Process Control

CHAPTER V
CONTROL SYSTEMS
For the mathematical analysis of control systems
it’s possible to consider the controller as a
simple computer. For example, a proportional
controller may be thought of as a device which
receives the error signal and puts out a signal
proportional to it. Similarly, the final control
element may be considered as a device which
produces corrective action (related with output
signal of the controller) on the process. In
industry final control elements are operated
electronically in most of the cases. However,
here a pneumatic (needs air to operate) valve
is chosen in order to understand the details.
In the system, there exists a heat exchanger which
is used to cool down the hot stream. The
temperature of the outlet stream is continuously
measured and changing the flow rate of the
cooling water temperature is controlled.
If temperature rises the pressure in mercury filled
bulb (which senses temperature) increases and
pressure in the Bourdon helix increases causing
it to unwind. The motion of the helix moves the
pen across the chart and moves the baffle
towards the nozzle. This baffle motion is made
proportional to the pen motion by proper
linkage.
The baffle motion results in a proportional
increase in pressure in nozzle and valve
top which result an increase in cooling
water flow.
As the baffle is moved toward the nozzle,
the pressure P in the nozzle increases
because the area for air discharge is
reduced. The nozzle pressure becomes
equal to the supply pressure when the
nozzle is closed by the baffle and the
system is so designed that the nozzle
pressure falls linearly as the baffle to
nozzle distance is increased.
With the increase in pressure the plug
moves downward and supplies the flow of
cooling water through the valve.
In general, the flow rate of the fluid through
the valve depends upon the upstream and
downstream fluid pressures and the size
of the opening through the valve.
In this system, we assume that at steady
state, the flow is proportional to the valve
top pneumatic pressure. A valve with this
relation is called a linear valve.
Transfer function for a control valve
From the previous experimental studies
conducted on pneumatic valves it has been
found that the relationship between flow rate
and valve top pressure for a linear valve can
be represented by a first-order transfer
function.
Q( s) Kv

P( s)  vs 1
In many practical systems, the time constant of
the valve is very small compared with the time
constants of other components of the control
system. Therefore, the transfer function of the
valve can be approximated by a constant.
Q( s)
 Kv
P( s)
TRANSFER FUNCTIONS FOR CONTROLLERS

The transfer functions in the following part are developed

for pneumatic controllers. For electronic controllers,
the same equations are applicable by changing (P)
with suitable representation of the signal.
i. Proportional control (P Control)
The proportional controller produces an output signal which
is proportional to the error ε.

p  K c  ps
Where;
p: output pressure signal from controller
Kc: gain or sensitivity (adjustable)
ε: error, (ε = set point-measured variable)
ps usually adjustable to obtain the required output
Kc : controller gain, proportionality constant
i. The controller gain can be adjusted to
make the controller output changes as
sensitive as desired to deviations in
error.
ii. The sign can be chosen to make the
controller output increase (or
decrease) as the error signal
increases.
iii. It’s usually adjusted after the controller
has been installed.
In order to obtain transfer functions deviation
variables should be introduced.
P=p-ps
ε is already a deviation variable (at t=0, εs =0)
therefore,

P (t )  K c (t )
P ( s )  K c ( s )
P( s)
 Kc
 ( s)
 Disadvantage; a steady-state error (offset)
occurs after a set-point change or a sustained
disturbance. This can be eliminated by manually
resetting either the set-point or steady-state
value after an offset occurs. However, this
approach is inconvenient because;
 to have the change an operator intervention is
required
 new value must usually be found by trial and
error.

Advantage; for control applications where offsets

can be tolerated, proportional control is attractive
because of its simplicity.
ii. Proportional-integral control (PI Control)
This mode of control is described by the relationship,
t
Kc
p  K c 
I  dt  p
0
s

where,
Kc: gain
τI: integral time
ps: constant set-up
t
Kc
I   dt
0

this term is proportional to the integral of the error. The Kc and τI

values are adjustable.
 Advantage: In integral control offset will be
eliminated. Thus, when integral control is used
“p” automatically changes until it attains the
value required to make the steady-state error
zero.
 Although elimination of offset is usually an
important control objective, integral control is
not used by itself because little control action
takes place until the error signal has persistent
for some time. In contrast, proportional control
action takes immediate corrective action as
soon as an error is detected. Therefore,
integral control action is normally used in
conjunction with proportional control as the
proportional-integral (PI) controller.
 Disadvantage: Integral control action tends to
produce oscillatory responses of the controlled
variable which affects stability.
 t
Kc
p  p s  K c  
I 0
dt

K c  ( s)
P ( s )  K c ( s ) 
I s
P( s)  1 
 K c 1  
 (s)  Is 
iii. Proportional-derivative control (PD Control)
This mode of control is described by the relationship:

d
p  K c  K c D  ps
where,
dt
Kc: gain
τD: derivative time
Ps: constant

d
K c D
dt
in this term correction is proportional to the derivative of the error.
Derivative control action tends to improve the dynamic response of the controlled
variable by decreasing the process settling time (i.e., the time it takes the
process to reach steady-state).
In application , PD control algorithm is physically undesirable since it can not be
implemented exactly using analog or digital components.
P  p  ps
d
P  K c  K c D
dt
P( s)  K c ( s)  K c D ( s ( s)   (t ) t 0 )
  
0

P(s)
 K c (1   D s)
 ( s)
iv . Proportional-derivative-integral control
This mode of control is a combination of the previous models and is
given by;

t
d K C
p  K C   K C D  
dt  I 0
dt  ps

where, KC, τD and τI are adjustable.

The transfer function for this mode of control is given as

P( s)  1 
 K C 1   D s  
 (s)  Is 
 Example for proportional-integral control.
Where, unit step change in error i.e., ε(t)=1
KC t
p (t )  K C (1) 
I  (1)dt  p
0
s

KC
p (t )  K C  t  ps
I

 Example for proportional-derivative control.

Where, ε(t)=A.t

 (t )  A.t
d ( At )
p (t )  K C At  K C D  ps
dt
p (t )  K C At  K C D A  ps
 no control

Deviation proportional control

variable

proportional-integral
control

Time (min) proportional-integral-derivative

control
 If disturbance occurs the value of the
controlled variable starts to rise. Without
control this variable continues to rise to a
new steady-state value.
 With proportional action only, the control
system can stop the rise of the controlled
variable and ultimately bring it to rest at a
new steady-state value. The difference
between this new steady-state value and
the original value is called “offset”.
 The addition of integral action eliminates
the offset, the controlled variable
ultimately returns to the original value.
The disadvantage of this action is a more
oscillatory behavior.
 With the addition of derivative action the
response will be improved. The rise of
the controlled variable is stopped more
quickly and its returned rapidly to the
original value with little or no oscillation.
First-order Systems
dy
a1  a0 y  bf (t )
dt
a1 dy b
y f (t )
a0 dt a0
a1 b
,  Kp
a0 a0
τ: time constant
Kp: steady state gain

Kp
G(s) 
s  1
i. They have capacity to store material, energy or
momentum.
ii. There exists a resistance with the flow of mass,
energy or momentum associated with pumps,
valves, weirs and pipes.
iii. A first order system is self-regulating
 p : (time constant) is a measure of the time
necessary for the process to adjust to a change in
input.
Time y(t) as % of ultimate
elapsed value

p 63.2
2 p 86.5
3 p 95
4 p 98
iv. At steady state

 (output )
 Kp
 (input )
to have the same change in the output:

 a small change in input is required if Kp is large (very

sensitive)
 a large change in input is required if Kp is small.
Second-order systems
2
d y dy
a2 2  a1  a0 y  bf (t )
dt dt

i. Multicapacity processes (i.e., two or more first order systems)

ii. Inherently second order systems (having inertia)
iii. A processing system with its controller
Example: Obtaining the transfer function for a
first order system with a capacity for mass
storage.
 Consider the tank shown in figure. The
volumetric flow in is Fi and the outlet
volumetric flow rate is Fo. In the outlet stream
there is a resistance to flow, such as a pipe,
valve or weir.

Fi Fi

h h
Fo

R Fo
 Assume that the effluent flow rate Fo is related
linearly to the hydrostatic pressure of the liquid
level h, through the resistance R:

h driving force for flow

F0  
R resistance to flow
 The total mass balance gives;

dh h
A  Fi  F0  Fi 
dt R
 dh
AR  h  RFi
dt
at steady state hs  RFi , s
dh
AR  h  RFs
dt
where
h  h  hs
Fi  Fi  Fi , s
 p  AR  time constant of the process
K P  R  steady state gain of the process
H ( s ) Kp
G ( s)  
Fi ( s )  ps 1
 The cross-sectional area of the tank A is
a measure of its capacitance to store
mass. Thus the larger the value of A, the
larger the storage capacity of the tank.
 Since time constant is defined as AR, we
can say that,
(time constant)=(storage capacitance) x
(resistance to flow)