only five criminology programs in Canada and is known for its
strong social justice focus. Professor McCormick’s teaching interests
are in cultural studies, discourse analysis, wrongful convictions, and
environmental crime and social protest. He has published in the areas
of crime and media, corporate crime, and historical studies of crime and
criminal justice in Canada. Between 2004 and 2013, he wrote “Crime Matters,” a biweekly column on crime and criminal
justice issues in Fredericton’s city newspaper. After all, it is not just what we do as academics that matters but how we
communicate it to others, our students, and our community. To paraphrase Karl Marx, the point is not just to understand the
world but to make it better.
xxiii

Acknowledgments
Many people helped make this book possible. I have attempted

to incorporate the suggestions of those who reviewed this
edition, including
Marvin Mustin, Conestoga College
Scot Wortley, University of Toronto
Alexander Shvarts, Humber College
Frank T. Lavandier, University of Prince Edward Island
Chantal Faucher, Langara College
The list of those who helped with material or advice
includes those at Cengage Canada. Many thanks, in
particular, to Leanna MacLean, Senior Portfolio Manager,
and the development and production teams, specifically Gail
Brown, Content Development Manager; Matthew Kudelka,
copy editor; and Imoinda Romain, Senior Content Produc-
tion Manager. I also thank Larry Siegel (Professor Emeritus,
University of Massachusetts at Lowell) for producing such a
great text from which to work.
In addition, I thank the various copy editors, research
assistants, and editorial assistants whose contributions have
enhanced the text over the years.
Chris McCormick
Department of Criminology
St. Thomas University
Fredericton, New Brunswick
2023
xxiv About the Authors

1
Section
Concepts of
Crime, Law, and
Criminology
How is crime defined? How much crime is there, and what are the trends and
patterns in the crime rate? How many people are victims of crime, and who is
likely to become a crime victim? How did our system of criminal law develop,
and what are the basic elements of crimes? How do wrongful convictions chal-
lenge our concept of fairness under the law? What is the science of criminology
all about? These are some of the core questions that will be addressed in the
first four chapters of this text, providing a solid foundation for the chapters to
come. Chapter 1 introduces the field of criminology: its nature, area of study,
methodologies, and historical development. Concern about crime and jus-
tice has been an important part of the human condition for more than 5,000
years, formally since the first criminal codes were set down in the Middle East,
but arguably since people defined codes of conduct for living together. And
Chapter 1
although the scientific study of crime—criminology—is considered a contem-
Crime and Criminology
porary science, it has existed for more than 200 years.
Chapter 2 introduces one of the key components of criminology: the devel- Chapter 2
opment of criminal law. Included in this discussion is the social history of law The Criminal Law and Its Process
and the purpose of law, as well as how that purpose defines crime. The chapter
Chapter 3
also briefly examines criminal defences and legal reform, using prominent The Nature and Extent of Crime
Canadian examples. The final two chapters of this section create a picture of
crime by reviewing the various sources of crime data. Chapter 3 focuses on Chapter 4
Victims and Victimization
the nature and extent of crime, discussing the main sources of information
criminologists use, while Chapter 4 is devoted to victims and victimization, a
relatively new area in criminology. Important and stable patterns in the rates
of crime and victimization indicate that these are not random events. The way
crime and victimization are organized and patterned profoundly influences
how criminologists view the causes of crime.
47827_ch01_hr_001-026.indd 1 06/02/23 3:59 PM

1 Crime and
Criminology
Learning Objectives
After reading this chapter, you will be
able to:
1. Understand the scope of the field
of criminology.
2. Be familiar with different parts of
the “criminological enterprise.”
3. Know the elements of what
constitutes a crime.
4. Discuss the different views of crime.
5. Explain different criminological
research methods and their use.
Chapter Outline
Introduction 3
What Is Criminology ? 4
A Brief History of Criminology 7
What Criminologists Do: The
Brian Mclnnis/Canadian Press Images
Criminological Enterprise 12
How Do Criminologists View
Crime? 15
Doing Criminology 18
Ethical Issues in Criminology 21
Summary 23
Customers line up outside a retail cannabis store in Charlottetown, PEI. A hundred years after its
criminalization in 1923, attitudes have changed about the use of cannabis. Its decriminalization in
2018 shows how the law changes to reflect social values.
47827_ch01_hr_001-026.indd 2 06/02/23 3:59 PM

Introduction was declared a dangerous offender for a string of rapes. He
applied for parole in 2021 for a second time and was again
turned down.
Details of Homolka’s trial were subject to a publication
What people know about crime and criminal justice gener-
ban in efforts to ensure a fair trial for Bernardo; however,
ally comes from media coverage of highly publicized cases.
this ban didn’t prevent the public from learning details of
For example, in 2018, Bruce McArthur was charged with
the case. The Washington Post published a story, which Cana-
numerous counts of first-degree murder in connection with
dians could get access to and read; The Buffalo News printed
disappearances in Toronto’s Gay Village. Targeting predomi-
an article, and Canadians drove across the border to buy the
nantly men of colour, he apparently dismembered his victims
newspaper. Details of the crimes were posted on the internet
and buried them in planters where he worked as a gardener.
faster than news lists and discussion groups could be shut
The media portrayed him as Toronto’s Robert Pickton, in ref-
down. Were the media sensationalizing the case, or were they
erence to the serial killer who targeted women in Vancouver’s
simply responding to the public’s need to know?
Downtown Eastside in the 1980s.
And in a last example, Robert Pickton was found guilty
In 2010, David Russell Williams was relieved as base com-
in December 2007 of six counts of second-degree murder for
mander at Canadian Forces Base (CFB) Trenton and charged
the deaths of women who had disappeared from Vancouver’s
with two counts of first-degree murder, two counts each
Downtown Eastside. In stories of the investigation, the public
of forcible confinement, breaking and entering, and sexual
read about body parts discovered in buckets and freezers on
assault. He was subsequently sentenced to 2 life sentences for
Pickton’s pig farm. He was charged in 20 other deaths, but in
first-degree murder, two 10-year sentences each for sexual
2010, it was announced that the prosecution of those charges
assault and forcible confinement, and 82 one-year sentences
would likely not be pursued. For more examples of serial
for burglary. He will serve a minimum of 25 years before
killers, see Profile of a Crime later in this chapter.
parole eligibility and does not qualify for the so-called faint
Such cases illustrate how criminal acts can be the work
hope clause of the Criminal Code of Canada. A successful sol-
of strangers who prey on people they have never met. They
dier and military commander, Williams was also a decorated
can also involve intimate violence against friends and family
military pilot who had flown Canadian Forces VIP aircraft for
members. Indeed, the latter is more prevalent, but it is the
such dignitaries as Queen Elizabeth II and Prince Philip, the
former we most often hear about in the media and fear the
governor general, and the prime minister. Yet what we saw
and heard of him in the news was the endless parade of pic-
tures he took of himself posing in trophy underwear and the
recitation of details of his sordid crimes. He became a celebrity
criminal in a very superficial way.
Similarly, in 2003, a high-profile trial brought Maurice
“Mom” Boucher, leader of the notorious Nomads chapter of
Hells Angels, into the public spotlight. In a police raid called
Operation Hurricane, assets worth a total of $29 million were
seized, including houses, bank accounts, narcotics, 28 vehi-
cles, and 70 firearms, including a rocket launcher. Members
of Hells Angels faced charges of complicity to commit
murder, gangsterism, and drug trafficking; after a lengthy
trial involving more than 200 witnesses, they all pleaded
guilty. Boucher had encouraged the murder of rival bikers
© Getty Images
as Hells Angels sought to expand their territory. He had also
ordered the murder of two prison guards in an attempt to
destabilize the criminal justice system and increase fear. For
that order, he was convicted of murder and received two life Robert Pickton was found guilty in December 2007 of six counts of
sentences. second-degree murder in the deaths of women who disappeared from
Such cases illustrate why criminal behaviour has long Vancouver’s Downtown Eastside.
both fascinated and repulsed people. In another example,
in the mid-1990s, Karla Homolka and Paul Bernardo were
convicted of murdering 14-year-old Leslie Mahaffy and criminal justice system The stages through which the
15-year-old Kristen French. In a controversial plea bargain, offender passes, including police, courts, and corrections.
Homolka cooperated with the prosecution and testified
against Bernardo. She was sentenced to 12 years in prison intimate violence Crime that occurs in the context of
and was released on parole in 2005 amid great controversy. familiarity, such as spousal abuse, child abuse, or elder
Bernardo received a life sentence for the two murders and abuse.
47827_ch01_hr_001-026.indd 3 06/02/23 3:59 PM

most. What compelled a couple like Bernardo and Homolka increase in policing and stricter penalties for crime rather than
to kidnap, sexually assault, and murder? They came from a increased budgets for social programs. Furthermore, 76 per-
community with tree-shaded parks, nice homes, and sports cent of Toronto residents believed that lenient judges were
fields. They were seen as a young couple with a bright future. allowing gun crime to flourish in Canada’s cities—and it didn’t
Would such outrageous behaviour be more understandable if help that one of the suspects charged in the Boxing Day gun-
the crimes had been committed by teens who were the product fight was out on parole at the time of the incident.2
of bad neighbourhoods and dysfunctional homes? Research Concerns about crime and the need to develop effec-
indicates that habitually aggressive behaviour is often learned tive measures to control criminal behaviour have spurred
in homes where children are victimized and parents serve the development of criminology. This academic discipline
as aggressive role models—the learned violence then persists is devoted to the study of crime patterns and trends and to
into adulthood.1 Could someone who was considered normal the development of valid and reliable information regarding
ever commit such horrible crimes? Is it possible to deter the the causes of crime. For example, researchers have linked
Picktons of our society who prey on vulnerable victims? Do violent behaviour to a number of psychological influences,
the media have any responsibility in reporting such horrific including observational learning from violent TV shows, trau-
crimes? Were MacArthur’s crimes even reported at first in the matic childhood experiences, mental illness, impaired cog-
mainstream media? nitive processes, and a psychopathic personality structure.
Crime stories like these take their toll on the public. When Chapter 6 reviews the most prominent of these explanations
Paul Bernardo was on trial for his crimes, about one third of of violence. Criminology combines various disciplines such
Canadians said they did not feel safe walking alone in their as history, sociology, psychology, biology, and economics in
own neighbourhood at night. This fear was more likely to be what is truly a multidisciplinary study. Criminologists use
expressed by women than by men and was out of proportion scientific methods to study the nature, extent, cause, and con-
to the actual risk of victimization. Many Canadians thought trol of criminal behaviour. Because of the threat of crime and
crime had increased, even though overall rates of victimiza- the social problems it represents, the field of criminology has
tion had remained the same. Canadians were no more likely gained prominence as an academic area of study.
to be victims of assault, theft, vandalism, or break and enter This chapter introduces criminology: its definition, its
than they had been previously. goals, and its history. It also addresses questions like these:
The public’s fear of crime is an important barometer of How do criminologists define crime? How do they conduct
social health and how people feel about their communities. research? What ethical issues face those wanting to conduct
The public’s overestimation of the likelihood of crime in criminological research? And do these issues change in times
their own neighbourhoods, despite contradictory evidence of social upheaval and heightened social anxiety, such as a
from their own experience, points to the influence of other global pandemic? It is sheer speculation at this point, but
factors on people’s knowledge of crime. People do not rely do people become more conservative, more punitive at such
on their own experience when assessing the likelihood of times? Do the feelings of isolation underscore the need for
being a victim of crime; rather, they draw from the media. social control more so than in ordinary times? These are the
For example, even though victimization surveys often show sorts of questions we will need to ask.
only slight variations in personal victimization from year to
year, many people believe that crime has increased in their
neighbourhood. And in times when terrorism and aggres-
sive anti-public actions surface, the level of public anxiety
increases. What Is Criminology?
Similarly, the COVID-19 pandemic heightened feelings
of social isolation. Besides increasing the risk of cybercrime,
the pandemic increased the risk of cyber-fear. Digital crimes Criminology is the scientific approach to the study of criminal
increased, as did domestic crimes. And it is important to note behaviour. In their classic definition, criminologists Edwin
that spending more time online means being exposed more Sutherland and Donald Cressey state,
to extremism, cyberbullying, and stalking. Criminology is the body of knowledge regarding crime
Third-hand knowledge of crime has long-term effects, as a social phenomenon. It includes within its scope
instilling fear, a negative view of the police and the courts, the processes of making laws, of breaking laws, and of
and an attitude favouring harsher punishments for offenders.
The fear of crime skews the broader social agenda, resulting
in people being more in favour of investing resources into
reducing crime than into reducing poverty. In 2005, after the criminology The scientific study of the nature, extent,
Boxing Day shooting on Toronto’s Yonge Street that killed cause, and control of criminal behaviour.
15-year-old Jane Creba, 87 percent of residents surveyed
said they believed that Toronto was becoming more violent, criminologists Academics who bring objectivity and
and 64 percent of residents said they would rather see an method to the study of crime and its consequences.
47827_ch01_hr_001-026.indd 4 06/02/23 3:59 PM

reacting toward the breaking of laws. . . . The objec- always subject to formal sanction. Nude sunbathing is a
tive of criminology is the development of a body of deviant act, and so is joining a nudist colony, but neither is
general and verified principles and of other types of illegal.
knowledge regarding this process of law, crime, and Crime and deviance are often confused, yet not all crimes
treatment.3 are deviant or unusual acts, and not all deviant acts are
illegal or criminal. For example, using recreational drugs,
Sutherland and Cressey’s definition includes the most
such as cannabis, used to be illegal, but was it deviant?
important areas of interest to criminologists: the develop-
Most Canadians surveyed thought that soft drugs should
ment of criminal law and its use for defining crime, the causes
be allowed for individual use and supported decriminaliza-
of law violations, and the methods used to control criminal
tion. In 2010, 40,000 demonstrators rallied at the Ontario
behaviour. Criminologists also use scientific research methods
Legislative Assembly as part of the Million Marijuana March,
to pose research questions, gather data, create theories, and
a worldwide event held annually in more than 200 cities to
test their validity. They use every method of established social
demand the full legalization of cannabis. In 2012, 4 British
science inquiry: analyses of existing records, experimental
Columbia attorneys general called for the legalization of can-
designs, surveys, narrative and historical accounts, and con-
nabis, arguing that the (then) 89-year-old law had failed.
tent analysis.
In 2018, cannabis was legalized in Canada, with various
Criminology is very much a multidisciplinary science.
restrictions.5
While few universities in Canada grant graduate degrees in
Conversely, as with the earlier example of nudity, many
criminology, criminologists are drawn from sociology, criminal
deviant acts are not criminal even though they may be
justice, political science, psychology, history, geography, eco-
shocking. Suppose that a passerby observes a person drowning
nomics, and the natural sciences. Criminology today reflects
and makes no effort to save that victim. Although the general
an integrated approach to the study of criminal behaviour. It
public would probably condemn such lack of action as cal-
combines elements from many other fields to understand how
lous and immoral, citizens are not required by law to be good
law, crime, and justice are linked.
Samaritans. In sum, many criminal acts, but not all, fall within
the concept of deviance. Similarly, some deviant acts, but not
all, are considered crimes.
Criminology and Criminal Justice The relationship between crime and deviance is illus-
In the late 1960s, academic research projects were developed trated in Figure 1.1, “Hagan’s Varieties of Deviance.” This
to better understand criminal justice, that is, how the police, model depicts the relationship between crime and deviance
the courts, and correctional agencies operated.4 These aca- along three dimensions: the evaluation of social harm, the
demic programs are mostly concentrated in five university level of agreement about the norm, and the severity of societal
departments in Canada: Simon Fraser University, the Univer- response. As it shows, the most serious acts of deviance are
sity of Ottawa, the University of Montreal, the University of also the least likely to occur; however, strong agreement exists
Toronto, and St. Thomas University. Students can also pursue over the harmfulness of those acts and the need for a serious
this field in many community college programs and institutes, societal response.6
for example, at the criminal justice studies program at Ontario Two issues are of particular interest to criminologists: (1)
Tech University in Oshawa. How do deviant behaviours become crimes? (2) When should
The terms criminology and criminal justice may seem sim- acts considered crimes be legalized? The first issue involves
ilar, but they are very different. Criminologists explain the the historical development of law. Many acts that are legally
origin, extent, and nature of crime in society, whereas criminal forbidden today were once considered merely unusual or
justice scholars describe and analyze the work of the police, deviant behaviour. For example, the sale and possession of
the courts, and correctional facilities and seek ways to design cannabis was legal in Canada until 1923, when it was prohib-
more effective methods of crime control. ited under federal law.7 Despite being criminalized, however,
Because both fields are crime-related, they do overlap. cannabis still enjoyed widespread popularity: Health Canada
Criminologists must be aware of how the agencies of justice in 2004 estimated that 60 percent of Canadians between
operate, and criminal justice experts design crime prevention 20 and 44 had used cannabis, and the Canadian Addiction
and rehabilitation programs based on their understanding of Survey reported in 2006 that 70 percent of those aged 18 to
the nature of crime. Thus, these two fields not only coexist 24 reported having used that substance.8
but also help each other to grow and develop. If cannabis use is widespread, criminologists will con-
sider whether behaviours that were outlawed in the past have
Criminology and Deviance

Criminology is sometimes confused with the study of deviant deviant behaviour Behaviour that departs from or
behaviour. However, deviance is more widely defined as does not conform to social norms, but is not defined as
behaviour that departs from social norms and that is not a crime by the law.
47827_ch01_hr_001-026.indd 5 06/02/23 3:59 PM

Figure 1.1
H
ig
h
l
fu
Hagan’s Varieties of Deviance
ag
m
re
ar
Sever
em
yh
en
A
r
gr
t
Ve
es
ee
e
im
m
Cr
m
Consensu
en
s
ar
t
ig
lH
ab
h
ou
cia
di
sa
tt
So
l
fu
he
gr
es
rm
ee
of
N
im
or
m
Cr
ha
n
en
m
io
Conflict
Moder
at
t
at
h
alu
ew
C ra
Ev
on p
o
a
ns
So
fu ath
te
tio
si y
via
on
De
Social
les y
rm vel
s
ha lati
s
rs ion
Re
D ive
Mild
Social
Severity of
Societal Response
Source: The Varieties of Deviance, from John Hagan, The Disreputable Pleasures: Crime and Deviance in Canada, 3rd ed. © 1991. Toronto: McGraw-Hill
Ryerson Ltd., 13. Reproduced with permission of John Hagan.
evolved into social norms and, if so, whether those behaviours definition of deviant behaviour is closely associated with our
should either be legalized or have their penalties reduced. concepts of crime. The links between criminology, criminal
This is referred to as decriminalization. On the other hand, justice, and deviance are illustrated in Figure 1.2. These are
some of the drugs considered highly dangerous today were also summarized in Concept Summary 1.1.
once sold openly and considered medically beneficial. For
example, the narcotic drug heroin, which is extremely addic-
tive, was originally named as such in the mistaken belief
that its painkilling properties would prove heroic for medical Figure 1.2
patients. The history of drug and alcohol use is discussed The Relationships among Criminology, Criminal Justice,
further in Chapter 13. and Deviance
So we can see that the line between behaviour that is
Crime control penology
considered deviant and behaviour that is outlawed can be

vague and controversial. For example, when does sexually
expressive material cross the line from being merely sugges-
tive to being pornographic? Can a line be drawn that sepa- Stud
re, y C
y natu con of r
rates sexually oriented materials into two groups, one that is , ime tro t
and exte rig g
im e ag correction l
Study of the o olo
cr
nt in
h and
ina encies f socia
legally acceptable and a second that is considered depraved

in
l
of
l Ju
Crim
or obscene? And, if such a line can be drawn, who gets to

stice
draw it? In a very controversial case, a British Columbia man

was charged with the possession of violent, pornographic sto-
o
Cr
ries involving children. He argued that the law violated his im
ina
w
freedom of expression, and he was acquitted. On appeal, the f la liz
yo at
case eventually went to the Supreme Court of Canada, which log ion
cio St /le
ruled that John Robin Sharpe had been deprived of his right So ud D evia n c e ga
yo rt liza
epa tio
to freedom of expression when police seized his pornography fro f a cts th at d n
m so s
because the stories were for his own personal use. This case is c i al n o r m
described in more detail in the following Key Court Case box,
“R. v. Sharpe (2001).”
In sum, criminologists are concerned with the concept decriminalization Reducing the penalty for a criminal
of deviance and its relationship to criminality. The shifting act and its illegality.
47827_ch01_hr_001-026.indd 6 06/02/23 3:59 PM

his Vancouver home. Among the materials possession, and received a four-month con-
seized were more than 500 photos of 91 ditional sentence.
different boys engaged in sexual activity Sharpe was arrested again in 2003 for
Key Court and a collection of personal stories entitled indecent assault against a man who had
“Kiddie Kink Classics.” Sharpe was charged come forward after police issued a public
Case with two counts each of possessing and appeal to those pictured in the seized pho-
distributing child pornography, but he was tographs. In July 2004, at the age of 71,
acquitted by the British Columbia Supreme Sharpe was handed a prison sentence of 2
Court in 1999. years less a day. Controversy regarding the
After the province’s Court of Appeal Supreme Court ruling prompted the Lib-
upheld the ruling, Sharpe’s case was heard eral government to introduce legislation in
R. v. Sharpe (2001) before the Supreme Court of Canada, which

had to decide whether child pornography
December 2002 that would tighten the defi-
nition of artistic merit by introducing a stan-
laws violated the freedom of expression guar- dard of “contribution to the public good.”
Parliament took less than six weeks to enact antee in section 2 of the Charter of Rights However, the bill died on the ledger when
child pornography legislation in 1993, and and Freedoms (described in Chapter 2). In the 2004 election was called.
section 163.1 of the Criminal Code of Canada 2001, the Court attempted to strike a bal-
has been a source of relentless debate ever ance between the need to protect children Critical Thinking
since. Though not the first case of its kind, from sexual exploitation and the need to
Does artistic merit override the need to pro-
Sharpe is noteworthy because it challenged protect fundamental rights and freedoms.
tect children from exploitation? And is this
the federal law against producing, dealing, Although section 163.1 of the Criminal Code
case in any way about homosexuality, or
and possessing child pornography. was declared constitutional, exceptions were
would heterosexual images be treated in the
John Robin Sharpe was arrested at the outlined in certain cases: for materials that
same way?
Canada–US border in 1995 after customs have artistic, educational, or scientific merit
officers found in his possession nude photos and for purely personal materials that do not
Sources: Various media sources, 2002–2004;
of underage boys and sexually explicit involve children in their production. Sharpe’s
Robert Sharpe, Katherine Swinton, and Kent
written material on several computer disks. case was retried, and he was found not guilty Roach, The Charter of Rights and Freedoms,
Police later executed a search warrant at in relation to distribution but convicted on 2nd ed. (Toronto: Irwin Law, 2002).
Concept Summary 1.1

Criminology, Criminal Justice, and Deviance
Criminology explains the origin, extent, and nature of crime in Deviance refers to the study of behaviour that departs from social
society. norms, such as joining a nudist colony. Not all crimes are deviant
or unusual acts, and not all deviant acts are illegal.
Criminal justice is the study of agencies of social control that
handle criminal offenders, specifically police departments, the Overlapping areas of concern: Under what circumstances do
courts, and correctional facilities. Scholars seek more effective deviant behaviours become crimes? For example, when does
methods of crime control and offender rehabilitation. sexual material cross the line from merely suggestive to obscene
and therefore illegal? Or, if an illegal act becomes a norm, should
Overlapping areas of concern: Criminal justice experts cannot begin society re-evaluate its criminal status? For example, debate
to design effective programs of crime prevention or rehabilitation continues regarding the legalization and/or decriminalization of
without understanding the nature and causes of crime. To that abortion, recreational drug use, possession of handguns, and
end, they test the effectiveness of crime control and prevention assisted suicide.
programs.
A Brief History of Criminology they were restricted to defining crime and setting punish-
ments. What motivated people to violate the law remained a
matter of conjecture.
The scientific study of crime and criminality is a relatively During the Middle Ages, people who violated social norms
recent development. Although written criminal codes have or religious practices were believed to be witches or pos-
existed for thousands of years, and oral systems even longer, sessed by demons. The prescribed method for dealing with
47827_ch01_hr_001-026.indd 7 06/02/23 3:59 PM

given circumstances, proportionate to the crimes, and dictated
by the laws.”9
This is referred to as classical criminology and is charac-
terized by several basic ideas:
1. People will freely choose criminal or lawful solutions
to meet needs or settle problems.
2. Criminal choices may be more attractive because they
use less work for greater payoff.
3. People’s choice of criminal solutions may be controlled
by their fear of punishment.
Bettmann/Getty Images
4. If punishments are severe, certain, and swift, they will
control criminal behaviour.
The classical perspective influenced judicial philosophy
for much of the late 18th, 19th, and well into the 20th cen-
turies. Prisons began to be used as a private form of pun-
An accused witch is put through a judgement trial, where she is dunked
in water to prove whether she is guilty of practising witchcraft.
ishment, and sentences were geared proportionately to the
seriousness of the crime. Capital punishment was still widely
used but began to be employed for only the most serious
crimes. The byword was “Let the punishment fit the crime.”
the possessed was to burn them at the stake, a practice that Then, during the 19th century, a new vision of the world
survived into the 17th century. For example, between 1575 challenged the exclusive validity of classical theory with an
and 1590, the French Inquisition ordered 900 sorcerers and innovative way of looking at the causes of crime.
witches burned to death, and the Bishop of the German city
of Trier ordered the deaths of 6,500 people. An estimated
100,000 people were prosecuted throughout Europe for 19th-Century Positivism
witchcraft during the 16th and 17th centuries. Witchcraft
is no longer a crime in Canada, although pretending to be The classical position had held sway as a guide to crime, law,
a witch is considered fraud. The system of laws we have and justice for almost 100 years. Then, during the late 19th
in Canada is derived from English common law, except in century, a new movement began that would challenge its
Quebec, which inherited the Napoleonic Code from France. dominance. A scientific method known as positivism began
Chapter 2 traces the history of the law in some detail. to take hold in Europe, inspired by new discoveries in biology,
astronomy, and chemistry. If the scientific method could be
applied to the study of nature, why not use it to study human
behaviour? Auguste Comte (1798–1857) believed that soci-
Classical Criminology eties pass through stages that can be grouped on the basis of
By the mid-18th century, social philosophers had begun to how people understand the world. People in primitive soci-
call for lawmakers to rethink the prevailing concepts of law eties perceive inanimate objects as having life (for example,
and justice. They argued for a more rational approach to the Sun is a god); in later social stages, people embrace a
punishment, stressing that the relationship between crimes rational, scientific view of the world.
and their punishment should be balanced and fair. This view Positivism has two main elements. The first is the belief
was based on the philosophy called utilitarianism, which that human behaviour is a function of external forces that are
emphasized that behaviour is purposeful and not motivated beyond individual control. Some of these forces are social,
by supernatural forces. Rather than cruel public executions such as the effects of wealth and class, while others are
designed to frighten people into obedience or to punish those
whom the law failed to deter, reformers called for a more
moderate and just approach to penal sanctions. The most
famous of these reformers was Cesare Beccaria (1738–1794), utilitarianism A view that punishment should be
an Italian aristocrat whose writings described both a motive balanced and fair, and that crime is a rational choice.
for committing crime and methods for its control. classical criminology The perspective that people
Beccaria believed that people want to achieve pleasure freely choose crime and that it can be reduced through
and avoid pain. If crime provides pleasure to the criminal, the threat of criminal sanctions.
pain must be used to prevent crime. Beccaria said that “in
order for punishment not to be, in every instance, an act of positivism A branch of social science that sees
violence of one or many against a private citizen, it must be behaviour as a product of social, biological, psychological,
essentially public, prompt, necessary, the least possible in the and economic forces.
47827_ch01_hr_001-026.indd 8 06/02/23 3:59 PM

political and historical, such as war and famine. Other forces
are more personal and psychological, such as an individual’s
brain structure and his or her biological make-up or mental
ability. All of these forces operate to influence human behav-
iour (and will be discussed in later chapters).
The second aspect of positivism is its use of the scien-
tific method to solve problems. Positivists contend that an
abstract concept, such as intelligence, exists because it can be
measured by an IQ test. However, they challenge concepts,
such as ghosts, that cannot be verified by the scientific method.
Through his work, Charles Darwin (1809–1882) encouraged
the view that all human activity should be verified by scientific
principles.
Positivist Criminology
© The Image Works Archives/ TopFoto

By the mid-19th century, scientific methods were being
applied to understanding criminality, the earliest being bio-
logical. For example, physiognomists like J.K. Lavater (1741–
1801) studied the facial features of criminals to determine
whether the shape of ears, noses, and eyes, and the distances
between them, were associated with antisocial behaviour.
Phrenologists like Franz Joseph Gall (1758–1828) and Johann
Figure 1.3
Kaspar Spurzheim (1776–1832) studied the shape of the skull
and bumps on the head to determine whether these physical Early Positivists Believed That the Shape of the Skull
attributes were linked to criminal behaviour. Phrenologists Was a Key Determinant of Behaviour
believed that external cranial characteristics dictate which These drawings from the 19th century illustrate what were
areas of the brain control physical activity. Their primitive considered to be typical criminally shaped heads.
techniques and quasi-scientific methods have since been dis-
credited; even so, these efforts were an early attempt to apply
a scientific approach to the study of crime (see Figure 1.3). and behaviour. Lombroso (1835–1909) was a physician who
By the early 19th century, abnormality in the human mind served much of his career in the Italian army. That experience
was being linked to criminal behaviour patterns. Philippe gave him ample opportunity to study the physical charac-
Pinel (1745–1826), a founder of French psychiatry, claimed teristics of soldiers executed for criminal offences. Later, he
that some people behave abnormally even without being men- studied inmates at institutes for the criminally insane.
tally ill. He coined the phrase manie sans délire (mania without Lombrosian theory can be outlined in a few simple state-
delusion) to denote what eventually was referred to as a psy- ments. First, Lombroso believed that offenders are born
chopathic personality. In 1812, an American, Benjamin Rush criminals who engage in repeated assault- or theft-related
(1745–1813), described patients with an “innate preternatural activities because they have inherited criminal traits that
moral depravity.”10 Another early criminological pioneer, Eng- impel them into a life of crime. This view helped spur interest
lish physician Henry Maudsley (1835–1918), believed that in a criminal anthropology.12 Second, Lombroso held that
insanity and criminal behaviour were strongly linked: “Crime born criminals suffer from atavistic anomalies (or traits)—
is a sort of outlet in which their unsound tendencies are dis- physically: that is, they are throwbacks to more primitive
charged; they would go mad if they were not criminals, and times when people were savages. Thus, criminals supposedly
they do not go mad because they are criminals.”11 These early have the enormous jaws and strong canine teeth common to
research efforts shifted attention to brain functioning and per-
sonality as the keys to criminal behaviour, an approach loosely
called trait theory (see Chapter 6).
criminal anthropology Early efforts to discover a
biological basis to crime through physical measurements,
Cesare Lombroso and the Criminal Man usually associated with Cesare Lombroso.
In Italy, Cesare Lombroso studied the cadavers of executed atavistic anomalies (or traits) The physical
criminals to scientifically determine whether law violators characteristics of “born criminals” that indicate they are
were physically different from people of conventional values throwbacks to primitive people.
47827_ch01_hr_001-026.indd 9 06/02/23 3:59 PM

carnivores who devour raw flesh. In addition, Lombroso com- significantly correlated with crime rates, and that the same
pared criminals’ behaviour with that of people with mental law-like mechanical regularity observed in nature also existed
illnesses and those who had certain forms of epilepsy. He in the world of social facts.14 As a pioneer of sociological
concluded that criminogenic traits could be acquired through criminology, he identified many of the relationships between
indirect heredity: from a “degenerate family with frequent crime and social phenomena that are a basis for criminology
cases of insanity, deafness, syphilis, epilepsy, and alcoholism today.
among its members.” For Lombroso, this indirect heredity was
Emile Durkheim Emile Durkheim (1858–1917) was one
the primary cause of crime. Direct heredity—being related to a
of the founders of sociology and a significant contributor to
family of criminals—was the second primary cause of crime.
criminology.15
Lombroso’s version of criminal anthropology was very
According to Durkheim, crime is normal because it has
popular in North America and Europe, and he attracted a
existed in every age, in both poverty and prosperity. It is
circle of followers who expanded on his vision of biolog-
virtually impossible to imagine a society in which criminal
ical determinism. By the turn of the 20th century, authors
behaviour is totally absent and people act exactly alike. The
were discussing the science of penology and the science of
inevitability of crime is linked to the human differences within
criminology.
society. Because people are so different from one another and
The theories of criminology that have their roots in Lom-
use such a variety of methods and forms of behaviour to meet
broso’s biological determinism are discussed in Chapter 6.
their needs, some will resort to criminality. If crimes were
Some criminologists believe that crime has both a biological
eliminated, human weaknesses and petty vices would be ele-
basis and an environmental one and use the term biosocial
vated to the status of crimes. As long as human differences
theory to reflect the link among physical and mental traits, the
exist, crime is inevitable, serving as a symbolic reminder of
social environment, and behaviour.
moral boundaries.
Durkheim also argued that crime could be useful, and
even healthy, for a society. The existence of crime implies that
The Development of Sociological a way is open for social change and that the social structure
Criminology is not rigid or inflexible. Put another way, if crime did not
exist, everyone would behave the same way and would agree
At the same time that biological views were being included totally on what is right and wrong. Such universal conformity
in criminology, other positivists were developing the field would stifle creativity and independent thinking. Durkheim
of sociology to scientifically study the major social changes offered the example of the Greek philosopher Socrates, who,
taking place in 19th-century society. simply because he questioned the social order, was consid-
Sociology was an ideal perspective from which to study ered a criminal and sentenced to death for corrupting the
society. After thousands of years of stability, the world was morals of youth. When given the chance to flee to save his life,
undergoing significant social changes. The population, esti- Socrates refused, saying that doing so would negate his ideal
mated at 600 million in 1700, had risen to 900 million by of standing up for what he believed. Durkheim further argued
1800. People were flocking to cities in ever-increasing num- that crime is beneficial because it calls attention to social ills.
bers. For example, Manchester, England, had 12,000 inhab- A rising crime rate can signal the need for social change and
itants in 1760 and 400,000 in 1850. The development of promote a variety of programs designed to relieve the human
machinery such as power looms had doomed cottage indus- suffering that may have caused crime in the first place.
tries and given rise to a factory system in which large numbers In The Division of Labor in Society, Durkheim described the
of people toiled for extremely low wages. The spread of agri- consequences of the shift from a small, rural society, which he
cultural machines increased the food supply while reducing labelled mechanical, to the more modern organic society, char-
the need for a large rural workforce; the excess labourers fur- acterized by a large urban population, division of labour, and
ther swelled the cities’ populations. (In Chapter 2, we will see personal isolation. From this shift flowed anomie, a powerful
how the evolution of certain crimes, such as breaking frames, sociological concept that helps describe the chaos and dis-
was caused by developments such as industrial capitalism.) array accompanying the loss of traditional values in modern
The foundations of sociological criminology can be traced society. Durkheim’s research on suicide indicated that anomic
to the works of Adolphe Quetelet (1796–1874) and Emile societies have high suicide rates; by implication, anomie may
Durkheim (1858–1917). cause other forms of deviance to develop.
Adolphe Quetelet Quetelet was a Belgian mathematician
who began (along with André-Michel Guerry, from France)
what is known as the cartographic school of criminology.13
Quetelet was one of the first social scientists to use objective anomie Rapidly shifting moral values produce
mathematical techniques to investigate the influence of social normlessness, where the individual has little guide to
factors, such as season, climate, sex, and age, on crime. what is socially acceptable, usually associated with Robert
Quetelet’s most important finding was that social forces were Merton.
47827_ch01_hr_001-026.indd 10 06/02/23 3:59 PM

The Chicago School and the McGill School crime. However, these were not the only views of how social
institutions influence human behaviour. In Europe, the writ-
The primacy of sociological positivism was secured by ings of another social thinker, Karl Marx (1818–1883), had
research begun in the early 20th century by Robert Ezra Park pushed the understanding of social interaction in another
(1864–1944), Ernest W. Burgess (1886–1966), Louis Wirth direction and sowed the seeds for a new approach in
(1897–1952), Frederic Thrasher (1892–1962), and their col- criminology.18
leagues. Known as the Chicago School, these sociologists pio-
neered research on the social ecology of the city and inspired a
generation of scholars to conclude that social forces operating
in urban areas create criminal interactions, thereby making Conflict Criminology
some neighbourhoods natural areas for crime.16 These urban Oppressive labour conditions prevalent during the rise of
neighbourhoods maintain such a high level of poverty that industrial capitalism convinced Marx that the character
critical social institutions, such as the school and the family, of society is determined by the way people develop and
break down. The resulting social disorganization reduces the produce material goods. The most important relationship
ability of social institutions to control behaviour, and the out- is between the owners of the means of production—the
come is a high crime rate. These concepts form a “structural” capitalist bourgeoisie—and the people who do the actual
approach to crime, discussed in Chapter 8. labour—the proletariat. The economic system determines
The Chicago School sociologists and their contempo- all facets of people’s lives as they exist through the means of
raries focused on the functions of social institutions and how production. Marx felt that the exploitation of the working
their breakdown influences behaviour. They pioneered the class led to class conflict, and thus that crime was a product
ecological study of crime, which involves looking at crime of economic inequality.
in the context of where a person lives. Important works in Although Marx did not develop a theory of crime and jus-
the Chicago School tradition were The Gang (1927) by Fred- tice, his writings were applied to legal studies by other social
eric Thrasher, The Ghetto (1928) by Louis Wirth, Gold Coast thinkers, including Ralf Dahrendorf, George Vold, and Willem
and Slum (1929) by Harvey Zorbaugh, and The Hobo (1923) Bonger.19 Though these writings laid the foundation for a
by Nels Anderson, at one time a professor in the sociology Marxist criminology, decades passed before Marxist theory
department at the University of New Brunswick. had an important impact on the discipline. The Vietnam War,
The ecological approach of the Chicago School was the development of an anti-establishment counterculture
applied to the study of crime in cities such as Chicago, New movement in the 1960s, the civil rights movement, and the
York, and Montreal. In particular, the Chicago School became women’s movement were all important events challenging the
known for the concentric zone model of deviance, in which idea of social consensus in traditional models. Young sociolo-
crime is found to be higher in the more socially disorganized gists who became interested in applying Marxist principles to
areas of a city. For a discussion of the application of this the study of crime began to analyze the social conditions that
approach to Montreal, see Chapter 7. were felt to promote class conflict and crime. What emerged
Less well known is the work of Carl Dawson and his was the conflict-oriented radical criminology of the 1970s
colleagues at McGill University. Dawson, a native of Prince that indicted the economic system for producing the condi-
Edward Island and a graduate of Acadia University, studied tions that support a high crime rate. The radical tradition,
at the University of Chicago before he went to Montreal to which has played a significant role in criminology ever since,
head McGill’s social work and sociology departments. He and is developed more fully in Chapter 9.
his students studied the processes of industrial development,
transportation, poverty, ethnicity and immigration, housing,
juvenile delinquency, and welfare. This work constituted a
significant contribution to early sociology and criminology
Criminology Today
in Canada.17 The various schools of criminology developed over 200 years.
During the 1930s, in a shift from social structure to Although they have undergone great change and innovation,
socialization, social psychologists began to argue that the each continues to have an impact on the field. For example,
individual’s relationship to education, family life, and peer
relations is the key to understanding human behaviour. In
any social milieu, children who grow up in a home wracked
by conflict, attend an inadequate school, and associate with Chicago School Early 20th-century sociological
deviant peers become exposed to pro-crime forces. People research on the social ecology of the city and urban crime.
learn criminal attitudes from older, more experienced law bourgeoisie In Marxist theory, the owners of the means
violators, and crime occurs when families fail to control ado- of production; the capitalist ruling class.
lescent misbehaviour.
By the mid-20th century, most criminologists had proletariat In Marxist theory, the working class, who
embraced either the ecological or the socialization view of provide the labour in capitalism.
47827_ch01_hr_001-026.indd 11 06/02/23 3:59 PM

classical theory has evolved into rational choice and deter- The writings of Marx and his followers continue to be
rence theories, discussed in Chapter 5. Choice theorists argue influential. Today, conflict criminologists still see social and
that criminals are rational and use available information to political conflict as the root cause of crime. In their view, the
decide whether crime is worthwhile, while deterrence theory inherently unfair economic structure of advanced capitalist
says this choice is structured by the fear of punishment. countries is the engine that drives high crime rates. This effect
Criminal anthropology has also evolved considerably, as occurs in two ways: first, the lack of resources causes the poor
seen in Chapter 6. Although criminologists no longer believe to commit crimes, such as prostitution; and second, the pow-
that a single trait or inherited characteristic can explain crime, erful are able to define the actions of the poor as crime. This
some believe that biological and mental traits interact with view is discussed in more detail in Chapter 9.
environmental factors to influence all human behaviour, Criminology, then, has had a rich history that still exerts
including criminality. Biological and psychological theorists an important influence. These major perspectives are sum-
study the association between criminal behaviour and such marized in Concept Summary 1.2.
traits as diet, hormonal makeup, personality, and intelligence.
Sociological theories, tracing back to Quetelet and Dur-
kheim, maintain that individuals’ lifestyles and living condi-
tions directly control their criminal behaviour. Those at the
bottom of the social structure cannot achieve success and, as What Criminologists Do: The
a result, experience failure and frustration. This theory today
is called the structural perspective, which is described in detail Criminological Enterprise
in Chapter 7.
Some sociologists who have added a social psycholog-
ical dimension to their views of crime causation find that Regardless of their theory background, Wolfgang and Ferracuti
individuals’ learning experiences and socialization directly write that “a criminologist is one whose professional training,
control their behaviour. Children learn by modelling their occupational role, and pecuniary reward are primarily con-
behaviour after others; criminal offenders are people whose centrated on a scientific approach to, and study and analysis
life experiences have shattered their social bonds to society. of, the phenomenon of crime and criminal behaviour.”20
This view, the social process perspective, is described in detail Within the broader arena of criminology are several sub-
in Chapter 8. areas that, taken together, make up the criminological enter-
prise. Criminologists may specialize in a subarea in the same
way that psychologists might specialize in areas such as child
development, perception, personality, psychopathology, or
Concept Summary 1.2 sexuality. Some of the more important criminological subareas
are described in this section and are summarized in Concept
The Major Perspectives of Criminology Summary 1.3.
The focus is on individual factors (biological, psychological, and
choice theories), social factors (structural and process theories),
political and economic factors (conflict), and multiple (integrated)
factors.
Criminal Statistics
Classical/Choice Situational forces: Crime is a function of
The subarea of criminal statistics involves measuring the
Perspective free will and personal choice. Punishment is amount and trends of criminal activity. How much crime
a deterrent to crime. occurs annually? Who commits it? When and where does
Biological/ Internal forces: Crime is a function of it occur? Which crimes are the most serious? Criminologists
Psychological chemical, neurological, genetic, personality, interested in criminal statistics try to create valid and reliable
Perspective intelligence, or mental traits. measurements of criminal behaviour. For example, they study
Structural Ecological forces: Crime rates are a the records of police and court agencies to get a general sense
Perspective function of neighbourhood conditions, of what crimes occur and how they are dealt with. They also
cultural forces, and norm conflict. develop survey instruments to determine the percentage of
Process Perspective Socialization forces: Crime is a function of people who commit crimes and those who escape detection
upbringing, learning, and control. Peers,
by the justice system. They also develop techniques to iden-
parents, and teachers influence behaviour.
tify the victims of crime and what percentage report crime to
Conflict Perspective Economic and political forces: Crime is a
police. The study of criminal statistics is a crucial aspect of
function of competition for limited resources
and power. Class conflict produces crime.
Integrated Multiple forces: Biological, social-
Perspective psychological, economic, and political
forces may combine to produce crime. criminological enterprise The totality of criminology,
which includes many fields, or subareas, of study.
47827_ch01_hr_001-026.indd 12 06/02/23 3:59 PM

take in aiding or curbing the public’s access to medical assis-
Concept Summary 1.3 tance in dying (MAID). Should society curb actions that some
people consider immoral, but by which no one is actually
The Criminological Enterprise harmed? Should there be standards, like imminent death,
or soundness of mind? Should it be regulated like any other
These subareas constitute the field or discipline of criminology.
medical procedure, or is this different? When most people are
Subarea Primary Focus surveyed, of course, they think that MAID should be legal.
Criminal Statistics Gathering valid crime data In this way, the law must be flexible in responding to
Devising new research methods new versions of traditional acts. For example, Sue Rodriguez,
Measuring crime patterns and who suffered from ALS (amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, or Lou
trends Gehrig’s disease), died by suicide in 1994 after losing her
Sociology of Law Determining the origin of law bid before the Supreme Court for legally assisted suicide. In
Measuring the forces that can looking at how the law should respond to these controversial
change laws and society issues, a commission called Dying with Dignity began hear-
Theory Construction Predicting individual behaviour ings in 2010.
Understanding the cause of crime Although some believe that euthanasia is socially harmful,
rates and trends others are not quite so certain, especially now that medically
Criminal Behaviour Systems Determining the nature and cause assistance in dying is seen as a compassionate act. Many
of specific crime patterns Canadians felt great sympathy for Sue Rodriguez’s plight,
Studying violence; theft; organized, and before international media coverage of the issue, no law
white-collar, and public-order existed that banned second-party help in suicides. In response
crimes
to the actions of Jack Kevorkian, who provided assistance in
Penology Studying the correction and control dying, the state of Michigan passed legislation making it a
of criminal behaviour
felony to help anyone die by suicide. Is assisted suicide the
Victimology Studying the nature and cause of product of care and concern for human suffering, or is it a cal-
victimization
lous criminal act? In general, should a law be passed against
Critical Thinking something that a majority of the general public approves
Given what we know about crime statistics, why do the media of—a condition that makes the law virtually unenforceable?
seem to focus so much on violent crimes that are less likely to Conversely, should criminal law be restricted to only those
happen? acts that are unpopular with the general public?
Another example of the criminal law changing and how it
is worthy of study happened in 2010. Ontario Court Justice
the criminological enterprise because conducting research and Susan Himmel had found that the anti-prostitution provisions
creating criminological theories is dependent on reliable infor- of the Criminal Code violated sex workers’ constitutional right
mation. For an example of how statistics are used to measure to security of the person by denying them an opportunity
patterns, see the Focus on Research box on crime trends later to pursue options for conducting their business more safely.
in this chapter. The criminal law at the time made illegal the operation of
brothels, living on the avails, and communicating for the pur-
poses of prostitution. While prostitution (selling sex) is legal in
Canada, those provisions effectively force sex trade workers
Sociology of Law to conduct hasty and furtive conversations on the street with
Another subarea of criminology is concerned with the role prospective customers. Because this does not give them time
that social forces play in shaping criminal law and, conversely, to assess whether a “date” could be a problem, it makes the
the role of criminal law in shaping society. Criminologists work more dangerous.
study the history of the law to understand how criminal acts And, yes, the trading of money for sex and sex for money
evolved into their present form; they might join in the debate is legal in Canada. It just couldn’t occur in the same place, be
when a new law is proposed. In this way, criminologists par- talked about in public, or benefit anybody else. That meant
ticipate in updating the content of criminal law, which must sex trade workers couldn’t hire security guards, or secre-
be flexible and respond to changing times and conditions. taries to make appointments. And being an LGBTQ sex trade
For example, theft from automated bank machines, identity worker brought even other complications.
theft, and illegally tapping into satellite TV signals are acts The provisions against the operation of brothels and living
that obviously did not exist when the criminal law on theft on the avails of prostitution were passed in the early 20th cen-
was originally formed. tury. They did not stop the practice of prostitution, of course,
Those are technical issues, but we also get involved in the but they effectively decentralized it, forcing it out into the bars
discussion of moral issues, for example, medically assisted and hotels. When those places were subject to enforcement,
dying. Criminologists would ask what role the law should the trade was further decentralized onto the street. These
47827_ch01_hr_001-026.indd 13 06/02/23 3:59 PM

waves of enforcement have not been effective in eradicating analysis of the nature of homicide and the relationship
prostitution; instead, they have worked to make the problem between victim and offender.21 Another study, Edwin Suther-
more visible and more dangerous. It is a good example of the land’s analysis of business-related offences, helped coin a
law making the problem worse. new phrase—white-collar crime—to describe economic
In the 1970s, the anti-solicitation provision of the C
riminal crime activities.22
Code was challenged and struck down on the basis that it was The study of criminal behaviour also involves research
too vague. The federal government then created a law against on the links between different types of crime and criminals,
communication in 1985, which was upheld by the Supreme creating typologies that focus on the criminal, such as pro-
Court of Canada in 1990. fessional criminals, psychotic criminals, occasional criminals,
So, let’s get this straight: communication for the purpose and so on. Other typologies focus on the crimes, clustering
of buying a hot dog on the street is okay, but communica- them into such categories as property crimes, sex crimes, and
tion for the purposes of prostitution, even though the act is so on.
legal, is not. Yet the need to do so forced sex trade workers to
make deals that put them at risk—and that allowed Robert
Pickton to kill women. It seems that Judge Himmel was right Penology
on track in striking down the three problematic sections of the
Criminal Code. More on this in later chapters. Penology is the study of the correction and control of criminal
offenders. Penologists formulate new strategies for crime con-
trol and then help implement these policies. Some criminolo-
gists view penology as involving rehabilitation and treatment,
Theory Construction providing behaviour alternatives for those convicted of law
Another area of criminological work is theory construction. violations. This view portrays the criminal as someone whom
For example, criminologists have long been intrigued by the society has failed; someone under social, psychological, or
reasons why people engage in criminal acts. Why, when they economic stress; and someone who can be helped if society
know their actions can bring harsh punishment and social dis- is willing to pay the price. Others argue that crime can be
approval, do they steal, rape, and murder? Does crime have a prevented only through a strict policy of social control. They
social or an individual basis? Is it a psychological, a biological, advocate such strict measures as capital punishment, manda-
a social, a political, or an economic phenomenon? Some crim- tory prison sentences, and selective incapacitation for repeat
inologists have a psychological orientation and view crime as a offenders.
function of personality, development, social learning, or cog-
nition. Others investigate the biology of antisocial behaviour
and study the biochemical, genetic, and neurological linkages Victimology
to crime. Sociologists look at the social forces producing crim-
inal behaviour, including neighbourhood conditions, poverty, The last subarea of criminology considered here is victimology.
socialization, and group interaction. This area of research is relatively recent and is presented in
Understanding the “true” cause of crime remains a diffi- two classic texts on the topic, one by Hans von Hentig and the
cult challenge. Criminologists are still unsure why, given sim- other by Stephen Schafer. It was they who first identified the
ilar conditions, one person elects criminal solutions to their critical role of the victim in the criminal process, suggesting
problems while another conforms to accepted social rules of that victim behaviour is often a key determinant of crime, that
behaviour. Further, understanding crime rates and trends has a victim’s actions may precipitate or provide an opportunity
proved difficult: Why do rates rise and fall? Why are crime for crime, and that the study of crime is not complete unless
rates higher in some areas or regions than in others? Why the victim’s role is considered.23 In looking at how individuals’
do some groups seem more crime-prone than others? Is it lifestyles and behaviour may actually increase the risk that
possible that crime is relative to societal standards and thus they will become crime victims, we are not blaming them, but
a social construction created by the media, politicians, and rather examining how living in a high-crime neighbourhood
social alarmists? These are the types of questions theoreti- increases risk, as does associating with dangerous peers and
cians ask. companions.
Of particular interest in victimology are measuring the
nature and extent of criminal behaviour with victim sur-
veys, calculating the actual costs of crime to victims, creating
Criminal Behaviour Systems
Similar to theory construction, this subarea of criminology
involves research on specific criminal types and patterns,
such as violent crime, theft crime, public-order crime, and white-collar crime Crime committed by those with
organized crime. For example, Marvin Wolfgang’s famous power, such as embezzlement, false advertising, or stock
study Patterns in Criminal Homicide is considered a landmark market manipulation.
47827_ch01_hr_001-026.indd 14 06/02/23 3:59 PM

courtrooms, for example. One route by which victim’s rights
have come to the centre of public attention recently has been
the international Black Lives Matter movement, which focuses
on the treatment of minorities by the police and the justice
Christopher Katsarov/Canadian Press Images

system. In Canada, the Idle No More movement and, more
recently, the Indigenous Every Child Matters movement have
gone in a different direction, based on discoveries of abuse in
residential schools and the impact those abuses have had on
survivors and their families. For a discussion of victimization
risk, see Chapter 4.
How Do Criminologists
People participate in the Every Child Matters Walk on Canada Day,
2021, in downtown Toronto. View Crime?
probabilities of victimization risk, studying victim precipita- As you will see in this text, criminology is multidisciplinary,
tion of crime, and designing services for victims. Victimology drawing on biology, psychology, sociology, and other fields.
has taken on greater importance, as more criminologists In addition, professional criminologists align themselves
focus their attention on the victim’s role in the criminal event. with underlying philosophical perspectives: the consensus,
Another area that has become more prominent is the victim’s conflict, and interactionist perspectives. Each perspec-
rights movement and how victims’ needs can be addressed—in tive maintains its own view of what constitutes criminal
federal Indian Act, to be operated by the responsible for the residential school system.
Catholic Church in service of colonial prac- Most notably, the former Ryerson University
Crime, tices of the Canadian state. Those practices has recently been renamed Toronto Met-
Conflict, included forced relocation to reserves, which ropolitan University—Egerton Ryerson, for
were often sited on poor land, the banning of whom it was named, had been involved in
and cultural practices such as the potlatch, the the development of the residential school
Disorder replacement of traditional chief systems with system. Forensic pathologists today are able
governance organized by the federal Depart- to reveal tuberculosis, abuse, and malnutri-
ment of Indian Affairs, and experiments on tion on the basis of even skeletal remains.
the starvation of children. Rumours had cir- The TRC has estimated that at least 4,000
culated for decades about abuses at these bodies were buried in more than 400 burial
Unmarked Burials schools, but the lack of records made it

difficult to identify who the victims were, or
sites across the country. (For more informa-
tion, see major media sources such as the
Found at Former how many. The lack of school records had

been noted at the Truth and Reconciliation
Vancouver Sun, the CBC, and the National
Post.)
Residential School Commission (TRC) hearings. The news that
unmarked burials of missing children had Critical Thinking
been discovered at the site fuelled fresh pro- How can personal narratives be used to under-
On May 31, 2021, the Tk’emlúps te Sec- tests against political leaders and religious stand the experience of institutional abuse?
wépemc First Nation announced that organizations that had been involved in what
ground-penetrating radar had detected 215 has been described as “cultural genocide.” Sources: Courtney Dickson and Bridgette
unmarked burials on the site of the former Watson, “Remains of 215 children found buried
New pressure to take down statues, such as
at former B.C. residential school, First Nation
Kamloops Indian Residential School in British ones of John A. Macdonald, are now part of says,” CBC News, May 27, 2021, https://
Columbia. Some of the children believed to the decolonization movement. As well, there www.cbc.ca/news/canada/british-columbia/
be buried on the site were thought to be as has been a move to rename streets, build- tk-eml%C3%BAps-te-secw%C3%A9pemc-215-
young as 3. Residential schools were estab- children-former-kamloops-indian-residential-
ings, and institutions previously named in school-1.6043778 (accessed August 18,
lished in 1890 under the authority of the honour of those who had been involved in or 2022).
47827_ch01_hr_001-026.indd 15 06/02/23 3:59 PM

behaviour and what causes people to engage in criminality.
When biologists, psychologists, sociologists, historians, and
economists bring these different perspectives to research, it
affects how they define crime and arrive at its causes. This
section discusses the three most common concepts of crime
used by criminologists.
Michal Urbanek/Shutterstock.com
The Consensus View of Crime
This view holds that crimes are repugnant to all members
of society. Criminal law, with its definitions of crimes and
their punishments, reflects the values, beliefs, and opinions
everyone holds. The term consensus implies that general agree-
ment exists among a majority of people as to what behaviours
People attend a Black Lives Matter demonstration in Vancouver, BC.
should be outlawed and viewed as crimes. An example of a The Black Lives Matter movement arose over the shooting of black
consensus crime is homicide, albeit with some exceptions: people by police. First coming to public attention in Ferguson, Missouri,
some US states still have the death penalty, and medically in the United States, the movement has spread internationally.
assisted suicide is allowed in some jurisdictions.
A concise consensus definition of crime, as in Edwin
Sutherland and Donald Cressey, is often go to prison for minor law violations, the wealthy are
usually given lenient sentences for even the most serious
Criminal behavior is behavior in violation of the crim-
breaches of law.
inal law. . . . [It] is not a crime unless it is prohibited
In the conflict view, the definition of crime is controlled
by the criminal law [which] is defined conventionally
by wealth, power, and position, and not by moral consensus
as a body of specific rules regarding human conduct
or fear of social disruption.25 Crime is a political concept
which have been promulgated by political authority,
designed to protect the power and position of the upper
which apply uniformly to all members of the classes
classes at the expense of the poor. A conflict theorist would
to which the rules refer, and which are enforced by
see the following as crimes: violations of human rights,
punishment administered by the state.24
unsafe working conditions, inadequate childcare, inadequate
This approach implies that the definition of crime is opportunities for employment and education, substandard
applied uniformly to everyone in society—that an ideal legal housing, pollution of the environment, price-fixing, police
system is in place that can adequately address all classes brutality, assassinations, and making war.26 In recent years,
and types of people. Consider, though, that laws banning protests have erupted over the logging of old-growth for-
burglary and robbery are directed at controlling the neediest ests, shale gas fracking, pollution downstream from hydro-
members of society, whereas laws banning insider trading, electric dams, and so on. In every case, it is the protesters’
embezzlement, and corporate price-fixing are aimed at con- actions that get criminalized, not those of the companies
trolling the wealthiest. The consensus model of crime is against which they are protesting. To understand this, we
accepted by many criminologists; however, they do argue need the politically based conflict approach and also the
over whether the law is applied uniformly. For that, we need interactionist.
the conflict approach.
The Interactionist View of Crime

The Conflict View of Crime The third philosophical perspective is based in the symbolic
In contrast to the consensus perspective, the conflict view interaction school of sociology, associated with George Herbert
depicts society as a collection of diverse groups—owners, Mead, Charles Horton Cooley, and W.I. Thomas.27 This posi-
workers, professionals, students—that are in constant con- tion holds that (1) people act according to their own inter-
flict. Groups that are able to assert their political power use pretations of reality, according to the meanings things have
the law and the criminal justice system to advance their eco- for them; (2) they learn the meaning of a thing from the way
nomic and social position. Criminal laws are created to pro- others react to it, either positively or negatively; and (3) they
tect the haves from the have-nots. For example, contrast the re-evaluate and interpret their own behaviour according to the
harsh penalties exacted on the poor for their street crimes meanings and symbols they have learned from others.
(burglary, robbery, and theft) with the minor penalties the In this perspective, the definition of crime reflects the
wealthy receive for their white-collar crimes (securities vio- preferences of those who impose their opinions of right and
lations and other illegal business practices). While the poor wrong on the rest of the population. Criminals are individuals
47827_ch01_hr_001-026.indd 16 06/02/23 3:59 PM

whom society chooses to label as outcasts or deviants because Only when prohibited acts are sanctioned do they become
they have violated (certain) social rules. Crimes are outlawed important, life-transforming events.
behaviours because society defines them that way and not
because they are inherently evil. As sociologist Howard Becker
argued: “The deviant is one to whom that label has success- Defining Crime
fully been applied; deviant behavior is behavior people so
label.”28 The consensus view of crime dominated criminological
Interactionists believe that society should intervene thought until the late 1960s. Criminologists looked at why
as little as possible in the lives of law violators lest they be lawbreakers violated the rules of society, and the result was
labelled and stigmatized. Labelling theory (see Chapter 8) is subcultural theory, for example. The criminal was viewed as
based on interactionist views and holds that the application an outlaw who flouted the rules defining acceptable conduct
of negative labels leads to a damaged identity and then to a and behaviour. Then, in the 1960s, the interactionist perspec-
criminal career. Society, in essence, creates crime. tive gained prominence. The rapid changes society was expe-
The interactionist and conflict perspectives suggest that riencing made traditional law and values questionable. Many
behaviour is outlawed when it offends people who hold criminologists embraced the ideology that crimes reflected
the social, economic, and political power necessary to have rules imposed by a conservative majority on nonconforming
the law conform to their interests or needs. However, members of society. The result was labelling theory. And then,
unlike the conflict view, the interactionist perspective does during the 1970s, more radical scholars gravitated toward
not attribute political motives to the process of defining crime. conflict explanations of crime. These different perspectives
Instead, interactionists see criminal law as conforming to the are portrayed in Concept Summary 1.4.
beliefs of crusaders, or moral entrepreneurs, who use their Looking at underlying philosophical perspectives is
influence to shape the legal process in the ways they see fit. important because they influence criminology thinking and
Laws against pornography, prostitution, and drugs are moti- research. Because of these perspectives, criminologists have
vated by moral crusades, which may become consensual and taken a variety of approaches when explaining crime, its
are also conflict-based. Interactionists are concerned with causes, and methods for its control. However, considering
shifting moral standards, and crime in essence has no meaning these differences, it is possible to take elements from each
unless people react to it. The one-time criminal, if not caught
or labelled, can simply “drift,” or return to a normal way of
life with little permanent damage, just as students who try moral entrepreneurs Interest groups or individuals
cannabis do not view themselves as criminals or drug addicts. who are in a position to impose their own values onto
others.
Concept Summary 1.4

The Definition of Crime Affects How Criminologists View the Cause and Control of Illegal Behaviour and Shapes
Their Research Orientation
Conflict view
Consensus view ● The law is a tool of the ruling class.
● The law defines crime. ● Crime is a politically defined concept.
● Agreement exists on outlawed behaviour. ● “Real crimes” are not outlawed.
● Laws apply to all citizens equally. ● The law is used to control the underclass.
Definition
of crime
Interactionist view
● Moral entrepreneurs define crime.
● Crimes are illegal because society defines them that way.
● Criminal labels are life-transforming events.
47827_ch01_hr_001-026.indd 17 06/02/23 3:59 PM

school of thought to formulate an integrated definition of to develop some knowledge of the methods used to collect
crime: these data. This knowledge will provide some insight into
how professional criminologists approach various problems
Crime is a violation of societal rules of behaviour as
and questions in their field.
interpreted and expressed by a criminal legal code created
by people holding social and political power. Individuals
who violate these rules are subject to sanctions by state
authority, to social stigma, and to loss of status. Survey Research
This definition starts with the consensus view’s position that Interviewing subjects is also called cross-sectional research
criminal law defines crimes, then combines it with the con- because it involves surveying people who come from a cross-
flict perspective’s emphasis on political power and control and section of the community. Most surveys involve sampling:
the interactionist view’s concepts of stigma. Thus, crime, as subjects are selected as representative of a larger population.
defined here, is a political, social, and economic function of For example, a criminologist might interview a sample of 500
modern life. As an example, consider the following section on people drawn from the population of adult or young offenders
the politics of crime. under the supervision of Canadian correctional agencies. The
sample, if done carefully, will allow generalizations to be
made about the whole of the prison population. For example,
because two thirds of prison inmates were unemployed prior
The Politics of Crime to incarceration, employment status might be related to crim-
Sometimes the lines between crime and control are difficult to inal offending and thus constitute a measure of “risk.” Though
sort out and become political. For example, in 2017, the national surveys measure subjects at a single point in their lifespan,
media reported on efforts by the government to infiltrate Indige- questions can also elicit information on subjects’ prior behav-
nous and environmental activist organizations opposed to energy iour and on their goals and aspirations.29
projects such as the Energy East pipeline. Through access to Survey research can also be designed to measure the atti-
information requests, the National Observer’s Bruce Livesay (and tudes and behaviour of participants. For example, self-report
the National Post) revealed an espionage network that included surveys ask participants to describe their criminal activity, and
the RCMP, CSIS, Canada Border Services, and various depart- victimization surveys seek information from victims of crime.
ments, including Public Safety, Natural Resources, Indigenous Surveys are also a good way to gather information about var-
and Northern Affairs, and the Sûreté du Québec and Ontario ious groups that haven’t come to the attention of police, such
Provincial Police. Moreover, these agencies shared information as people addicted to drugs or youth in conflict at school.
with numerous energy sector companies. The federal govern- Such surveys have limitations. They don’t show how sub-
ment had taken a stand against environmentalists. jects change over time, and they make it difficult to guard
This was similar to the RCMP’s Project Sitka, set up in against people misrepresenting information or giving mis-
2015 to collect information on organizations such as Idle No taken responses. Despite such drawbacks, surveys continue to
More, the Mi’kmaq Warrior Society, the Indigenous Environ- be an extremely popular method of gathering criminological
mental Network, the Council of Canadians, and Greenpeace. data.
Similarly, in 2012 and 2013, protests against the Northern
Gateway pipeline, the oil sands, and fracking in New Bruns-
wick were surveilled and information shared with industry Longitudinal (Cohort) Research
and regulators, to protect so-called critical infrastructure. It is
only a short step from there to label such environmental activ- Longitudinal research involves the observation over time of
ists as terrorists. That national security organizations were a group of people who share a characteristic (a cohort). For
conducting surveillance on individuals and groups opposed example, the National Longitudinal Survey of Children and
to natural resource development because of environmental Youth (NLSCY) is a Canada-wide survey studying a sample
concerns should cause all Canadians to worry, especially given of children to collect information on their families, educa-
that protesting is not illegal. tion, health, development, behaviour, friends, and activities.
cross-sectional research Surveys that use data from all

Doing Criminology age, race, gender, and income segments of the population.
longitudinal research Research that tracks the
development of a group of subjects over time.
Criminologists have used a wide variety of research techniques
to measure the nature and extent of criminal behaviour. cohort A sample of subjects whose behaviour is
To understand and evaluate these patterns, it is important followed over a period.
47827_ch01_hr_001-026.indd 18 06/02/23 3:59 PM

Involving thousands of subjects, survey questions capture Aggregate data can tell us about the effect of overall social
data on school experiences, arrests, hospitalizations, and trends and patterns on the crime rate. For example, to study
family life (e.g., divorces and parental relations). The subjects the relationship between crime and poverty, criminologists
might be given repeated intelligence tests and physical exams, might use data collected by Statistics Canada on income, the
and their diets could be monitored. Data could be collected number of people on welfare, and single-parent families in
directly from the subjects or without their knowledge from an urban area and then cross-reference this information with
schools and police. If the research were carefully conducted, official crime statistics from the same locality. The implication
it might be possible to determine which life experiences, that crime is correlated with poverty is not simple to explain,
such as growing up in a broken home or failing at school, but preliminary data would establish whether a pattern
typically preceded the onset of crime and delinquency. While exists. For example, Theodore Chiricos conducted a review
following a cohort over time is difficult, expensive, and time- of research using aggregate data and showed that unemploy-
consuming, the good news is that most people do not become ment was related to crime.32
serious criminals.
Cohort studies sometimes form the basis of critical crimi-
nological research, such as that conducted by University of Experimental Research
Pennsylvania criminologist Marvin Wolfgang and his col-
leagues. Their findings have been instrumental in developing In experimental research, criminologists manipulate events to
knowledge about the onset and development of a criminal see the effect on the subjects, using (1) a random assignment
career. Wolfgang’s cohort research is discussed in Chapter 3. of subjects, (2) a control or comparison group, and (3) an
Another approach is to take a cohort of known offenders experimental condition. For example, a sample of convicted
and look at their early life experiences by studying their educa- offenders chosen at random might be asked to participate in
tional, family, police, and hospital records; this format is known a community-based treatment program. A follow-up could
as a retrospective cohort study.30 Here, criminologists could use determine whether those in the community program were less
the records of social organizations, such as hospitals, schools, likely to recidivate (repeat their offences) than were those who
welfare departments, courts, police departments, and prisons. served time in prison.
School records contain data on academic performance, atten- For example, the Montreal Longitudinal-Experimental
dance, intelligence, disciplinary problems, and teacher ratings. Study set out to examine the relationship between poor par-
Hospitals record incidents of drug use and suspicious wounds enting skills and children’s social skills and the development
indicative of child abuse. Police files contain reports of criminal of delinquency. Researchers designed a study to assess the
activity, arrest data, personal information on suspects, victim impact of parent skills training and prosocial skills training
reports, and actions taken by police officers. Court records for disruptive students in a longitudinal-experimental study of
allow researchers to compare the personal characteristics of boys considered to be at risk. The study was done in 53 Mon-
offenders with conviction rates and types of sentences. Prison treal schools in neighbourhoods of low socio-economic status.
records contain information on inmates’ personal characteris- Kindergarten teachers rated the behaviour of boys in their
tics, adjustment problems, disciplinary records, rehabilitation classes at the end of the school year, and the boys identified
efforts, and length of sentence served. as being at risk (i.e., disruptive, hyperactive, and aggressive)
In one classic retrospective longitudinal survey that used were randomly assigned to one of three groups: treatment,
court records to examine the effects of child abuse on a per- observation, or control. Parents were taught crisis manage-
son’s adult behaviour, Cathy Spatz Widom compared a group ment, non-abusive discipline, and positive reinforcement,
of approximately 900 people who were reported to have while students were taught positive interaction, problem-
been abused with a group of more than 600 people with solving, and self-regulation.
no reported abuse. Interviewing the subjects 15 years after The research confirmed that social intervention can
their cases had been heard in court, the research showed positively affect the social development of disruptive boys
that a connection existed between child abuse and juvenile because, as one would expect, the boys who received treat-
delinquency. Being abused or neglected increased the likeli- ment adjusted better to school and were less aggressive. They
hood of arrest as a juvenile by 53 percent and as an adult also did better academically and reported committing fewer
by 38 percent.31 delinquent acts. Some boys who received treatment still com-
mitted delinquent acts, such as trespassing and stealing small
items, but at a much lower rate. Unfortunately, boys who did
not receive treatment were twice as likely to have problems
Aggregate Data Research in school.
Criminologists often make use of large databases gathered This type of research has real-world implications in
by government agencies such as Statistics Canada. The most Canada. The Human Rights Tribunal and the TRC both found
important of these sources are crime statistics compiled by the that Indigenous children have a high rate of being removed
Canadian Centre for Justice Statistics and based on the Uni- from their families rather than receiving care at home and in
form Crime Reporting (UCR) system, discussed in Chapter 3. the community. There are now more Indigenous children in
47827_ch01_hr_001-026.indd 19 06/02/23 3:59 PM

Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
The fashionable tailor's name was the only link between the
nameless corpse and the world of the living; the sole clue to identity.
There was no one in the coffee-room at six o'clock, and Faunce
dined snugly at a small table near the fire, where he was able to
enjoy a tête-à-tête with the head-waiter, an old servant of the hotel,
and possessed of that vast extent of local and general knowledge
which seems the peculiar property of head-waiters and hotel-porters.
The porter's knowledge takes a wider range; but the waiter has the
more subtle mind.
Faunce started his inquiry with a bold guess.
"Do you happen to remember a lady and gentleman who dined here
one Friday evening in March last year—a tall man, good-looking, and
a very handsome woman. He was to leave for New York next day."
"We get a good many people who are going to New York, sir—chiefly
Americans who want to look about the neighbourhood—but I do call
to mind such a gentleman dining here one night in the spring of last
year—for the special reason that he engaged a bedroom, and didn't
occupy it, and also that he left a crocodile dressing-bag that has
never been claimed from that day to this."
"Should you remember his face, do you think, if you saw his
photograph?"
"I think I might, sir. I don't often forget a face that I've waited upon—
unless it's no more than a casual drink and out again."
Faunce produced his capacious letter-case, in which there were half-
a-dozen cabinet photographs.
He selected one, and showed it to the waiter.
"Was this the man?"
"No, sir, not a bit like him."
Faunce showed him another.
"No, sir."
Faunce took out the other four, and laid them on the table. The
waiter's square forefinger alighted instantly on Colonel Rannock's
photograph.
"That was the man, sir."
"Good! Now I want you to tell me anything you can remember about
this gentleman and the lady who was with him. Take your time. I
shall be here all the evening."
"There's not much to tell, sir, except the odd thing of his not coming
back to the hotel. You see, sir, it's in this way. He and she comes in
after eight o'clock. He gives me his bag, and tells me to order his
room for him, and he orders dinner, anythink on the premises, as
quick as possible, in a private room. I offers him the cartdurving, and
he orders a bottle of Wachter, and they has their dinner cosy and
quiet, all to theirselves. I can see as she is upset about something,
and I gather that he's starting for New York next day, and that he's
going to Klondyke. He sends me out of the room when the dishes
are on the table, and I gather that they want to talk—but in taking in
the tart—which they don't touch—and the cheese, I hear her
persuade him to go for a turn by the water after dinner. He doesn't
seem to want to go, but she presses it, saying as she has a splitting
head, and thinks the night air will do her good. She looks pretty bad,
as white as chalk, and her eyelids red with crying."
"Well, they went out together, I suppose?"
"Yes, they has their coffee and their liqueur—she has two goes—and
then they go out. It must have been near eleven, for they sat a long
time over their dinner, and the night was pitch dark. If they was
strangers they might have walked into the water as easy as walk
beside it; but whatever they did, that's the last we ever see of 'em,
and my master was out of pocket for two dinners and a bottle of
champagne; but there's the crocodile bag, and even if it's full of
brickbats, it's worth three or four sovereigns to anybody as a bag;
and if the gent don't turn up at the end of the year we shall put in an
advertisement that, if not claimed, it will be sold to pay expenses."
"Did it never strike you that the gentleman might have met with foul
play?"
"Well, no! There was her, you see. Two of 'em could hardly have got
made away with and nobody hear of it. I expect he was running
away with somebody else's wife, or some other rum start, and they
went off to Jersey by the steamer that starts at midnight."
"And you've never given the matter a thought since that night, I
suppose?"
"Well, sir, it wasn't my business to think about it. I ain't in the
detective line, thank God."
Faunce smoked the cigar of thoughtfulness by the coffee-room fire,
went to bed at ten o'clock, and was out after an early breakfast next
morning, strolling by the water between all that is left of the old city
wall and the West Station. The tide was in, and the wavelets plashed
gaily against the low parapet, and Faunce saw how by a false step in
the darkness any one might drop into eight or nine feet of water. But
then there was the medical evidence of that smashing blow on the
skull. Nor could any theory of accidental drowning account for the
finding of the body four miles away, battened down under a rotten
boat.
Faunce spent the rest of his morning in desultory conversation with
three or four men who let out boats for hire, in whose ways and
customs he showed a keen interest, wanting to know the how, when,
and where of their letting, and if ever they lost a boat. He discovered
one case—happening late in the previous March—of a man who had
had a narrow escape of losing a handsome skiff, which had been
taken "off" him one afternoon by a stranger, and which had been
found adrift next morning near the West Station, and never a
sixpence of the day's hire did he get from that swindling rascal.
Faunce tested the boatman's memory by close questioning about
the stranger's personal appearance, and with some difficulty arrived
at certain broad characteristics which had impressed the man at the
time of the hiring.
"There was not many people wanting boats so early in the year," he
said; "but this one told me as he had a niece living at Hythe, and
wanted to give her an afternoon on the water. 'It may be dark when I
brings back your boat,' he says, 'but I'm an old salt, and you needn't
be afraid I shall damage her.' He was a big, powerful-looking chap,
and he had something of a seaman's look, so I trusted him—and
that's how he tret me," concluded the boatman, resentfully.
"If you can find me the precise date of that hiring, I'll give you a
sovereign for it," said Faunce.
Thus stimulated, the boatman knew he could find the date. He had a
rough-and-ready ledger in which he entered most hirings, and cash
received—and he had certainly noted down the loss of a day, and
the way he'd been swindled.
Faunce went home with him to a queer little slum between the river
and the bar gate, and did not leave him till he had a copy of the
man's entry in his pocket-book.
"I may want your evidence next assizes," he said; "but if I do, you'll
be paid for your time."
"Thank 'ee, sir. I knew that bloke was a bad 'un."
These were all the answers to his questions that Faunce could find
in Southampton. He went back to town that afternoon, and he spent
a rollicking evening at the Battersea Gamecock, in the company of
Mr. Bolisco and a little knot of his admirers, of whom some were
"bookies," and others, members of the pugilists' noble profession.
The evening's talk was mostly of the Turf and the prize-ring, and it
furnished Faunce with no direct answers to his questions; but it
enabled him to turn the full light of his psychological science upon
Bolisco's character and temperament.
"A wild beast on two legs," was Faunce's summing up of the pugilist,
as he strolled away from the sporting tavern.
He was closeted for an hour next morning with the landlord of the
Gamecock, from whom he received more than one direct answer to
his questions.
First, as to the link between Kate Delmaine, alias Prodgers, and Jim
Bolisco?
Mr. Lodway, the present landlord, had been barman when Bill
Prodgers had the Gamecock, and he remembered Kitty Prodgers
running about, fifteen years old, a rough-headed girl in a pinafore;
but always a beauty, and always with a devil of a temper. She was
an only child, and motherless. Nobody knew anything about her
mother, who had died before Prodgers took the Gamecock. The girl
and her father used to quarrel, and Bolisco, who lodged in the house
off and on, used to stick up for her, and Prodgers and he sometimes
came to blows.
"And this," concluded Mr. Lodway, "was the beginning of their
walking about together."
"They were sweethearts then, Kate and Bolisco?"
"Well, they kind of kep' company, though she was such a kid that
nobody thought it was going to lead to anything. Bolisco was a good-
looking chap then, before he got his smeller smashed in the mill with
the Hammersmith nigger. They kep' company for a year or two, off
and on, for it wasn't in Kate to go on long with anybody without
quarrelling; and then, after one of her rows with her father, she walks
off and gets herself engaged at the Spectacular Theatre, straight off.
She was such a clipper at seventeen that she had but to show
herself to a manager to get took on. He'd have engaged forty such, I
reckon, at the same price. The father was drinking as much as he
knew how by that time, and things were going to the bad here, and
he took no more trouble about the girl than if she'd been a strayed
kitten: but me and one or two more went after her, and found her in
decent lodgings in Katherine Street, and as straight as a die. But six
months after that she had her house in St. John's Wood, and her
brougham, as smart as a duchess; and the mug who was paying the
piper was one of Bolisco's patrons, a Yorkshire bart, very young, and
as green as a spring cabbage."
"And Bolisco was still hanging about her?"
"Lord! yes; he wasn't likely to lose sight of her while she had the
spending of that young softy's rhino."
"Mr. Bolisco is a bit of a spendthrift, I take it."
"Above a bit. Never could keep his money long, and yet never was
guilty of a generous action, as I know of. It's all gone backing wrong
'uns—sometimes horses, sometimes pugilists. Of course, he's had
the straight tip now and again, and has pulled off a good thing; but
as a rule, Bolisco ain't lucky. Why, to my certain knowledge he had
four hundred pound spare cash less than a year ago—won it over
the City and Suburban—and I don't believe he's got a tanner except
what she gives him."
"Meaning Mrs. Randall?"
"Just so! And he owes me nine weeks' board and lodging. I shouldn't
take it as quiet as I do, if he wasn't a bit of a draw. The young 'uns
like to see him and hear him talk."
"And he sets a good example in the way of hard drinking?"
"Oh, I don't encourage any man to drink more than he can stand. But
as long as he can carry his liquor like a gentleman——"
"You don't put the skid on. But how did you come to know of this
money of Bolisco's, last March?"
"I didn't say anythink about March."
"No, but it was about March—or April last year, that Bolisco was
flush, wasn't it?"
"It was after Epsom Spring; and that was near the end of April."
"True. Did he show you the cash?"
"He brought the notes to me to get changed for him—four fifties and
two hundreds. He'd been paid short, and he wanted tenners and
fivers. I paid the two hundreds to my brewer, and gave Bolisco my
cheque for the lot, on the London and Provincial, Battersea Branch."
"Did you keep the numbers of the notes?"
"Not me. I got the collector's receipt for the money, and that was
good enough for me. I paid the four fifties into my account at the L.
and P."
"You hadn't often known Bolisco as flush as that?"
"Well, perhaps not. He's often been able to flourish a tenner, or a
twenty-pun' note, after a race; but he didn't use to deal in fifties and
hundreds. 'Why, Jim,' says I, 'you've been getting out of your depth.'
'Why, yes, mate,' says he, 'may be I've been a bit out of my depth.'"
CHAPTER XVII.
"All of us sinful, all with need of grace,
All chary of our life,—the minute more
Or minute less of grace which saves a soul,—
Bound to make common cause with who craves time,
We yet protest against the exorbitance
Of sin in this one sinner, and demand
That his poor sole remaining piece of time
Be plucked from out his clutch: put him to death!
Punish him now! As for the weal or woe
Hereafter, God grant mercy! Man be just,
Nor let the felon boast he went scot-free!"
The sky was dull and leaden, and there was a fine rain falling—the
kind of rain that means to stay—when Faunce bent his footsteps
from Sloane Square to Selburne Street, Chelsea.
"The kind of atmosphere that slackens fiddle-strings and women's
nerves," thought Faunce. "I shall find her in the doldrums."
"Well, Betsy, how's your first floor to-day?" he asked, when the little
servant opened the door.
"Oh, she's in one of her nasty tempers—just because the sittin'-room
chimley smoked all the mornin'—and she's that low! But you'll cheer
'er hup, I dessay."
"I don't know about that, Betsy," said Mr. Faunce, who did not feel
himself the harbinger of joy.
"Come in, can't you?" Mrs. Randall said peevishly, when he knocked
at the door.
She was crouching over the fire, in a room that was grey with smoke,
and she was wearing a terrible garment of soiled and crumpled
plush, with a ragged bead trimming—a garment she called her tea-
gown, but which on her "low" days was breakfast, tea, and dinner
gown, and sometimes served also as bed-gown, when the morphia
needle had been freely used, and she flung herself upon her bed in a
casual way, to dream through the long night.
"Oh, it's you!" she said. "Come and sit down, if you can breathe in
this stifling hole. That beast of a chimney left off smoking an hour
ago, but I can't get the smoke out of the room, though I had the
winder open till I got the shivers. Well, what's your news?" she asked
carelessly, by way of starting the conversation.
"Bad," he answered, in a grave voice. "Very bad. I have just come
from Southampton."
It was nearly four o'clock, and the London light was waning, but it
was light enough for him to see the livid change in her customary
pallor.
"Well, old chap, and what may you have been doing there?" she
asked, with an attempt at sprightliness. "Been to see your
sweetheart, or to offer yourself for M.P. at the next vacancy?"
"I have been looking for a murdered man," he said.
Her eyes fixed themselves on his face in wondering horror.
"That ain't a very lively sort of occupation," she said, after a pause,
still keeping up that assumption of gay indifference. "I hope the party
wasn't a near relation."
"No; he was not of my blood, nor of yours; but he was bound to you
by every link that should make a man's life sacred. He was bound to
you body and soul, and you helped to murder him."
"Oh, my God!" she cried; "oh, my God! Man alive, don't talk to me
like that. Take the poker and smash my head open; but don't talk like
that!"
"I must. I pity you, but I can't spare you. It is my trade to drag secret
crimes into the light of day."
"You're a detective," she cried. "Oh, you paltry cad, you hypocrite,
you coward, to come hanging about me and pretending to be my
friend."
"I'll be the best friend you ever had, if you'll give me the chance.
Come now, Mrs. Randall; your life's been a misery to you ever since
that night by Southampton Water."
Her terrified gaze widened as he spoke. She looked at him as if a
spirit of supernatural omniscience, a Nemesis in human form, were
before her.
"If this bad business had never come to light, if nobody had ever
come to know how Colonel Rannock was murdered, if Bolisco had
never been brought to book——"
She started at the name, but the Medusa face remained unchanged.
"How much would your life have been worth to you? Could you have
ever been a happy woman?"
"No, no, no," she wailed, "never again! I loved him! He was the only
man I ever loved. I used him badly enough, God knows; but he was
the only one, the only one. Poor old Tony was a good sort, and I
made a fool of him and helped him to ruin himself, and I was sorry
when he went off in a decline. Poor chap! He just chucked his life
away. Too much fizz, and too much card-playing and late hours.
Poor old Tony. He was only six and twenty when the doctors gave
him over."
"But Rannock was the favourite," said Faunce.
"Yes, Dick was my one true love—the handsomest, the cleverest, the
bravest, and always the gentleman—always the gentleman," she
repeated, sobbing, "though I don't mean to say he was straight at
cards. He had to get his money somehow, poor fellow."
"You loved him, and you lured him to his death. You told Bolisco
where he was going, and that he was carrying his money with him, in
bank-notes."
"My God, yes! I told him. I was always a blabbing fool."
"You wrote the letter that took him to the shambles, and you stood by
and saw the blow struck."
"Great God! Do you think I knew what was coming? Do you think I'm
a fiend from hell dressed up like a woman?" she cried, with wildest
vehemence. "I wrote the letter—I was told to, and I had to obey. I
asked him to meet me at Southampton. Jim said if he could see
Rannock before he left England he could get a few pounds out of
him for old sake's sake; and Jim was as near beggary as a sporting
man with a few old friends left can be. I never thought he meant
harm. Dick and he had been friendly in the old days in the Abbey
Road, and it seemed likely enough that Dick would give him a
helping hand. I didn't want to write that letter, mind you, but I was
bullied into doing it. You don't know what Bolisco is."
"Yes, I do. I know he's a cold-blooded murderer, and that while you
and Rannock were walking by the water, Bolisco crept up behind you
and struck him on the back of his head with a life-preserver—a blow
that fractured his skull."
"Did any one see?" she gasped. "Oh, God, I've heard the dip of the
oars as the boat crept up to the wall—I've heard it all through the
night sometimes, in a dog's sleep—dip—dip—dip—and then a step
on the pavement behind us, and then a crash, and the dull thud
when Rannock fell. And I've sat by this fire in the half-light, as we're
sitting now, and I've seen him lying on the ground, and Bolisco
kneeling by his side emptying his pockets—note-case, watch, tie-pin,
pulling off his rings, tearing out his shirt-studs and links, as quick as
lightning—and then making me help to drag him to the boat. And I
fancy I am standing alone by the river, in the darkness, hearing the
dip of the oars fainter and fainter in the distance. It was like a horrible
dream then; and it has been a horrible dream to me ever since, a
dream that I dream over and over again, and shall go on dreaming
till I die."
Her voice rose to a shriek. Faunce saw the fit of hysteria coming,
and snatched the morphia bottle and the morphia needle from the
table where his observant eye had marked them in his first survey of
the room, the practice of his profession having taught him that the
first thing to do on entering a room was to make a mental inventory
of every object in it.
He held Mrs. Randall's wrist, and gave her a strong dose of her
favourite sedative.
"My poor friend, you have been hardly used," he said. "But your duty
lies straight before you. As an accessory after the fact, the law will
deal lightly with you, and you will have every one's pity. You must
turn Queen's evidence, and help us to punish Colonel Rannock's
murderer."
"That I'll never do!" she said emphatically.
"Oh, but surely, if you loved this man, you must want to avenge his
murder. Think what a cruel murder it was! A strong man struck down
in the prime of life. Think of that unburied corpse, lying hidden on the
solitary shore, the waters rolling over it as the tide rose and fell—
unknown, unhonoured. If you loved him, you must want to avenge
his murder."
"I ain't going to peach upon Jim Bolisco," she said doggedly. "And if I
was capable of it, my evidence would be no good."
"Why not?" asked Faunce, startled.
"Because he's my husband; and a wife can't give away her husband.
That's law, ain't it, Faunce?"
"Your husband? Is that true?"
"Gospel truth. We were married at Battersea Church when I was just
turned seventeen. I didn't care for him, and he's been a log round my
neck ever since. But he was in luck just then, and he used to give
me presents—bits of jewellery, and smart hats, and such-like—and
he was the first as ever took notice of me and told me I was
handsome. And he said he should take a cottage at Wandsworth,
with a bit of garden, and I was to be missus, and have a girl to wait
upon me. But his luck turned soon after our wedding—which was on
the strict q.t.—and he never took that cottage, and we never told
father or anybody else. Jim said our marriage was just a bit of a lark,
and we'd best forget it; but when I had a fine house and was flush of
money, and might have been Lady Withernsea for good and all, but
for him, he didn't forget it. I know what blackmail means, Mr. Faunce.
I have been paying it ever since I was eighteen. I had to find money
for Bolisco when he wanted it, for he swore he'd claim me as his wife
if I didn't. I've had what's-his-name's sword hanging over my head all
these years, and I got to hate the man worse every year; and now I
hate him—I hate him,—I hate him with every drop of blood in my
veins! I turn cold when I hear his step on the stair. I never look at him
without remembering that night, and my poor Dick lying on the
ground, and Bolisco's wicked hands tearing open his coat and
searching his pockets, like a wild beast mauling its prey."
"And you want to see him suffer for that brutal murder, don't you?"
"No; I want nothing but to have done with it all. Just to be out of it,
that's what I want. Do you think if they were to hang Bolisco, it would
set my mind at rest, or make me forget what a shrew I was to poor
old Dick, and how he forgave me, and came back to me after I'd
treated him so bad, and how I wrote the letter that lured him to his
death? What do I care what becomes of Bolisco? Let him murder
somebody else, and get nabbed for that. I don't care. Nothing will
stop my bad dreams, till I fall asleep for the last time: and then, who
knows? There may be bad dreams underground as well as above; or
one long dream of hell-fire and worms that gnaw."
"Come, come, Mrs. Randall, you mustn't despair," Faunce said
kindly.
He was sorry for her, and yet what comfort could he offer? He looked
at her in her ruined beauty, and thought of her life, and the two men
whose lives she had spoilt. She had sown the wind, and she was
reaping the whirlwind, and he saw no hope for her in the black
future.
What was he to do? He had come to her prepared to make his coup
d'état, having calculated that he could startle her into a revelation of
the murder, in which he believed her to have been an unwilling
accessory. He had succeeded, but his success was worth nothing if
this one all-important witness could not be heard.
He drove to Scotland Yard, put the facts of the case before the
assistant-commissioner, and Bolisco was arrested late that night at
the Game Cock, on suspicion of being concerned in the murder of
Colonel Richard Rannock. The evidence against him, excluding Kate
Delmaine's confession, was weak, but there was no time to lose, as
she was likely to warn him of his danger.
If the numbers of the notes he had changed could be identified with
Chater's list, there would be strong presumptive evidence against
him, and other facts might come to light on inquiry to strengthen the
chain of circumstance. Faunce relinquished the case to the Public
Prosecutor. It had passed beyond the region of private interests. A
murder so atrocious concerned the world at large, and the conviction
of the murderer was a matter of public importance.
One most painful duty Faunce had to perform, and he set about it
with a heavy heart. He had to tell Mrs. Rannock the story of her
son's death. Soften the details as he might, it was a terrible story to
tell, and he decided that it would be better for her son-in-law to be
the bearer of these dismal tidings.
He called on Major Towgood, whom he found in a small house
nearer Vauxhall Bridge than Eccleston Square, but by courtesy in
Belgravia. The Major received him in a little den darkened by a
monster pile of red brick flats, which he called the library.
"Well, Faunce, any news of the prodigal son?"
"Yes, sir."
"Bad news?"
"Very bad news, sir. I came to you in order that you might break it to
Mrs. Rannock."
"It will have to stand over, Faunce. Mrs. Rannock is very ill. I may
say she is dangerously ill."
"Indeed, sir? That's sudden, for it's only four days since I received
her instructions, and she then appeared in fair health, considering
her age."
"Yes, she was a wonder for her age, but always delicate—a bit of
porcelain that ought to have been behind glass in a cabinet. And she
was eaten up by anxiety about Rannock. She took a chill, coming
round here to see my wife, who is laid up, the evening after you saw
her, and it developed into influenza, or congestion of the lungs—God
knows what! The doctors only tell me she is old, and that her life
hangs by a thread; but I'm afraid we shall lose her, Faunce."
"If that sweet old lady dies without hearing what I have to tell her, I
think those who love her best will have cause to thank God, sir; for I
believe my story would kill her."
"Is it as bad as that?"
"It couldn't be worse, sir."
Faunce related his discoveries, and Major Towgood agreed that at all
cost the truth must be kept from the murdered man's mother. In her
intervals of consciousness she had repeatedly asked about Faunce
and the progress of his inquiry. And there had been hours of delirium
in which she thought the fondly-loved son was at her bedside. She
had taken a strange doctor for him, and had talked to him as to her
son.
No, she must not know while the knowledge could possibly be kept
from her. But should she recover, and leave her room, the
newspapers would tell her of Bolisco's arrest, and the inquiry before
the magistrate at Southampton, where he was to be taken on the
following day. And it would not be possible to keep the newspapers
from her. For her to recover, and know her son's tragic fate, would
mean a broken heart that death alone could cure.
"Perhaps you're right, Faunce. Even my wife would hardly wish the
dear old lady to struggle back to life to suffer such a crushing blow.
Poor Dick! We always knew that woman would be his ruin. His sin
has found him out."
The Rannock murder was the cause célèbre of the next few months.
The inquiry before the Southampton magistrate was adjourned from
week to week, and the case against James Bolisco gradually
developed, till the chain of evidence became as strong as
circumstantial evidence well can be. The numbers of the notes paid
to the Wandsworth brewer by the landlord of the Game Cock were
traced, and proved identical with the numbers in Chater's list. Bolisco
was sworn to by the boatman as the man who hired his boat on the
date of Colonel Rannock's journey to Southampton, and whom he
never saw after the hiring. Bolisco was also identified by the landlord
of a humble little inn on the road between Redbridge and
Southampton, as having come to his house after midnight, on that
same date, in a strange condition, his boots and trousers smothered
in river mud, and one of his hands torn and bleeding. He had hurt it
with a hammer, he said. He ate a heavy supper, drank half a bottle of
brandy, paid his bill before he went to bed, and left next morning
before anybody in the house was astir.
Another link in the chain was a life-preserver which a Redbridge boy
had picked up in a lane leading from the river to the village street,
and on which were found minute splinters of bone, and tufts of
human hair, adhering to the heavy leaden knob. Chater pronounced
the hair to be of the colour and texture of his master's, while the
surgeon, who had given his evidence before the coroner, considered
this formidable weapon the kind of instrument calculated to cause
the fracture he had described at the inquest.
The victim's watch and tie pin, a valuable ruby, had been pawned by
the murderer late in the year, and a West-end pawnbroker swore to
Bolisco as the man from whom he received them. Watch and pin
were identified by Major Towgood.
Bolisco had carried out his design with a kind of brutal carelessness
of consequences which might have seemed more natural in one of
Nero's gladiators, a half-tamed savage from Dalmatian forests, than
in a son of the London streets. He had presumed upon the
consciousness of brute force, and when the inquest was over, and
his victim's identity unsuspected, he had considered himself safe for
life. He stared at the witnesses in a blank surprise, as one fact after
another was marshalled against him, and stood with bent brows, in a
sullen apathy, at the end of the proceedings, when he heard himself
committed for trial at the next assizes.
In the dock at Winchester, and in the condemned cell at Newgate, he
had time to reflect upon his mistakes, and to think how he might
have done the thing better.
That was James Bolisco's repentance.
Mrs. Rannock did not live to know of her son's ghastly fate. Her frail
life ended peacefully before Faunce's discovery was a week old. Her
last breath expired in words of love, her last movement was a feeble
motion of her hand towards the beloved figure which her fancy had
conjured out of thin air, the figure of her son, standing by her
bedside, as she had seen him again and again in delirious dreams.
Faunce did all that compassionate kindness could do for Bolisco's

wretched wife. The impression of her letter in the blotting-book had
been one of the links in the chain of circumstance, for, taken in
conjunction with Chater's evidence, it showed why Rannock had
gone to Southampton the day before the American steamer started.
Her position as Bolisco's wife made her impossible as a witness; but
her letter was evidence, and her relations with the murderer became
as notorious as every other detail in the story of the crime.
"It can't hurt me," she told Faunce, the night after the death sentence
at Winchester. "I'm past hurting. Bolisco's better out of the world, for
he'd never stop doing harm as long as he was in it—and the sooner I
follow him the better for me."
Faunce proved a kind friend to the unhappy woman whose days and
nights were haunted by the image of her murdered lover. Broken in
spirits, all the evil ways of her dissipated youth wreaking their
revenge upon health and beauty, the physician to whom Faunce took
her pronounced her doom. The hand of death was upon her. It was
only a question of time.
"If she stays in London she will hardly last through the winter," he
told Faunce. "I should recommend Bournemouth or Ventnor—
Ventnor for choice. And she may rub along through next summer.
But you must stop the morphia habit."
"I'll do what I can," said Faunce; "but I am a busy man. She is not of
my kith and kin. Only I don't want her to die like a dog without a
friend near her."
"She has been a very beautiful woman," said the doctor pityingly.
"One must be sorry for such a life thrown away."
Faunce engaged Betsy, the good-natured lodging-house drudge, to
take care of Mrs. Randall, and took them to cottage lodgings at
Ventnor, not far from the Consumption Hospital; and in that lovely
spot, facing the blue water, Kate Delmaine lived through the summer
and autumn after Bolisco's execution. Faunce looking in at the
cottage now and then—a flying visitor from Portsmouth or
Southampton—to see that she was being properly cared for.
He had found her almost penniless in her Chelsea lodgings after the
trial at Winchester, her last five-pound note having been sent to the
lawyer who had undertaken Bolisco's defence. It was Lady Perivale's
generous gift upon which he was now drawing for Kate Delmaine's
comfort.
"After all I owe it to her that I was able to pull the business through
so easily," he told himself, "and it's only fair that she should profit by
my client's liberality."
The end came when November mists were rolling up the Channel,
and the late roses were beginning to droop in the cottage garden.
The end came peacefully, and not without the consolations of
religion, for Mrs. Randall's landlady was a good Church-woman, and
in touch with her parish priest, who was kindly and sympathetic, and
able to understand a broken heart, even in a difficult subject, like this
woman, whose life had been a stranger to all good influences.
"You've been a fast friend to me, Faunce," she said, when she was
dying, and he had been summoned hastily for the last farewell; "and
if I'd known a hard-headed, kind-hearted chap like you ten years ago
I might have been a better woman. Well, I had my fling. There's not
many women have had more of their own way or been more looked
up to than I was in poor old Tony's time: there's not many women
that ever had a truer lover than Dick Rannock, with all his faults. He
couldn't keep straight with the cards," she murmured, beginning to
wander; "but he was every inch a gentleman. Christ have mercy on
his soul!"
EPILOGUE.
Grace Haldane To Susan Rodney.
"Villa Rienzi, Rome, April 15.
"You ask me, dear Sue, when I am going back to Grosvenor Square.
If I were guided by my feelings at this present hour I should reply
'Never!' But feelings and inclinations may change, and my present
distaste for London society and disgust at the thought of my London
acquaintance may give way to the whim of the moment, and a
sudden fancy for art, or music, or drama, which only London can
give.
"I hope I am not a vindictive woman, but I own that I can never again
take pleasure in the society of the people who so cruelly wronged
me, the so-called friends who were willing to believe in misconduct
that should have seemed impossible to any one who knew me; and
who were not brave and honest enough to come to me and discover
the truth from my own lips.
"The tragedy of Colonel Rannock's death has impressed me deeply.
It is appalling to think of that energetic spirit, that soul of fire,
quenched in a moment by a murderer's hand—of the man once so
admired and beloved lying unknown and unwept in that solitary spot
where the waters rose and fell over his unhallowed grave.
"I can but remember his talents, his charm of manner, and the days
when I was perhaps nearer loving him than I suspected at the time.
Thank God for that better and truer lover who came to my rescue,
and who had but to enter the circle of my life to influence it for ever.
Had I never known Arthur Haldane I might have married Colonel
Rannock, and my fate might have been wretched, for I believe the
only attraction I ever had for him, over and above my fortune, was
my likeness to that other woman, his bad angel.
"No, Sue, I am not going to bury myself alive, as you suggest. We
have a host of friends in this enchanting cosmopolitan city—Italians,
Americans, English, French, Germans, Russians, choice spirits
whose love of art and beauty has brought them here, and whose
pleasures take a higher range than expensive dinners at newly-
opened restaurants, and occasional contact with Royal personages.
"Arthur and I are utterly happy here. The atmosphere suits his work,
and puts me in good spirits. We have found a delicious villa at Tivoli,
where we shall retire towards the end of May, and where our days
and nights will be spent in a garden of roses and lilies, with a
fountain that makes music all day long. In the mean time this city
furnishes inexhaustible pleasures and interests, and life is so vivid
and joyous that I feel as if I only began to live when I came here.
"Of my husband I need not write, for I think you know all that he is to
me; and in August, when we go to our place on the Scottish Border,
which I used not to like, but which Arthur says he shall adore, I hope
my dear old Sue will break away from troublesome suburban pupils
and come to us for a long visit. By that time Arthur's new novel will
be in the Press, and by that time, if all go well, there will be a young
life in our home which will give new joys to our lives.
"Ever your loving friend,
"Grace Haldane.
"P.S.—Pray never again address me as 'Lady Perivale.' I hate that
semi-detached style. I am Mrs. Arthur Haldane, and am proud to
bear my husband's name."
The Author's Autograph Edition.

Cloth gilt, 2s. 6d. Picture Boards, 2s.
1. LADY AUDLEY'S SECRET.
2. HENRY DUNBAR.
3. ELEANOR'S VICTORY.
4. AURORA FLOYD.
5. JOHN MARCHMONT'S LEGACY.
6. THE DOCTOR'S WIFE.
7. ONLY A CLOD.
8. SIR JASPER'S TENANT.
9. TRAIL OF THE SERPENT.
10. THE LADY'S MILE.
11. LADY LISLE.
12. CAPTAIN OF THE VULTURE.
13. BIRDS OF PREY.
14. CHARLOTTE'S INHERITANCE.

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Criminology in Canada Theories,

Patterns, and Typologies (Eighth

Larry J. Siegel / Chris McCormick

9781774747827_cvr_hr.indd All Pages 30-01-2023 17:24:23

ORIGIN About 1764 ORIGIN About 1810

Print Collector/Hulton Archive/Getty Images

ORIGIN About 1848

Bonger, Criminality and Economic Conditions

Pictorial Press Ltd/Alamy Stock Photo

ORIGIN About 1930

environmental, socialization, physical,

conditions can be strengthened.

47827_fm_hr_i-xxiv.indd 1 06/02/23 3:52 PM

Australia • Brazil • Canada • Mexico • Singapore • United Kingdom • United States

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Content Acquisitions Analyst: Nichole Nalenz

Text and Cover Designer: Courtney Hellam

Cover Image: Colin Temple/Alamy Stock Photo

Title: Criminology in Canada : theories, paterns, and typologies /

Descripton: Eighth editon. | Includes bibliographical references and index.

Identfers: Canadiana (print) 2023014828X | Canadiana (ebook) 20230148409 |

Subjects: LCSH: Criminology—Textbooks. |

Classifcaton: LCC HV6025 .S54 2023 | DDC 364.971—dc23

Cengage is a leading provider of customized learning solutions

To learn more about Cengage platforms and services, register or access

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For my students, to inspire them with a

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Section 1 Violent Crime 318

Concepts of Crime, Law, and Chapter 11

Chapter 4 Crimes in the 21st Century 449

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Profile of a Crime: Canada’s Deadliest

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Profile of a Crime: Wrongfully Convicted 46 Chapter 4

Summary 51 Crime, Conflict, and Disorder: Police Shootings and the

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Concept Summary 5.2: Choice Theories 163

Crime Prevention Strategies 148 Behavioural Theories 189

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47827_fm_hr_i-xxiv.indd 11 06/02/23 3:52 PM

47827_fm_hr_i-xxiv.indd 12 06/02/23 3:52 PM

47827_fm_hr_i-xxiv.indd 13 06/02/23 3:52 PM

Crime, Conflict, and Disorder: Dark Commerce: Globalization

Cybercrime: An Overview 455 Index 487

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Another feature, Profile of a Crime, highlights cases

Allan Rock then agreed to consider extending that

The scientific study of crime and criminality is a relatively

Chapter 1 | Crime and Criminology 7

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Each chapter also has a Focus on Research feature that shows

Christopher Katsarov/Canadian Press Images

at-risk youth? Chapter 12 looks at togreen

ence then persists people—should

ting such horrific

about one third of of violence. Criminology

cedure indicates that people included forced relocation to reserves, which

ere no more likely gained prominencedistinguish theasviolence-prone