THE COPPERBELT UNIVERSITY

School of mines and minerals sciences

CE 560 / MT 580
Process control

Lecture 08
Proportional control

C. Botha (Mr.)
Contacts: Chemical Engineering Department
Email: clyde.botha@cbu.ac.zm
Alt. Email: bthclyde@gmail.com

January, 2024
 Design elements cont’d…controller design

o Controller selection/design is the final step in the design of a control system.

o Controller is the active element that receives measurement signal from the sensor-
transmitter.
o It uses this information to take appropriate control action.
o That is, adjust the manipulated variable(s) according to the determined control
action.
o Thus, controller selection/design entails -
o Determining how measurement information is used to adjust manipulated
variables.
o Action can follow one of the following basic control laws (also knows as control
modes):
 Design elements cont’d…controller design

1) Proportional (P) control.

2) Integral (I) control.

3) Derivative (D) control.

o Other control laws are a combination of proportional control with either integral or
derivative or both.

o E.g., proportional plus integral (PI – control), proportional plus derivative (PD –
control), and proportional plus integral plus derivative (PID – control).

4) On-off control or two-position control action (also known as bang-bang control).

 Proportional (P) control

o With P-control, controller output signal is proportional to the error signal and can in
general be expressed as
𝐶𝑂 = 𝐶𝑂𝑏𝑖𝑎𝑠 + 𝐾𝑐 𝜀 𝑡 8.1

o Where 𝐶𝑂 is the controller output signal and 𝐶𝑂𝑏𝑖𝑎𝑠 is the bias or null value or
steady state output.

o 𝜀(𝑡) is the error signal or deviation of measurement from set point i.e.,
𝜀 𝑡 = 𝑦𝑠𝑝 𝑡 − 𝑦𝑚 𝑡 𝑜𝑟 𝜀 𝑡 = 𝑆𝑃 − 𝑃𝑉 8.2

o Where 𝑦𝑠𝑝 (t) is the set point (SP) and 𝑦𝑚 (𝑡) is the measured variable or process
variable (PV), measured at time 𝑡.
 Proportional (P) control

o From Eq. 8.1, the larger the magnitude of the error, the larger the corrective action.

o The signal, 𝑦𝑚 (𝑡) can be a direct measurement or equivalent signal from the
sensor/transmitter.

o In control system, it is typically assumed that the process is steady when 𝑡 < 0.

o In this case, the error signal is 𝜀 𝑡 = 0 𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡 i.e., the error has a fixed value.

o The controller output is then constant.

o And the output represents the signal required to keep the final control element at its
steady state setting and hence the process.
 Proportional (P) control

o Thus, 𝐶𝑂𝑏𝑖𝑎𝑠 is the controller output when the system is at steady state so that SP
and PV are the same or 𝑆𝑃 − 𝑃𝑉 has a fixed value.

o Can be thought of as providing steady state operating point for the controller.

o This provides a bumpless transfer from automatic control to manual control.

o The bias can be adjusted – procedure called manual reset.

o In this case, the controller output and therefore the final control element or process
will be at the new nominal (steady state) value at which the new error is constant.

o The constant 𝐾𝑐 in Eq. 8.1 is the controller gain also known as static or steady state
gain.
 Proportional (P) control

o 𝐾𝑐 is a measure of how much the controller outputs for a unit change in the error
signal.
o Indicates strength (sensitivity) of the control action in relation to changes in the error
signal.
o Sensitivity – how fast the system responds to changes.
o Thus, 𝐾𝑐 can be adjusted to make control action as sensitive as desirable and is a
tuning parameter.
o 𝐾𝑐 is dimensionless if 𝐶𝑂 and 𝜀 𝑡 have same dimensions, otherwise may have units.
o The sign of 𝐾𝑐 can be chosen to make the control action direct or reverse acting –
positive or negative feedback control.
 Proportional (P) control – Controller saturation

o A more realistic representation of a controller must include controller saturation.

o Occurs when disturbance or set point change is so large that it requires adjustment
of a manipulated variable beyond what the controller can achieve.

o Controller output in this cases reaches its physical limits, i.e., either 𝐂𝐎𝒎𝒂𝒙 or
𝐂𝐎𝒎𝒊𝒏 is reached.
o E.g., input/outputs of electronic controllers are typically calibrated from 4 to 100 mA.

o With 100 mA corresponding to the upper output limit.

o A disturbance requiring a controller output above 100 mA saturates the controller.

o Controller produces no further control action beyond its limit.

 Proportional (P) control – Proportional band

o Some controllers have a proportional band (PB) setting rather than actual 𝐾𝑐 values.

o PB is in percentage and is defined as

100%
𝑃𝐵 in % = (8.3)
𝐾𝑐

o Where 𝐾𝑐 must be dimensionless.

o A narrow (small) PB corresponds to a large 𝐾𝑐 setting and a wide (large) PB

corresponds to a small 𝐾𝑐 value.

o PB represents range over which error must change to drive controller actuating
signal over its full range.
 Proportional (P) control – Proportional band

o Thus, a controller with 50% PB requires a 50% change in error to move its input signal
and thus output over its full range.

o Fig. 8.1 shows the effect of the controller gain (or PB) on the response of a process.

o For controllers with a 𝐾𝐶 setting, increasing this parameter results in a faster or

aggressive response.

o If 𝐾𝐶 is too large, the response may become oscillatory and unstable in some cases.

o Conversely, for controllers with PB setting, decreasing this parameter has the same
effect as increasing 𝐾𝐶
 Proportional (P) control – Effect of KC or PB

SP
Offset

Kc=1 Kc=8 Kc=18

0 Time

Fig.8.1 Effect of increasing KC (or decreasing PB) on the response of a P-controlled higher-order system
 Proportional (P) control – Effect of KC or PB

o I.e., faster or aggressive response that may become oscillatory and unstable if PB is
too small.
o Knowing whether controller uses Kc or PB is essential to ensure right adjustments.
Proportional control - Offset
o Inherent drawback of P-only control is the presence of offset (also known as steady-
state error or droop).
o Usually, disturbance (load) is sustained i.e., occurs and its new value is maintained.
o For such disturbances, controlled variable does not return to its original desired value.
o Rather, it attains a new equilibrium value known as the control point.
 Proportional (P) control – Offset

o Difference between desired value and the new equilibrium value is known as offset.
Why offset is present?
o Consider a stirred tank heater with a control system fitted to it.
o If inlet temperature begins to fall, exit temperature will likewise begin to decrease.
o In response, controller opens the steam valve proportionally to the error.
o Action is aimed to compensate for the decreased feed temperature.
o This action must be continuously applied for the control system to work.
o Thus, a continuous additional controller output must be applied to the control valve.
 Proportional (P) control – why offset?

o Additional output can only exist if there is a continuous error signal applied to the
controller.

o Thus, exit temperature rises and approaches its desired value until it reaches a new
equilibrium value.

o New equilibrium value is less than the desired value.

o This ensures continuous existence of the error signal required for the additional
output.

o At the new equilibrium, the steam valve opening is just enough to maintain the
temperature at the new control point.

o Offset typically decreases with an increase in controller gain.

 Proportional (P) control – Effect of KC on offset

o Thus, increasing 𝐾𝐶 results in decreased offset and faster response.

o Thus, it might be tempting to make 𝑲𝒄 as large as possible in an attempt to reduce

the offset.

o However, response may be oscillatory if 𝐾𝐶 is too large.

o Degree of oscillations may increase if 𝐾𝐶 is further increased.

o Response may also become unstable in some cases.

o This is another drawback of P-control.

o Thus, 𝑲𝒄 setting is typically a compromise between closeness to set-point and

degree of response oscillations.
 Proportional (P) control

o P-control is simple and is frequently employed on its own.

o It is also the preferred control action when:

 When offset is not an important consideration, and

 where the system is sufficiently stable so that large values of 𝑲𝒄 can be tolerated.
 Some processes with proportional control – blending process

o As an example, consider the previously Control valve

Pure A
discussed blending, recast in Fig. 8.1. Mixture of A and B
x1 , w1 w2,x2 1
 Control objective is still the same.

 I.e., regulate exit composition so that h

it is within a desired range.
x, w
 This is in spite of changes in feed
flow-rate and composition. Fig.8.1 blending process

o Species A concentration in the feed stream can change at any time leading to a change
in exit composition.
 Some processes with proportional control – blending process

o Despite changes in inlet composition, control of exit composition within a certain

range must be achieved.

o Usually when a disturbance occurs, it is natural to think of changing the manipulated

variable proportional to the error amount.

o For the blending process, the exit composition can be measured.

o Measurement is then used to calculate the error or deviation of measurement from

desired value.

o And manipulated variable adjusted proportionally to the calculated error.

o Proportional control law written for the blending process is as given by Eq. 8.4.
 Some processes with proportional control – blending process

𝑤2 𝑡 = 𝑤
ഥ2 + 𝐾𝐶 𝑥𝑠𝑝 − 𝑥(𝑡) 8.4

o The error is then defined as 𝜺(𝒕) = 𝒙𝒔𝒑 − 𝒙(𝒕) and denotes the amount by which
the measurement deviates from the set-point.

o Note that 𝒙𝒔𝒑 is the set point value of the exit composition and 𝒙(𝒕) is the measured
exit composition at time 𝒕.

o 𝒙𝒔𝒑 represents desired state of the blending process and 𝒙(𝒕) denotes its state.

o Eq. 8.4 implies that flow-rate 𝒘𝟐 must be varied proportionally to the error.

o This keeps exit composition within desired range.

 Some processes with proportional control – blending process

o As before Kc is the controller gain, a proportional constant.

o Note that manipulated variable is adjusted from its steady-state value.
o Hence the presence of 𝑤
ഥ2 in Eq. 8.4 which is the bias for this process.
o From Eq. 8.4, the further the exit composition is from set point, the large the corrective
action.
o Conversely, a small deviation from set point produces a small corrective action.

o The controller gain 𝑲𝒄 must be positive since when 𝒙 increases, 𝒘𝟐 must decrease.

o Or conversely, when 𝒙decreases, 𝒘𝟐 must increase.

 Some processes with proportional control – stirred tank heater

o As another example, consider the stirred Feed

Fi (ft3/min), Ti (oF)
tank heater previously discussed.
T
o Control objective is still the same as before. h
Q
Product

o I.e., To control the temperature 𝑻 of the Steam

Fi (ft3/min), T (oF)
Condensate
Fst (Ib/min)
liquid in the tank as 𝑻𝒊 changes.
Fig.8.2 Stirred tank heater
o Assuming that the liquid hold-up in the tank
remains constant.
 Proportional control – stirred tank heater

o That is, inlet flow-rate must be equal to outlet flow-rate for hold-up to remain const.

o For this process, the measurement is liquid temperature 𝑻 and manipulated variable is
the heat input 𝑸 (provided by steam) or 𝑭𝒔𝒕 .

o The required control law will determine exactly how the heat input from the steam
should be varied in order to keep 𝑻 constant when 𝑻𝒊 changes.

o The proportional control law expressed for the stirred heater is

𝑄 = 𝑄𝑠 + 𝐾𝐶 𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇 8.5
 Proportional control – stirred tank heater

o Effectiveness of this control law in attenuating disturbance can be analysed as follows.

o Assuming that the stirred tank has been operating at steady state.

o I.e., temperature of the liquid in the tank 𝑻 = 𝑻𝒔 and liquid volume 𝑽 = 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕.

o Under these conditions, the steady-state energy balance on the stirred tank heater
system yields
𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑟𝑏𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 = ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑎𝑚

Or 𝐹𝜌𝐶𝑝 𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇𝑖,𝑠 = 𝑄𝑠 8.6

Rearranging 𝐹𝜌𝐶𝑝 𝑇𝑖,𝑠 − 𝑇𝑠 + 𝑄𝑠 = 0 8.7

 Proportional control – stirred tank heater

o Where 𝑭, 𝝆 and 𝑪𝒑 are the flow-rates of the inlet

or outlet streams, density and specific heat
capacity of the liquid.

o 𝑻𝒊,𝒔 , 𝑻𝒔 and 𝑸𝒔 are the corresponding steady

state values of the inlet temperature, liquid
temperature and steam heat supply.

o Process will be disturbed if any of the input

variables 𝑻𝒊 or 𝑭𝒊 changes. Fig.8.3 Step increase in inlet temperature

o Suppose inlet temperature 𝑻𝒊 suddenly increases

according to the step change shown in Fig. 8.3.
 Proportional control – stirred tank heater

o Liquid temperature 𝑻 in the tank will likewise begin to increase.

o Provided that the heat supply 𝑸 is not adjusted i.e., no control action.

o The transient energy balance around the tank can be used to determine how the
liquid temperature 𝑻 changes with time 𝒕 .

o That is
𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡
𝐴𝑐𝑐𝑢𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ − 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ + 𝑎𝑑𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 8.8
𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑘 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡 𝑏𝑦 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑎𝑚

𝑑𝑇
Or 𝑉𝜌𝐶𝑝 = 𝐹𝜌𝐶𝑝 𝑇𝑖 − 𝑇 + 𝑄 8.9
𝑑𝑡
 Proportional control – stirred tank heater

o Eq. 8.9 can be expressed in terms of deviation variables by subtracting Eq. 8.7 from Eq.
8.9 i.e.

𝑑(𝑇 − 𝑇𝑠 )
𝑉𝜌𝐶𝑝 = 𝐹𝜌𝐶𝑝 𝑇𝑖 − 𝑇𝑖,𝑠 − 𝑇 − 𝑇𝑠 + 𝑄 − 𝑄𝑠 8.10
𝑑𝑡
𝑑(𝑇−𝑇𝑠 ) 𝑑𝑇
Note that = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑇𝑠 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡 (𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑦 − 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑒) 8.10
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

o Also, the difference 𝜺 = 𝑻 − 𝑻𝒔 is the error or the deviation of the liquid’s temperature
from the desired value at time 𝒕.

o Ideally, it is desirable to drive the value of this error to zero by manipulating

appropriately the value of the heat input 𝑸.
 Proportional control – stirred tank heater

o Using the suggested proportional control law, after rearranging

𝑄 = 𝑄𝑠 − 𝐾𝐶 𝑇 − 𝑇𝑠 𝑜𝑟 𝑄 − 𝑄𝑠 = −𝐾𝐶 𝑇 − 𝑇𝑠 8.11

o Rewriting Eq. 8.10 in terms of the proportional gain by substituting Eq. 8.11 yields
𝑑(𝑇 − 𝑇𝑠 )
𝑉𝜌𝐶𝑝 = 𝐹𝜌𝐶𝑝 𝑇𝑖 − 𝑇𝑖,𝑠 − 𝑇 − 𝑇𝑠 − 𝐾𝐶 𝑇 − 𝑇𝑠 8.12
𝑑𝑡

o Eq. 8.12 can be solved (𝑻 − 𝑻𝒔 ) for various values of the controller gain 𝑲𝒄 .

o Solution gives the temperature response under proportional-only control as shown in

Fig. 8.4.

o Effectiveness of the control is better for large values of Kc (Fig. 8.4).

 Proportional control – stirred tank heater

Kc= 0 (No control)

Error
(T-Ts )
Kc= 1

Kc= 2
i,s
Off-set

to Time 0 Time

Fig.8.4 Temperature response under P-only control

 Proportional control – stirred tank heater

o That is, less error or deviation of temperature from nominal value as Kc increases.

o Although, for all values of Kc none of the responses is desirable, since 𝑻 − 𝑻𝒔 ≠ 𝟎.

o Proportional control depends on continuous existence of the error signal.

o Hence, a sustained or persistent error must remain for continued effective control
action.

o That is offset is present in the temperature response of the stirred tank.

o The offset can be reduced by increasing Kc.

o However, to completely drive controlled variable to its set point, Kc must be made
infinitely large.