1

DEBARK UNIVERSITY

COLLEGE OF SOCIAL SCIENCE

DEPARTMENT OF GEOGRAPHY AND ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES

Degree Program: B. A Degree in Geography and Environmental Studies

Module Name: Landform Studies
Course Title: Terrain Analysis and Land Use planning, Cr.Hr.: 3
Course Code: GeES1033
Course information: Academic Year 2019/2020

1
 2

CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION

CONCEPT AND DEFINATION OF TERRAIN ANALYSIS

The concept of terrain analysis has developed in response to the need for an understanding of
terrain by an increasing variety of disciplines concerned with practical uses. These are both
scientific such Geology, Botany, Zoology, Pedology, Metrology, and applied such as Agriculture,
Forestry, Civil and Military Engineering and urban recreation landscape design. This range of
inter relation makes it important to be especially careful about the terms employed.

The term terrain long familiar in military use has become popular with geographer especially in
America where its spelling terrane is often used.

 Terrain:

 Derived from Latin word “terra” which means piece of earth, ground or land.

 In French, language terrain means piece of ground for training horses.

 Is land area characterized with respect to one or more natural (physical,

biological) characteristics and/or cultural features.

 Terrain is defined by Oxford English Dictionary as “A tract (Lay of stretch of land) of

country considered with regard to its natural features, configuration, etc.

 Webster dictionary defines it as “A tract or region of ground immediately under

observation; environment; milieu. In military use it is “An Area or ground considered
as to its extent and topography in relation to its use for a specific purpose as for battle
or erection of fortification and as affecting its tactical advantages, fitness for
maneuvering, etc.”

2
 3

Definition of terrain
Terrain refers to the characteristic features of a land surface: landforms, elevation, rocks, soils,
and vegetation if any. Terrain can be mountainous, hilly, or flat. It can be bare, rocky, desert,
swampy, grass, forest, and many other descriptive and ecological classifications. It is any term
that defines a particular region or area.

Terrain is used as a general term in physical geography, referring to the lie of the land. This is
usually expressed in terms of the elevation, slope, and orientation of terrain features. Terrain
affects surface water flow and distribution. Over a large area, it can affect weather and climate
patterns.
General Types of Special Terrains

• Aquatic Terrain: This is an environment where water is the dominant medium.

Submarine scenarios, seas, lakes, rivers, marshes, mangrove swamps (jungles covered by
water), etc.

• Desert Terrain: A terrain where heat and sand prevail. Desert Terrain could be dune
deserts, stony areas, desolate savannas, etc.

• Mountain Terrain: This encompasses zones at great height over the sea level, with rocky
formations and little vegetation. Mountain Terrains are the high, medium and low peaks,
defiles, fjords, rocky slopes, ice and snow plains, tundra, etc.

• Jungle Terrain: These characterize very solid woods. Rain forests, jungles, thick forests,
groves, etc.

• Zero-G Terrain: This is where gravity force is very weak or non-existent, requiring a
different sense of direction and movement. Zero-G Terrain includes zones with
atmosphere and pressure and also exterior vacuum.

3
 4

How terrains are formed

 Terrain is formed by intersecting processes:

i. Geological processes: Migration of tectonic plates, faulting and folding, volcanic eruptions etc

ii. Erosional processes: water and wind erosion, landslides.

iii. Extraterrestrial: meteorite impacts.

Tectonic processes such as orogenies cause land to be elevated, and erosional or weathering
processes cause land to be worn away to lower elevations.

What is Land form? A land form is a natural feature of the earth’s surface. It is the shape of
the land surface on the natural features. It may be formed due to geological process near or on
the earth’s surface. Land forms together make up a given terrain and their arrangement on the
land scape or the study the same known as topography. A typical land form includes hill,
mountains, plateau, valley, canyons, as well as shoreline feature like water bodies. Land forms
categorized by characteristic physical attributes like elevation, slope, orientation, surface
configuration, rocky exposure, soil types, climate condition. A complete study of land forms
includes determination of its land size, land shape, arrangement, surface configuration and
relationship to the surrounding area. The principal groups of land for more plains, plateau, hills
and mountains with in each of these groups are surface features of a smaller size such as flat
lowlands, hillside slope of varying steepness. Each type results from the interaction of earth
processes in a region with given climate and rock condition.

What is land scape? It is visible part the earth’s surface and combines to natural features and
man-made activity. Example, Konso land scape it’s registered by UNESCO to consider their
farming practice with their land form and farming system.

Terrain analysis
Terrain analysis is the quantitative analysis of topographic surfaces. This Topographic attributes
or surfaces, including specific catchment area, slope, aspect, plan curvature can be calculated and

4
 5

used to predict spatial patterns of soil water content and soil erosion, solar radiation estimation,
spatial distribution of soil physical and chemical properties, spatial distribution of vegetation and
prediction of vegetation types. In other words, Terrain analysis is the science of topographic
quantification; its operational focus is the extraction of land-surface parameters and objects from
digital elevation models (DEMs) or Terrain analysis is concerned with the arrangement and
grouping of the different areas of the earth’s surface into a variety of categories on the basis of
similarity of the type of surface and near surface attributes.

Terrain analysis ranges from largely qualitative, typified by military terrain analysis, to
sophisticated numerical computations in geomorphometry. Terrain analysis is the collection,
analysis, evaluation, and interpretation of geographic information on the natural and man-made
features of the terrain, combined with other relevant factors, to predict the effect of the terrain on
military operations, the selection of locations for economic development, where users seek to
understand how the terrain effects and limits human activity.

Terrain analysis defines a broad and interdisciplinary field of study that describes map and
classification of various aspect of natural geographic environment.

 Is an art and science of interpreting the earth’s land forms deducting the nature of
the surface materials in them and predicting their physical, chemical, or biological
characteristics and properties for specific purpose, project or application.

 Terrain analysis is a part of analytical cartography deals with the analysis,

classification, interpretation and presentation of land features or land surface.

 Although terrain analysis often involves GIS and computer analysis and
visualization field and aerial photo based techniques are also used to identify
surficial materials, landforms and geomorphic processes with application for
transportation systems, habitant mapping, forestry and mining.

 Terrain analysis is hardly or not possible without using concept and contents of
land form and geomorphology. Thus terrain analysis and terrain evaluation are
strongly dependent on applied geomorphology and land form.

Terrain Analysis versus Terrain Evaluation

5
 6

Terrain Analysis refers to separating or breaking up of any whole into its parts so as to find out
them nature, properties, relationship, etc. and is dissolving a resolution of a whole into parts.
Hence terrain analysis involves simplification of the complex phenomena which is the natural
geographic environment.

Whereas, evaluation is the act or result expressing the numerical value of judging; concerning
the worth of an object. This term is more inclusive and thus preferable to such terms an analysis,
classification, quantification, assessment, or appraisal.

Terrain evaluation as a process, involves find analysis i.e. the simplification of the complex
phenomenon which is the terrain; secondly, classification – the organization of data
distinguishing one area from another and characterizing each and thirdly, appraisal the
manipulation, interpretation and assessment of data practical ends.

Terrain evaluation makes use of a wide range of geomorphological techniques and so no single
definitive meaning has been establishes. In its narrowest definition, terrain evaluation is regarded
as synonyms with mapping of land system, a procedure for classifying the landscape by dividing
it in to land form assemblages with similarities in terrain, soils, vegetation, and geology
(Mitchell, 1973).

Lacurance etal, 1993 regarded terrain evaluation for engineering projects as a method for
summarizing the physical aspect of landscape initially through classification and then including
an assessment of ground conditions in terms of engineering requirements.

According to Grifts and Edwaral (2001), terrain evaluation is defined as evaluation and
interpretation of land surface and near surface features using techniques that do not involve
ground exploration by excavation (except using small hand dig pits. Terrain evaluation is
normally used as techniques of applied geomorphology in planning and environmental studies
and it is central for all sciencessful civil engineering constrictions.

Terrain evaluation procedures shows include an evaluation of soils, vegetation, land use, earth
materials, drainage, and human activities in addition to geomorphological processes and land
forms. The techniques that can be employed in terrain evaluations include geomorphological
mapping, geological mapping, engineering photogrammetric, land systems mapping, natural

6
 7

hazard and risk assessment and the use of GIS. The output from terrain evaluation is usually a
suite of maps either held as hard copy or as a suite of overlays in a GIS.

Scope and Subject Matter of Terrain Analysis and Land Use Planning
All geospatial, biophysical and socio-cultural attributes make up the scope of terrain analysis and
land use planning. Terrain analysis and land use planning has relation with those physical and
social sciences that are related with the study of land and land attributes. Scope is the level of
study which is detail ness of our analysis.

Some of the related fields of study in physical science include landform, geomorphology,
climatology, geology, hydrology, biology, geophysics, geochemistry, land trap architecture,
ecology, etc. those social sciences that provide important information for land use planning are
economics, management, sociology and social anthropology, political science.

Thus the scope of terrain analysis is very broad aspect dependence on wide range of contents
taken from both physical and social sciences.

The subject matter of terrain analysis and land use planning is simply assessing the potential of
land and putting it for the optimum use based on data gathered on suitability of the land for
specific uses.

Therefore, terrain analysis is pre requisite for land use planning i.e. before a given terrain is put
for certain specific use it should be systematically analyzed and evaluated against some re-set
and specific criteria.

However the following three main types of phenomena are generally excluded:

1. The atmosphere; this is to variable and ephemeral to be assigned to sufficiently small and
closely definable tracts of the earth’s surface.

2. Permanent expenses of water. These are not terrain in the strict sense.

3. That part of the earth’s crust which lie; at a depth greater than about six meters. Terrain
evaluation con not be concerned with land uses such as mining, deep well drilling, or
other which do not involve exploitation of the immediate surface.

Importance of terrain study

Why study terrain features?

7
 8

 The local variation of terrain properties causes profound changes in the biosphere,
microclimate, hydrologic cycle, and in the distribution of human activities on this planet.

Thus, the understanding of terrain is critical essential for the following reasons:

 The knowledge of the terrain of a region largely determines its suitability for human
settlement: flatter, alluvial plains tend to have better farming soils than steeper, uplands.

 In terms of environmental quality, agriculture, and hydrology, understanding the terrain

of an area enables the understanding of watershed boundaries, drainage characteristics,
water movement, and impacts on water quality. Complex arrays of relief data are used as
input parameters for hydrology transport models to allow prediction of river water
quality.

 Understanding terrain also supports on soil conservation, especially in agriculture.

Contour plowing is an established practice enabling sustainable agriculture on sloping
land; it is the practice of plowing along lines of equal elevation instead of up and down a
slope.

 Understanding terrain also supports to identify Geo-hazards site and hence, reduce its
possible effects through applying geo-hazard management strategies.

 Terrain is militarily critical because it determines the ability of armed forces to take and
hold areas, and move troops and material into and through areas. An understanding of
terrain is basic to both defensive and offensive strategy.

 Terrain is important in determining weather patterns. Two areas geographically close to

each other may differ radically in precipitation levels or timing because of elevation
differences or a "rain shadow" effect.

 Precise knowledge of terrain is vital in aviation, especially for low-flying routes and
maneuvers/method and airport altitudes. Terrain will also affect range and performance of
radars and terrestrial radio navigation systems. Furthermore, a hilly or mountainous
terrain may strongly impact the implementation of a new aerodrome and the orientation
of its runways.

User requirements from terrain feature application:

8
 9

The main specialist interests concerned with terrain evaluation, analysis and their requirements
include earth scientists, civil and military engineering, and agriculturalists, of all types, foresters,
hydrologists, urban, rural and recreational planner, meteorologists, and archeologists.

1. Academic Earth science: This includes geologists, geomorphologits, zoologists, botanists,

ecologists, and pedologists. Such specialists differ from other interested in terrain in that
requirements are wider ranging, more variable, less routine and predictable, and less oriented
towards immediate practical applications. They are so much concerned with past processes as
with future possibilities.

2. Agriculture: Broadly include all those specialists concerned with raising economic plants
and animals and thus comprehends agriculturalists, foresters, pastoralists, horticulturists,
planners, etc. These are mainly concerned with the properties of land apart from its location: soil
fertility, made up of nutrients status, texture, moisture regime, the absence of soil and
topographic limitation, and host of related factors; Soil manageability consisting of filth(depth
of soil affected by cultivation), hardness, permeability, relief gradient, and their determining
conditions, and the nature of existing vegetation.

3. Civil Engineering: This involves a number of operations requiring knowledge of terrain

factors: preparatory excavations for buildings, roads, railways, airfields, dams, bridges, canals,
drains, Quarries for borrow lime, building stone and bricks. It must also consider the suitability
of ground for land bearing which can be derived particle size distribution, compressibility and
shear strength of the soil under different moisture condition and from it liability to erosion and
flash flooding which is a function of slope, permeability and surface roughness.

4. Military Activities: These include many of the operation of civil engineering though an
emphasis is on the less permanent works. Military interest in terrain also focuses on such aspect
as artillery lines of sight, suitability of ground for excavating trenches, fortifications, holding
tent, laying mine fields, accepting parachute drops, and sustaining the passage and re passage of
troops and both tracked and untracked vehicles. Traffic ability primarily depends on soil strength,
stickiness, and the frequency of gradients exceeding certain critical figures.

5. Meteorology and Climatology: These are concerned with the effect of terrain on weather and
climate. Slope aspect, and the nature of soil surface influence climate both directly through their
effect on winds, insulation, fog, cloud, and rain and indirectly through the activities of

9
 10

vegetation.

6. Hydrology: This requires knowledge of terrain in a number of ways, especially those relating
to surface and subsoil, territorial areas such as river catchments. Especially it is concerned with
runoff regimes and quantities, stream flow, infiltration, and ground water depths and movements
with practical application to water supplies, and erosion and flood hazards.

7. Urban and Rural Residential and Recreational Planning: Terrain is an important

determinant of landscape aesthetics and as such must be considered in all planning schemes. In
general, in developed area, the less valuable land for agriculture the valuable it is for residential
and recreational purposes. While agriculture tends to favour flat fertile areas of little aesthetic
charm, recreational and residential developments prefer proximity of hilly or rocky area covered
with sandy beaches in so far as their development can be harmonized with cost limitation.

8. Nature Conservancy and Wildlife planning: These interests also place high value of
landscape aesthetics but have an additional intersect in geological or ecological Varity. Habitats
of unusual plant or animal species have an increasing scientific interest and educational value so
that in places their main importance may be for demonstration purposes.

Terrain Data Types and Sources

Sources of terrain analysis

 The major sources of data for terrain analysis are:
i. Topographic map(contours lines), existing maps
ii. Aerial photographs
iii. Satellite images
iv. Field study( GPS data collection and surveys)
v. From other ancillary data (digital & analogue map)
E.g. shape file of digital format–point, line, and polygon

CHAPTER TWO

TERRAIN ANALYSIS AND CLASSIFICATION

Principles and approaches in terrain analysis and classification

Procedures:
10
 11

Terrain analysis, classification, and evaluation using aerial photographs involve the following six
steps: Terrain analysis is made initially the 1st step it involves recognition of various terrain
attributes based on landform detection related to geomorphologic process, rock types and their
structure, soils, hydrologic situation and vegetation/land cover types. The 2nd step delineation of

terrain system is made according to general relief units followed by, the 3rd step delineation of

terrain units according to geomorphologic units or landforms. In the 4th step if devised, a further
specification, selection and delineation of the various terrain units (sub –units) according to
terrain attributes which are importance of the aim of the survey. The 5th step involves growing
values and ratings to the various terrain system units according to their suitability for a specific
goal. The 6th step is the final evaluation of the terrain systems, units, and sub-units according the
aims of the land suitability survey.

ATTRIBUTES OF TERRAIN

Terrain attribute is an attribute that is something tells about a phenomenon. An attribute is to

express additional information description about various earths’ features and also physical
characteristics of the land features:

1. Relief such as height, elevation, exposure, slope steepness, and rate dissection.

2. Geomorphic processes such as degradation, erosion, and mixed denudation- erosion.

3. Rock characteristics (igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary and then structure).

4. Soil characteristics such as depth, nutrient and human content, texture, stoniness and
rockiness, soil types.

5. Aspect (direction to the sun) it is orientation of line of steepness descent & together
with slope, measure exposure of a surface to wind, rain & solar radiation

6. Slope (%, degree of steepness) it measures the rate to change of elevation in the direction
of steepness fall.

7. Hydrology characteristics (surface water, ground water, and water salty)

11
 12

8. Drainage characteristics: - in this content drainage is a summation of run-off, internal

sol drainage and permeability.

9. Natural vegetation and cultivated land, land uses are also frequently taken in to
account because they indicate some characteristics of the abiotic landscape. Hence, it is
mainly the abiotic attributes, such as relief, geological / geomorphologic process,
lithology, soil and hydrological condition, complemented by vegetation / land cover types
which characterize the terrain.

TYPES OF TERRAIN FEATURES

All terrain features are derived from a complex landmass known as a mountain or ridgeline. The
term ridgeline is not interchangeable with the term ridge. A ridgeline is a line of high ground,
usually with changes in elevation along its top and low ground on all sides from which natural or
man-made terrain features are classified.

Figure, Ridgeline

Major Terrain Features:

(1) Hill. A hill is an area of high ground/the highest point. From a hilltop, the
ground slopes down in all directions (Figure). A hill is shown on a map by contour
lines forming concentric circles. The inside of the smallest closed circle is the
hilltop.

12
 13

Figure, Hill

(2) Saddle. A saddle is a dip or low point between two areas of higher
ground/hills. A saddle is not necessarily the lower ground between two hilltops; it
may be simply a dip or break along a level ridge crest. If you are in a saddle, there
is high ground in two opposite directions and lower ground in the other two
directions. A saddle is normally represented as an hourglass.

Figure, Saddle

(3) Valley. A valley is a stretched-out groove in the land, usually formed by

streams or rivers. A valley begins with high ground on three sides, and usually has
a course of running water through it. Reasonable level ground bordered or
surrounded on the sides by high ground. If standing in a valley, three directions
offer high ground, while the fourth direction offers low ground. Depending on its
size and where a person is standing, it may not be obvious that there is high

13
 14

ground in the third direction, but water flows from higher to lower ground.
Contour lines forming a valley are either U-shaped or V-shaped. To determine the
direction water is flowing, look at the contour lines. The course of the contour line
crossing the stream always points upstream or the closed end of the contour line
(U or V) always points upstream or toward high ground.

Figure, Valley

(4) Ridge. It is a line of high ground with height variations along its crest. The
ridge is not simply a line of hills; all points of the ridge crest are higher than the
ground on both sides of the ridge). Contour lines forming a ridge tend to be U-
shaped or V-shaped. The closed end of the contour line points away from high
ground. A ridge is a sloping line of high ground. Ridged line is the highest ground
(line) along the ridge.

Figure, Ridge

14
 15

(5) Depression. A depression is a low point in the ground or a sink hole. It could
be described as an area of low ground surrounded by higher ground in all
directions, or simply a hole in the ground. Usually only depressions that are equal
to or greater than the contour interval will be shown. On maps, depressions are
represented by closed contour lines that have tick marks pointing toward low
ground.

Figure, Depression

Minor Terrain Features:

(1) Draw. Similar to valley, except that is normally is a less developed stream
course than a valley. In a draw, there is essentially no level ground.
Therefore, little or no maneuver room within its confines. If you are standing
in a draw, the ground slopes upward in three directions and downward in the
other direction. A draw could be considered as the initial formation of a
valley. Draws are caused by flash floods and can be found on flat terrain but
are more often found along the sides of ridges. The contour lines depicting a
draw are U-shaped or V-shaped, pointing toward high ground.

15
 16

Figure, Draw

(2) Spur. A spur is a short, continuous sloping line of higher ground, normally
jutting out from the side of a ridge. A spur is formed by two rough parallel
streams, which cut draws down the side of a ridge. The ground sloped down in
three directions and up in one direction. Contour lines on a map depict a spur with
the U or V pointing away from high ground (Figure).

Figure, Spur

(3) Cliff. A cliff is a vertical or near vertical feature; it is an abrupt change of the
land. When a slope is so steep that the contour lines converge into one "carrying"
contour of contours, this last contour line has tick marks pointing toward low

16
 17

ground. Cliffs are also shown by contour lines very close together and, in some
instances, touching each other.

Figure, Cliff

Figure, Cliff

Supplementary Terrain Features:

17
 18

(1) Cut. A cut is a man-made feature resulting from cutting through raised
ground, usually to form a level bed for a road or railroad track. Cuts are shown on
a map when they are at least 10 feet high, and they are drawn with a contour line
along the cut line. This contour line extends the length of the cut and has tick
marks that extend from the cut line to the roadbed, if the map scale permits this
level of detail (Figure.

Figure, Cut and fill

(2) Fill. A fill is a man-made feature resulting from filling a low area, usually to
form a level bed for a road or railroad track. Fills are shown on a map when they
are at least 10 feet high, and they are drawn with a contour line along the fill line.
This contour line extends the length of the filled area and has tick marks that point
toward lower ground. If the map scale permits, the length of the fill tick marks are
drawn to scale and extend from the base line of the fill symbol.

TERRAIN CLASSIFICATION
The analysis and classification of landforms is basic to terrain studies, because landforms can
defined as “terrain features formed by natural processes which have a definable composition and
range of physical and visual characteristics occur wherever the landform is found.” (Way, 1973
as cited by Van Zudian, 1985-86)

18
 19

 It is in this context that terrain analysis and classification is linked to geomorphology

“Study genetically describes the landforms and processes which led to their formation
and investigates the interrelationships of forms and processes in their spatial arrangement
over time” (Van Zudian, 1973)

 Terrain and classification are primarily concerned with landforms, to be seen as terrain
units for which geomorphologic terms can be applied. Terrain units however, imply more.

 Terrain units are true geologic units in which forms, processes, rocks, soils, water, and
vegetation influence one another to form a particular (natural) equilibrium. A study of
terrain units based on geomorphologic principles would thus seem to be the only correct
approach to a (multi- purpose) land classification and evaluation.

 Terrain classification involves the arrangement and growing of the different areas of the
earth surface into a variety of categories (terrain components, units, system and
provinces) on the basis of similarity of the type of surface and near surface attributes.
(Fenneman,1928 as cited by Van Zudian, 1985-86)

 As defined above terrain classification is restricted to the physical aspects of the terrain.
The study of the terrain may therefore serve as a basis for further studies in, for example,
varies earth sciences, agriculture, civil engineering, military activities, meteorology and
climatology, hydrology, urban and rural residential and recreational planning, nature
conservation and wildlife planning and archeology (Collin Mitchell,1973,pp 8-9)

TERRAIN CLASSES

Terrain classification maps show the abiotic environment and coincide quite well with maps
made for land system surveys. They are perhaps closest the general purpose geomorphologic
maps. The mapping units (terrain) can be defined in four hierarchy classification levels, which
may emphasize different aspects of the geomorphology and their potential use.

1. Terrain Components:

They form the smallest terrain classes in which relief is most important as a classification
criterion. The units are basically uniform in landform, lithology, soil, vegetation, and processes,

19
 20

but one terrain form or characteristics may pre dominant. On this level, generalization in areal
classes, minor or detail is made. The map scale in which such terrain components are represented
in generally 1:10,000 or larger (used for special development projects for engineering and
management)

2. Terrain Units:

 These refer to one landform or a homogeneous landform association or complex related

to particular terrain characteristics or pattern of terrain components.

 A terrain unit reflects external and internal characteristics distinct from those of
surrounding landforms (to which they are genetically related). Within the same terrain
system, relief, lithology, and geneses are the main classification criteria. The map scale in
which only landforms/ terrain units are represented may vary from 1:10,000 to
1:100,000(used for advisory work and detailed planning of development projects).

3. Terrain Systems:

These refer to a landscape unit or characteristic or relief development in certain ecological

environment, frequently determined by genesis, lithology, or climate. A terrain system will
reflect repetitive patterns of similar and genetically related landforms which can be distinguished
from other forms in the surrounding terrain. The map scale suitable for depicting the terrain
system is in principle, larger than 1:250,000(used for feasibility surveys of multi-purpose land
development projects).

4. Terrain Provinces:

These are the largest units into which associations and complexes of terrain system and units are
combined. A province is basically uniform in broad genetic, relief, climatic or lithologic
characteristics. The suitable map scale frequently smaller than 1:250,000(used for the
identification of provisional location for development projects or as a guide for planning and
development; can also function as a framework for more detailed studies).

Basically the terrain classification map can be simply made of black unit boundaries and letter
and number symbols, because all geomorphologic aspects (i.e., morphogenesis, morphography,

20
 21

morphometry, morphochronology, and lithology) and other terrain characteristics- related to, for
example soils, hydrology, and vegetation land use can be incorporated in the definition of the
mapping units.

It descried the mapping units can also be depicted by coloured area symbols, whereas some
suspects of the morphography and morphometry, i.e. topography and lithology can be
represented by grey or brown pattern and line symbols, with water area indicates blue line
symbols.

Attributes of Terrain and terrain analysis

21
 22

TERRAIN ANALYSIS, CLASSIFICATION AND EVALUATION

Land (terrain) evaluation implies the process of assessment of the performance of land when it is
used for specified purposes involving the execution and interpretation of surveys and studies of
landform, soils, land use, vegetation, climatic and other aspect of land in order to identify and
make a comparison of promising kind of land use in terms applicable to the objective of the
evaluation (FAO, 1977, cited in Van Zudian 1985/86, p10).

Thus it is not only the abiotic terrain attributes but also the biotic (plants and animals) and human
attributes and condition which characterize the land .the analysis, classification and mapping of
the land often provides a basic input in land evaluation studies.

There are various land and terrain classification system.

(a) The physiographic classification system.

(b) The ITC classification system.

(c) The oxford-MEXE classification system.

(d) The CISRO Geomech. Div. (Grant) system.

(e) The CISRO land research and reg. survey system.

(f) The dos system, and

(g) The soviet system.

What is DEM?

Terminologies
• DEM, DTM, DSM
• There is no universal usage of the terms digital elevation model (DEM), digital
terrain model (DTM) and digital surface model (DSM) in scientific literature.
Hence in cases they are used interchangeably.
DEM

22
 23

• Digital Elevation Model (DEM) is a representation of the elevation of the Earth’s surface
above a certain datum (e.g. mean sea level) in digital form. digital representation of a
topographic surface (usually a raster or regular grid of spot heights)
• It is the simplest form of digital representation of topography and the most common. This
is achieved taking elevation measurements at regular (e.g. every 50 meters) or irregular
spaced points (e.g. every 3 arc seconds) over the Earth’s surface. DEM is the only
representing height information without any further definition about the surface.
Creating DEM: (1) Topographic map, scanning, raster to vector conversion + additional
elevation data are (i.e. shorelines provide additional contours) algorithm is used to interpolate
elevations at every grid point from the contour data. (2) By photogrammetry (manually or
automatically) extraction of elevation from photographs is confused when the ground surface is
obscured e.g. buildings, trees. (3) DEMs from each source display characteristic error artifacts.

What is Digital Terrain Model (DTM?)

It is a model providing a representation of a terrain relief on the basis of a finite set of sampled
data. It is more generic term for any digital representation of a topographic surface, but not
widely used DTM set of regularly or irregularly spaced height values but, with other information
about terrain surface ridge lines, spot heights, troughs, coast/shore lines, drainage lines, faults,
peaks, pits, passes, etc.

DTM is a DEM that represents the elevation of the bare earth without taking into account any
over ground features (e.g. trees, buildings)

Ground only – with other information about terrain surface ridge lines, spot heights, troughs,
coast/shore lines, drainage lines, faults, peaks, pits, passes, etc.

In some countries, a DTM is actually synonymous with a DEM. This means that a DTM is
simply an elevation surface representing the bare earth referenced to a common vertical datum.

In the United States and other countries, a DTM has a slight different meaning.

A DTM is a vector data set composed of regularly spaced points and natural features such as
ridges and break lines.

23
 24

A DTM augments a DEM by including linear features of the bare-earth terrain.

DSM is a DEM that represents the elevation of the surface a remote sensing system will first
meet (i.e. when aerial photography is undertaken the top of a building, forest, etc.). Thus, the
resulting DSM includes the elevation of the bare earth terrain plus the natural (e.g. trees, shrubs)
and man-made features (e.g. buildings)

A DSM is especially useful in 3D modelling and is relevant in telecommunications, urban

planning, aviation and forestry. This is because objects extrude from the Earth, which is
particularly useful in these examples: Runway approach zone encroachment – In aviation,
runway obstructions in the approach zone can be examined with a DSM to ensure no collisions.
Vegetation management- Along a transmission line, overlaying, DSM to see where and how
much vegetation is encroaching. View obstruction – Urban planners use DSM to check how a
proposed building would affect the view shed of other residents and businesses.

DTM versus DSM in the diagram below the black line represents an elevation profile of bare
earth (DTM). The red dotted line represents an elevation profile of bare earth over ground
features such as buildings, trees and shrub (DSM).

Importance of Digital Models compare to traditional topography/contour

• Digital Terrain Modeling/DEM has long replaced the qualitative and nominal
characterization of topography.
• It has shown its comparative advantages in that it gives quantitative measurement of
elevation(height) ,
• enables to derive any other terrain attribute (slope(gradient) , aspect (direction)and
curvature…) quantitatively,
• enables to visualize topography in more realistic way than ever before, and
• enables to store, update, proliferate and manipulate topographic data digitally

24
 25

• It further provides the possibility of deriving indices that can be used as indicators
for environmental processes.
Data Source of Digital Elevation Models

In principle, any data that contains the elevation information with location context can be a DEM
data source. Practically, the main source of data for producing the DEM are topographic contour
lines, randomly distributed elevation points, the frame points of land surface such as peak, sinks,
passes, points of change in slope, ridges, stream channels and shorelines, as well as stereo plotter
data (e.g. stereo aerial-photo pair or stereo SPOT image pair) etc. Stereo correlated DEMs are
created from two complementary images, aerial photographs, or satellite images (Schenk, 1989).

Surface-specific point elevation data: are Sources of elevation data, Surface-specific point
elevations, including high and low points, saddle points, and points on streams and ridges make
up the skeleton of terrain. They are an ideal data source for most interpolation techniques,
including triangulation methods and specially adapted gridding methods. These data may be
obtained by ground survey and by manually assisted photogrammetric stereo models. The
advent of the GPS has enhanced the availability of accurate ground-surveyed data (Lange and
Gilbert, Chapter 33; Dixon 1991), but such data are available only for relatively small areas.

Contour and stream-line data: Contour data are still the most common terrain data source for
large areas. Many of these data have been digitized from existing topographic maps which are
the only source of elevation data for some parts of the world. The conversion of contour maps to
digital form is a major activity of mapping organizations worldwide like (EMA) .Contours can
also be generated automatically from photogrammetric stereo models.

Remotely-sensed elevation data: Gridded DEMs may be calculated directly by stereoscopic

interpretation of data collected by airborne and satellite sensors. Stereoscopic methods have been
applied to SPOT imagery and more recently to airborne and space borne synthetic aperture radar
(SAR). Space borne lasers can also provide elevation data in narrow swathes. A major impetus
for these developments is the yet unrealized goal of generating high-resolution DEMs with
global coverage. Remote-sensing methods can provide broad spatial coverage, but have a
number of generic limitations.

Application of DEM/DTM

25
 26

• Determining attributes of terrain- elevation at any point, slope and aspect.

• Primary use of DTMs is calculation of three main terrain variables: height-altitude above
datum, aspect- direction area of terrain is facing, slope- gradient or angle of terrain.
• Finding features on the terrain- drainage basins and watersheds, drainage networks and
channels, etc.
• Modeling of hydrologic functions- energy flux and forest fires, catchment modelling and
flow models
• DEMs are widely used in hydrologic and geologic analyses, hazard monitoring, natural
resources exploration, agricultural management etc.

• DEMs are crucial in hydrological modeling as the topography controls the flow of water,
other important applications include the telecommunications industry where the
placement of broadcast antennas can be optimized using a DEM and GIS analyses.

- Visualisation- terrain and other 3D surfaces

- Visibility analysis- inter visibility matrices and view sheds
• Civil Engineering- Cut-and-fill problems involved with road design, Site planning etc.
When you void vegetation and man-made features from elevation data, you obtain a DEM. A
smooth, bare-earth elevation model is particularly useful in fields of study such as hydrology,
soils and land use planning/safety. Here are examples how a DEM can be used in GIS:

Hydrologic modelling – A DEM is used to delineate watersheds, calculate flow accumulation

and find out flow direction.

Terrain stability – Areas prone to avalanches are high slope areas with sparse vegetation, which
is useful when planning a highway or residential subdivision.

Soil mapping – DEMs assist in mapping soils which is a function of elevation (as well as
geology, time and climate).

Visibility analysis
A map of either visible or invisible regions has immense value. Inter visibility maps are used in
siting radar and television transmitters, in locating fire towers, in planning ski resorts and
housing developments, in highway planning, and in military planning. The simplest approach to

26
 27

determining inter visibility is to connect a viewing location to each possible target and to follow
the line back looking for points that are higher, a method known as ray tracing

Two main approaches:

1. Digital Elevation Models (DEMs) based on data sampled on a regular grid (lattice)
2. Triangular Irregular Networks (TINs) based on irregular sampled data and Delaunay
triangulation.

DEM/regular grid: The most popular way to represent a surface is the array of equally spaced
sample points. The surface is represented by a "regular grid", or matrix, of elevation values.
Gridded elevation models can be distributed as simple matrices of elevation, with the location of
a single point and the grid spacing, implying the horizontal locations of all other points
– accept data direct from digital altitude matrices
– must be resample if irregular data used
– may miss complex topographic features
– may include redundant data in low relief areas
– less complex and CPU intensive
TIN: Triangulated Irregular Network is a set of irregularly-spaced points connected into a
network of edges that form space-filling, non-overlapping triangles. The points are usually
connected according to a Delaunay triangulation, a procedure that joins the centers neighboring.
 The primary advantage is variable resolution
– accept randomly sampled data without resampling
– accept linear features such as contours and breaklines (ridges and
troughs)
– accept point features (spot heights and peaks)
Generally, the surface of the Earth cannot be defined by a physical or mathematical
representation but can be approximated by digital elevation models (DEM), triangular irregular
networks (TIN), and contour lines. Each representation carries approximation errors. Of the
three, a digital model of the relief, a GDEM is the simplest one. In it, we assume that the surface
of the Earth can be approximated to a regular grid of elevations resulting in a stair-step,
discontinuous representation of the relief. This approach introduces the greatest amount of errors.

27
 28

A TIN represents a surface by a set of contiguous, non-overlapping triangles. An elevation value

is assigned to each triangle vertice. This approach introduces less error than a DEM because we
use an irregular network of triangles to represent the relief. An irregular network of triangles of
different sizes fit better to the Earth than a regular grid.

28
 29

Chapter three
Morphometric Analysis of Terrain features
What is morphometry?

Morphometric is the measurement and mathematical analysis of the configuration of the earth’s
surface, shape and dimensions of its landforms. Morphometric methods, though simple, have
been applied for the analysis of area-height relationships, determination of erosion surfaces,
slopes, relative relief and terrain characteristics, river basin evaluation, and watershed
prioritization for soil and water conservation activities in river basins (Kanth, 2012).
Morphometric analysis requires measurement of the linear features, gradient of streams, and
slopes of the drainage basin.

Relief and Slope Analysis

A preliminary step to study the geomorphological features or Morphometric study of any area is
analysis of its relief feature. The variation of earth surface or a part of it becomes focus of a
geomorphic study of landforms. Relief analysis of any terrain may be done with the help of
morphometry. The absolute relief and relative relief, slope and drainage with quantitative
characters and dissection index are the main elements of morphometry which helps in the
analysis of relief of any terrain.

What is Relief? The meaning of term relief may be defined as the difference in elevation of any
part of the earth's surface or relative vertical inequality of land surface. Relief and other
geomorphic elements are also based in differences in elevation. These morphometric elements
are absolute relief, relative relief, slope and dissection index, and drainage characteristics. These
elements of morphometry are valuable in dividing the landforms into various morpho units and
their relation with geology of a particular area, climatic and hydrological conditions as well as
classification and sub classification of landforms i.e. absolute relief, slope, relief profile etc. So,
relief analysis becomes essential for studying a given area.

The reference or start point vertical measurements of elevation on standard map are the datum
plane or mean sea level. Elevation of appoint on the earth’s surface is the vertical distance,

29
 30

above or below mean sea level. Relief is the representation (as depicted by the mapmakers) of
the shape of hills, valleys, streams or terrain features on the earth’s surface.

The whole processes of relief depended upon the nature of relief i.e. young, mature or old,
geological condition, climatic condition, rainfall, temperature, humidity, evaporation slope
aspect, etc. On the basis of above mentioned facts, 'Relief Analysis' deals with the absolute relief,
altitudinal zone, area height relationship and relative relief, relief profile, and slope analysis and
dissection index.

Absolute Relief: - Absolute relief means the maximum height of any region. Or Absolute relief
gives the elevation of any area above the sea level in exact figure. Absolute relief contains
maximum height in the topography. Absolute map indicate maximum and minimum height in the
area. The absolute relief may be analyses with help of two components; (i) Inter-altitudinal zones
discrepancies (based on contour map and (ii) discrepancies of regional distribution (based on
relief profile drawn for the study area. In other words absolute relief of a region may be analyses
in two ways. First with the help of contour map divided in zones and second by regional
distribution discrepancies based on different profiles drawn for the study area, has been divided
into grid units of one sq. km

Relative Relief:-The term relative relief means the actual variation of height i.e. different
between maximum height and minimum height in per grid. Or it is defined as the difference in
height between the highest and the lowest points in 100 km2 grid areas.

The relative relief (RR) represents actual variation of altitude in a unit area with respect to its
local base level. Relative relief is a very important morphometric variable which is used for the
overall assessment of morphological characteristics of terrain and degree of dissection. Relative
relief is one of the techniques which are effectively capable of presenting the relief
characteristics without considering sea level.

Different morphometric techniques used in the study

Morphometric Key description Data used Software used

techniques
1 Absolute relief Maximum height of Spot-heights and ERDAS Imagine

30
 31

relief contours (Surfacing)

with z values
2 Relative relief Maximum – minimum Digital Elevation ArcGIS (Range)
relief Model
3 Dissection Relative relief/Maximum Relative relief and ERDAS Imagine
index Relief or height Digital (Model maker)
Elevation Model

Dissection index:
The dissection index, which is the ratio between relative relief and absolute relief, gives a better
understanding of the landscape.
DI= Relative Relief (R.R.)
Absolute Relief (A.R.)
It is an important morphometric indicator of the nature and magnitude of dissection of terrain.
The value of DI varies from zero (complete absence of dissection) to one (vertical cliff at sea
level). In other words, it expresses the relationship between the vertical distance of relief from
the erosion level and relative relief (Jha, 1996).

Map makers use several methods to depict relief of the terrain

A. Layer Tinting. Layer tinting is a method of showing relief by color. A different color is used
for each band of elevation. Each shade of color, or band, represents a definite elevation range. A
legend is printed on the map margin to indicate the elevation range represented by each color.
However, this method does not allow the map user to determine the exact elevation of a specific
point—only the range.

B. Hachures. Hachures are short, broken lines used to show relief. Hachures are sometimes used
with contour lines. They do not represent exact elevations, but are mainly used to show large,
rocky outcrop areas. Hachures are used extensively on small-scale maps to show mountain
ranges, plateaus, and mountain peaks.

31
 32

C. Contour Lines. Contour lines are the most common method of showing relief and elevation
on a standard topographic map. A contour line represents an imaginary line on the ground, above
or below sea level. All points on the contour line are at the same elevation. The elevation
represented by contour lines is the vertical distance above or below sea level.

The three types of contour lines used on a standard topographic map are as follows: (1) Index:
Starting at zero elevation or mean sea level, every fifth contour line is a heavier line. These are
known as index contour lines. Normally, each index contour line is numbered at some point. This
number is the elevation of that line. (2) Intermediate: The contour lines falling between the
indexes contour lines are called intermediate contour lines: These lines are finer and do not have
their elevations given. There are normally four intermediate contour lines between index contour
lines. (3) Supplementary: These contour lines resemble dashes. They show changes in elevation
of at least one-half the contour interval. These lines are normally found where there is very little
change in elevation, such as on fairly level terrain.

Figure, Contour line

32
 33

Contour lines follow certain rules.

The following statements as rules for reading such maps: Contour lines are lines drawn on a map
connecting points of equal elevation. Contour lines on topographic maps can help to visualize
landforms. Contour lines never cross each other, because each line represents an exact elevation.
Contour circles show the highest and lowest points. Contour lines form closed circles around
mountaintops, hilltops, and the centers of depressions, which are sunken areas in the ground.
Sometimes, the elevation of a mountain or hill is written in meters or feet in the middle of the
circle. Contour interval is always the same on a map.

Index contour lines mark elevations. The darker contour lines on a map are called index contour
lines. Numbers that indicate elevations are often written on these lines. To calculate higher or
lower elevations, simply count the number of lines above or below an index line. Then multiply
that number by the contour interval

 Contour interval: the distance between two consecutive contour lines is known as
contour interval (CI)
40
80
60
100
33
 34

 In the folowoing example, CI is 20 m.

What is a Slope?

The angle which any part of the Earth’s surface makes with the horizontal slopes, it is defined as
angular inclinations of terrain between hill-tops and valley bottoms. It is resulted from the
combination of many causative factors like geological structure, absolute and relative reliefs,
climate, vegetation cover, drainage texture and frequency, dissection index etc.

Slope significance to describe the overland and subsurface flow velocity and runoff rate,
Precipitation, Vegetation, Geomorphology, Soil water content, Land capability class. Slope
quantifies the maximum rate of change in value from each cell to its neighbors.

Slope can be expressed as either a vertical angle measured from the horizontal in degrees (0 to
90) or as percent slope [tangent (slope) x 100; Choose either Degrees or Percent from the
optimum to make this selection. Use the following formula to determine slope: Rise ÷ Run x
100 = Slope % OR (Change in elevation (rise) ÷ horizontal distance (run) x 100 = slope %)
23‘ ÷ 100‘ x 100 = 23% .
 Slope can be expressed in four ways:

34
 35

• Slope ratio (e.g. 1:10)

• Slope fraction (e.g. 1/10)

• Percent slope (rise per 100 units of run) 10%

Types of slope

Depending on the military mission, soldiers may need to determine not only the height of a hill,
but the degree of the hill slope as well. The rate of the rise or fall of a terrain is known as its
slope. The speed at which equipment or personnel can move is affected by the slope of the
ground or terrain features. This slope can be determined from the map by studying the contour
lines, the closer the contour lines, the steeper the slope; the farther apart the contour lines, the
gentler slope.

Slopes can broadly be classified into gentle, steep, concave, convex and irregular or undulating.
The contours of different types of slopes show a distinct spacing pattern. The slope angles can be
divided into the following categories but vary from writer to writer)

i) Gentle slope category = 2⁰-12⁰

ii) Moderate slope category = 12⁰-22⁰

iii) Moderately Steep slope category = 22⁰-31⁰

iv) Steep slope category = 31-45⁰

v) Very steep slope = > 450

A. Gentle slope: contour lines showing a uniform, gentle slope will be evenly spaced and

wide apart. A slope with contour lines spread far apart from each other. This slope

category comprises the maximum gentle slope of the area on planner surfaces, saddles,
ridges, water divides and river terraces.
B. Steep slope: contour lines showing a uniform, steep slope on a map will be evenly
spaced, but close together. Remember the closer the contour lines, the steeper the slope.
A slope with contour lines very close to each other. Cliffs and free faces are commonly
marked in the adjoining of very steep slope category.

35
 36

C. Concave slope: contour lines showing a concave slope on the map will be closely spaced
at the top of the terrain feature and widely spaced at the bottom. A slope which becomes
progressively steeper downhill. It can refer to an entire slope or part of one. On a map the
Contour lines will be spaced closer with an increase in height above sea-level.

D. Convex slope: contour lines showing a convex slope on a map will be widely spaced at
the top and closely spaced at the bottom. A slope which becomes progressively steeper
downhill. It can refer to an entire slope or part of one. On a map the contour lines will be
spaced closer together with a decline in height above sea-level.

36
 37

Development of slopes

The influence of rock structure and lithology on slopes: Lithology influences profile form and
angle. The strength, stability and permeability of a rock are important factors in determining
slope form. (E.g. convexities form the greater part of profiles developed on sandstones, about
half on limestone and less than half on shale’s. Maximum slope angles also vary with lithology,
(e.g. max. slope angle- on limestone is usually about 20º, shale’s 9 º, and on clays 5.5 º) - The
nature of the regolith which is formed is also important. (E.g. surface wash as a slope forming
process depends on the permeability of the regolith. Surface wash is more effective on less

37
 38

permeable regolith such as clay.) The presence of joints, cracks and bedding planes can allow
increased water content and so lead to sliding.
The influence of climate on slopes
It affects surface processes directly and indirectly. For example, it determines the significance of
weathering processes such as frost shattering or surface run-off.
The influence of vegetation on slopes
The main effect of vegetation is the protection it gives the soil from surface wash and rain splash.
Other effects are: the action of roots in holding the regolith on the slope, the contribution to
chemical weathering by the products of organic acids and the supply of organic matter which
improves soil structure.
Human influence
Deforestation increases the rate of slope movement.
Building road or quarrying at the foot of slopes upsets the equilibrium.
The shaking action of heavy traffic.
The grazing of animals and plowing loosen soil and remove protective vegetation cover.
Terrain curvature
A terrain curvature for a particular cell represents the curvature of a line formed by intersecting a
plane of some chosen orientation with the terrain surface. A curvature value is the reciprocal of
the radius of curvature of the line, so a broad curve has a low curvature and a tight curve has a
high curvature value. You can choose curvature units of radians per meter or radians per hundred
meters. Profile curvature is the terrain curvature in the vertical plane parallel to the local slope
direction.
It measures the rate of change of slope and therefore influences the flow velocity of water
draining the surface. Profile curvature is positive for a convex upward surface and negative for
one that is concave upward. Plan curvature (also called contour curvature)
Interpretation of topographical maps
Knowledge of map language and sense of direction are essential in reading and interpreting topo-
sheets. You must first look for the northline and the scale of the map and orient yourself
accordingly. You must have a thorough knowledge of the legends / key given in the map
depicting various features.

38
 39

All topo-sheets contain a table showing conventional signs and symbols used in the map
Conventional signs and symbols are internationally accepted; so, anyone can read any map
anywhere in the world without knowing the language of that particular country.
A topographic sheet is usually interpreted under the following heads:
(a) Marginal Information
(b) Relief and Drainage
(c) Land Use
(d) Means of Transport and Communication
(e) Human Settlement
Marginal Information: It includes the topographical sheet number, its location, grid
references, its extent in degrees and minutes, scale, the districts covered, etc.
Relief of the Area: The general topography of the area is studied to identify the plains, plateaus,
hills or mountains along with peaks, ridges, spur and the general direction of the slope. These
features are studied under the following heads: Hill: With concave, convex, steep or gentle slope
and shape. Plateau: Whether it is broad, narrow, flat, undulating or dissected. Plain: Its types, i.e.
alluvial, glacial, karst, coastal, marshy, etc. Mountain: General elevation, peak, passes, etc.

Drainage of the Area: The important rivers and their tributaries and the type and extent of
valleys formed by them, the types of drainage pattern, i.e. dendritic, radial, ring, trellis, internal,
etc. Land Use: It includes the use of land under different categories like: Natural vegetation and
forest (which part of the area is forested, whether it is dense forest or thin, and the categories of
forest found there like Reserved, Protected, Classified / Unclassified)

Drainage basin and stream network Analysis

Basic concept of Drainage Basin

Basin or Drainage Basin an area of the Earth’s surface which drains into a single river system.
The boundaries of a basin are formed by watersheds that separate it from adjacent areas draining
into other rivers. The size and shape of a basin are usually determined by the underlying geology.
The pattern and density of streams and rivers draining the basin depend on geological structure,
land surface relief, climate, soil types, vegetation, and, increasingly, human impacts on the basin
environment. Basin Formation: Basins are major features of the landscape and over most of the

39
 40

world’s continents. Landscape-forming processes are dominated by fluvial erosion, transport,

and deposition.

Many basins are formed by geological processes involving deformation of the Earth’s crust
through extension, down warping, faulting, folding, or volcanic activity. Others are the result of
erosion of the land surface by wind, water, or ice. The structure of the underlying rocks
influences the distribution of erosion, with low and high areas developing on erodible and
erosion-resistant rocks, respectively.

Drainage: It is the removal of excess water and also it is simply the removal of water by river
and stream.

 A drainage basin is an extent or an area of land where surface water from rain and
melting snow or ice converges to a single point, usually the exit of the basin, where the
waters join another water body, such as a river, lake, reservoir, estuary, wetland, sea, or
ocean.
 In closed drainage basins the water converges to a single point inside the basin, known as
a sink, which may be a permanent lake, dry lake, or a point where surface water is lost
underground.
 The drainage basin includes both the streams and rivers that convey the water as well as
the land surfaces from which water drains into those channels, and is separated from
adjacent basins by a drainage divide.
 The drainage basin acts as a funnel by collecting all the water within the area covered by
the basin and channeling it to a single point. Each drainage basin is separated
topographically from adjacent basins by a geographical barrier such as a ridge, hill or
mountain.

 Other terms that are used to describe a drainage basin are catchment area, catchment
basin, drainage area, river basin and water basin from which all precipitation flows to a
single stream or set of streams.
 The boundary between drainage basins is a drainage divide: all the precipitation on
opposite sides of a drainage divide will flow into different drainage basins.

40
 41

Example of a drainage basin

Drainage density

 Drainage density is defined as the total length of the streams in a drainage basin divided
by the area of the basin.
 Climate affects drainage density both directly and indirectly.

 The amount and the type of precipitation influence directly the quantity and
character of runoff. In areas where precipitation comes largely as thunder showers
a large percentage of the rainfall will run off immediately and more surface
drainage lines will be formed.
 Furthermore, climate affects indirectly drainage density by the amount and kind
of vegetation growing affecting surface water runoff.
 Drainage density is greatly affected by the infiltration capacity of the mantle rock
or bedrock. It is commonly observed that drainage lines are more numerous over
impermeable materials than over permeable ones.
 Drainage density is also affected by the initial relief or the vertical distance from
the initial upland flats to the levels of adjacent graded valleys.

41
 42

Drainage systems

 They are the direction and destination of the rivers flowing from the source up to the end.
 There are two main types of drainage systems

 Sub- surface or sub stream drainage system:- the movement /flow of water
underground through rocks.

 Surface drainage system:- the flowing of water or river over the surface

 surface drainage system also again categorized into two:

I. Exotic Drainage system:- where a river ends into a sea or an ocean, it has an outlet to the
sea- E.g. The Nile River
II. Endonic Drainage system: - where a river ends into a sea, a lake -E.g. The Awash river
III. Aeric Drainage system; -where a river does not have a defined out let.
-it ends in to sandy or swampy area. E.g. the Okavango River, Genalle River.

Drainage pattern

 It is a geographic feature that expresses the fabric, pattern and arrangement of the main
river and its tributaries.

42
 43

 The drainage pattern of a given river is determined or influenced by

 The nature of the surface or underlying rock

 The slope of the surrounding topography
 Climate

 The most common encountered drainage patterns are dendritic, trellis, radial, rectangular,
centripetal and parallel drainage. Drainage patterns are classified on the basis of their
forms and texture.

1. Dendritic drainage patterns :-

 A dendritic drainage pattern is the most common form and looks like the
branching pattern of tree roots. Are characterized by irregular branching of
tributaries in many directions.
 It develops upon rocks of uniform resistance. That is, the subsurface geology has
a similar resistance to weathering and implies a notable lack of structural control
over the direction the tributaries take.
 They are most likely to be found on nearly horizontal sedimentary rocks.
 In a dendritic system, there are many contributing streams (analogous to the twigs
of a tree), which are then joined together into the tributaries of the main river (the
branches and the trunk of the tree, respectively).
 Tributaries joining a larger stream at acute angle (less than 90 degrees).

43
 44

2. Trellis drainage pattern

 The geometry of a trellis drainage system is similar to that of a common

garden trellis used to grow vines.
 In folded topography like that found in the Appalachian Mountains of
North America.
 Down-turned folds called synclines form valleys in which resides the main
channel of the stream.
 Short tributary streams enter the main channel at sharp angles as they run
down sides of parallel ridges called anticlines.
 Tributaries join the main stream at nearly right angles.
 It is a rectangular shaped drainage pattern that develops where bands of
rocks vary in resistance.
 In some areas there are alternate bands of hard and soft rocks.
 The flowing water can erode the soft rocks and thus flows along the bands
of soft rock.
 Many such water channels form a trellis.
 The streams (called subsequent rivers) cut out the valleys (called vales)
and join the main river (called Consequent River) at right angles.
 The main river, by sheer force, cuts the hard rock and flows down the
slope forming an escarpment and thus a river gap is created.
 Trellis patterns reflect marked structural control of most stream courses.

44
 45

3. Radial drainage pattern

In a radial drainage system the streams radiate outwards from a central high point. This pattern is
common to such conically shaped features as volcanoes. The tributary streams extend the head
ward reaches upslope toward the top of the volcano.

Radial drainage pattern: It is a 'spoke- like' pattern. Water channels flow from around the top if a
hill or the top of a dome type feature in numerous directions like the spokes of a wheel. Such a
pattern of drainage may develop from a volcano or conical mountain.

 Volcanos usually display excellent radial drainage. Other geological

features on which radial drainage commonly develops are domes and
laccoliths.
 Radial patterns have streams diverging from a central elevated tract.
They develop on domes, volcanic cones, and various other types of
isolated conical or sub-conical hills.

Radial patterns

4. Parallel drainage pattern

Also develops in regions of parallel, elongate landforms like outcropping resistant rock bands.
Tributary streams tend to stretch out in a parallel-like fashion following the slope of the surface.
A parallel pattern sometimes indicates the presence of a major fault that cuts across an area of
steeply folded bedrock.
All forms of transitions can occur between parallel, dendritic, and trellis patterns.

45
 46

 A parallel drainage system is a pattern of rivers caused by steep slopes

with some relief.
 Because of the steep slopes, the streams are swift and straight, with very
few tributaries, and all flow in the same direction.
 This system forms on uniformly sloping surfaces, for example, rivers
flowing southeast from the Aberdare Mountains in Kenya.

Parallel drainage pattern

5. Centripetal drainage patterns

It is the opposite of the radial as streams flow toward a central depression. This pattern is typical
in the western and southwestern portions of the United States where basins exhibit interior
drainage. During water portions of the year, these streams feed ephemeral lakes, which evaporate
away during dry periods. Salt flats are created in these dry lake beds as salt dissolved in the lake
water precipitates out of solution and is left behind when the water evaporates away.

 Show drainage lines converging into a central depression.

 They are found on sinkholes, craters, and other basin-like depressions.

46
 47

Centripetal Drainage Pattern

6. Rectangular drainage pattern

Rectangular drainage develops on rocks that are of approximately uniform resistance to erosion,
is found in regions that have undergone faulting. Streams follow the path of least resistance and
thus are concentrated in places were exposed rock is the weakest.

 Movement of the surface due to faulting off-sets the direction of the stream.
 The joints are usually less resistant to erosion than the bulk rock so erosion tends
to preferentially open the joints and streams eventually develop along the joints.
 The result is a stream system in which streams consist mainly of straight line
segments with right angle bends, and tributaries join larger streams at right angles.
 In rectangular drainage patterns, both the main stream and its tributaries
display right-angled bends.
 They reflect control exerted by joint or fault systems.

47
 48

Rectangular drainage patterns

48
 49

CHAPTER FOUR
Land Evaluation and Land use
Land evaluation is a process of providing data to make decision on land use and their determine
to landforms, fertile soil type, climate condition, water content in the soil and land quality for
utilization of production to yield etc.
Land evaluation may be concerned with present land performance. Frequently however, it
involves change and its effects: with change in the use of land and in some cases change in the
land itself.
Evaluation takes into consideration the economics of the proposed enterprises, the social
consequences for the people of the area and the country concerned, and the consequences,
beneficial or adverse, for the environment. Thus land evaluation should answer the following
questions:
 How is the land currently managed, and what will happen if present practices remain
unchanged?
 What improvements in management practices, within the present use, are possible?
 What other uses of land are physically possible and economically and socially relevant?
 Which of these uses offer possibilities of sustained production or other benefits?
 What adverse effects, physical, economic or social, are associated with each use?
 What recurrent inputs are necessary to bring about the desired production and minimize
the adverse effects? What are the benefits of each form of use?
If the introduction of a new use involves significant change in the land itself, as for example in
irrigation schemes, then the following additional questions should be answered:

 What changes in the condition of the land are feasible and necessary, and how can they
be brought about?
 What non-recurrent inputs are necessary to implement these changes?
The evaluation process does not in itself determine the land use changes that are to be carried
out, but provides data on the basis of which such decisions can be taken. To be effective in this
role, the output from an evaluation normally gives information on two or more potential forms of
use for each area of land, including the consequences, beneficial and adverse, of each.

49
 50

Land evaluation is concerned with the assessment of land performance when used for specified
purposes. Land evaluation is a process for matching the characteristics of land resources for
certain uses using a scientifically standardized technique. The results can be used as a guide by
land users and planners to identify alternative land uses.

To be of value in planning, the range of land uses considered has to be limited to those which are
relevant within the physical, economic and social context of the area considered, and the
comparisons must incorporate economic considerations. Land evaluation is the process of
estimating the potential of land for alternative kinds of use. It can be also defined as the
assessment or prediction of land quality for specific use, in terms of its productivity, degradation
hazards and management requirements

Definition of Land
 Land comprises the physical environment that influence potential for land use, including
climate, relief, soils, hydrology, and vegetation etc. It includes the results of past and
present human activity, e.g. reclamation from the sea, vegetation clearance, etc. Land can
be defined as an area of the earth’s surface.
 The UN defines land as a delineable area of the earth’s terrestrial surface, encompassing
all attributes of the biosphere immediately above or below this surface including
those of the near-surface climate, the soil and terrain forms, the surface hydrology
(including shallow lakes, rivers, marshes and swamps), the near-surface sedimentary
layers and associated groundwater reserve, the plant and animal populations, the
human settlement pattern and physical results of past and present human activity
(terracing, water storage or drainage structures, infrastructure, buildings, etc.).
Definition of land resources: The components of the natural land unit (e.g. physical, biotic,
environmental, infrastructural, and socio-economic) are termed land resources. Included in the
land resources are surface and near-surface freshwater resources for reasons of management.
Functions of the Land
Following the broader definition of land and land resources (UN 1995), land performs a
multitude of key environmental, economic, social and cultural functions, vital for life. These
functions are generally interdependent and the extent to which land performs them is highly
relevant to sustainability
50
 51

Land is a limited non-renewable natural resource due to its potentially rapid degradation
rates and extremely slow regeneration processes. Where land is degraded, the overall potential to
perform its functions is reduced. Therefore prevention, precaution and sustainable land
management should be at the core of any land use planning. The different functions of the
land:
1. Functions related to biomass production
Biomass production –including agriculture, forestry, grazing, aquaculture and freshwater
fisheries– is dependent on the land
Almost all vegetation including grassland, arable crops and trees, need land for the
supply of water and nutrients and support for their roots
2. Functions related to the environment
Land has a storing, filtering and transforming capacity, and regulates atmospheric,
hydrological and nutrient cycles. Land stores and partly transforms organic matter, water,
energy, plant nutrients and other chemical substances.
It functions as a natural filter for groundwater, and releases CO 2, methane and other gases in the
atmosphere. Land may act as a sink or source in the carbon cycle.
Land also stores non-renewable raw materials that may be mined, including clay, sands,
gravel, minerals and peat.
Land is the habitat for a huge amount and variety of living organisms, and thus sustains
a diverse gene pool.
3. Functions related to human settlement
Land is the platform for human activity. It is the physical basis for technical, industrial and socio-
economic structures and their development.
Land hosts the infrastructure for housing, transport facilities, recreation and industry. Land
forms the landscape and is a vital part of the cultural heritage.
Many organizations are dedicated to the preservation and conservation of historic landscapes in
all their variety, from formal gardens and public parks to rural areas. Paleontological and
archaeological remains are concealed and protected for mankind by the land. In this
capacity land provides a repository for the cultural memory, history and prehistory of
humankind.

51
 52

A land mapping unit is a mapped area of land with specified characteristics. It is used for data
collection. Land mapping units are defined and mapped by natural resource surveys, e.g. soil
survey, forest inventory. Their degree of homogeneity or of internal variation varies with the
scale and intensity of the study. In some cases a single land mapping unit may include two or
more distinct types of land, with different suitability, e.g. a river flood plain, mapped as a single
unit but known to contain both well-drained alluvial areas and swampy depressions.
Land is thus a wider concept than soil or terrain. Variation in soils, or soils and landforms, is
often the main cause of differences between land mapping units within a local area: it is for this
reason that soil surveys are sometimes the main basis for definition of land mapping units.
However, the fitness of soils for land use cannot be assessed in isolation from other aspects of
the environment, and hence it is land which is employed as the basis for suitability evaluation.
Land use: the human activities which are directly related to land, making of use its resources.
 Suitability evaluation involves relating land mapping units to specified types of land use.
 The types of use considered are limited to those which appear to be relevant under
general physical, economic and social conditions prevailing in an area.
 These kinds of land use serve as the subject of land evaluation.
 They may consist of major kinds of land use or land utilization types.
Major Kinds of Land Use and Land Utilization Types
A major kind of land use
 It is a major subdivision of rural land use, such as rain fed agriculture, irrigated
agriculture, grassland, forestry, or recreation.
 Major kinds of land use are usually considered in land evaluation studies of a qualitative
or reconnaissance nature.
A land utilization type (LUT)
 Is a kind of land use described or defined in a degree of detail greater than that of a major
kind of land use.
 In detailed or quantitative land evaluation studies, the kinds of land use considered will
usually consist of land utilization types.
Attributes of land utilization types include data or assumptions on:
 Produce, including goods (e.g. crops, livestock timber), services (e.g. recreational
facilities) or other benefits (e.g. wildlife conservation)

52
 53

 Market orientation, including whether towards subsistence or commercial production,

domestic or export, or both.

 Capital intensity- value of capital investment and recurring costs per ha.

 Labour intensity- Family and hired labour, man-months per ha, seasonal peak periods,
festivities and holiday.

 Power sources (e.g. man's labour, draught animals machinery using fuels)
 Technical knowledge and attitudes of land users- Experience, response to innovation and
change, literacy

 Technology employed (e.g. implements and machinery, fertilizers, livestock breeds, farm
transport, methods of timber felling)
 Infrastructure requirements (e.g. storage depots, markets, access to farm inputs. Roads,
housing, schools, medical facilities, electricity, domestic water supplies etc.
 Size and configuration of land holdings, including whether consolidated or fragmented.
 Land tenure, : Freehold, Tenancy, Communal ownership and State ownership.
 Income levels, expressed per capita, per unit of production (e.g. farm) or per unit area.

Management practices on different areas within one land utilization type are not necessarily the
same. For example, the land utilization type may consist of mixed farming, with part of the land
under arable use and part allocated to grazing. Such differences may arise from variation in the
land, from the requirements of the management system, or both.

Some examples of land utilization types are:

 Rain-fed annual cropping
 Farming operated on a communal basis.
 Commercial wheat production on large freehold farms, with high capital and low labour
intensity, and a high level of mechanization and inputs.
 Extensive cattle ranching
 Softwood plantations
 A national park for recreation and tourism.

53
 54

Multiple and Compound Land Use

Two terms, multiple and compound land utilization types, refer to situations in which more than
one kind of land use is practiced within an area.
A multiple land utilization type consists of more than one kind of use simultaneously undertaken
on the same area of land, each use having its own inputs, requirements and produce. In example
is a timber plantation used simultaneously as a recreational area.
A compound land utilization type consists of more than one kind of use undertaken on areas of
land which for purposes of evaluation are treated as a single unit. The different kinds of use may
occur in time sequence (e.g. as in crop rotation) or simultaneously on different areas of land
within the same organizational unit. Mixed farming involving both arable use and grazing is an
example.
Sometimes an appropriate land utilization type can be found by making several lands mapping
unit’s part of the same management unit, e.g. livestock management which combines grazing on
uplands in the rainy season and on seasonally flooded lowlands in the dry season.
Land utilization types are defined for the purpose of land evaluation. Their description need not
comprise the full range of farm management practices, but only those related to land
management and improvement. At detailed levels of evaluation, closely-defined land utilization
types can be extended into farming systems by adding other aspects of farm management.
Conversely, farming systems that have already been studied and described can be adopted as the
basis for land utilization types.
Land characteristics, land qualities and diagnostic criteria
A land characteristic is an attribute of land that can be measured or estimated. Examples are
slope angle, rainfall, soil texture, available water capacity, biomass of the vegetation, etc. Land
mapping units, as determined by resource surveys, are normally described in terms of land
characteristics.
If land characteristics are employed directly in evaluation, problems arise from the interaction
between characteristics. For example, the hazard of soil erosion is determined not by slope angle
alone but by the interaction between slope angle, slope length, permeability, soil structure,
rainfall intensity and other characteristics. Because of this problem of interaction, it is
recommended that the comparison of land with land use should be carried out in terms of land
qualities.

54
 55

Description of land quality (LQ)

A land quality is a complex attribute of land which acts in a distinct manner in its influence on
the suitability of land for a specific kind of use. LQs refer to the ability of the land to fulfill
specific requirements for a LUT (FAO, 1976). Land qualities may be expressed in a positive or
negative way. Examples are moisture availability, erosion resistance, flooding hazard, nutritive
value of pastures, accessibility. A land quality is not necessarily restricted in its influence to one
kind of use. The same quality may affect, for example, both arable use and animal product

There are a very large number of land qualities, but only those relevant to land use alternatives
under consideration need be determined. A land quality is relevant to a given type of land use if it
influences either the level of inputs required, or the magnitude of benefits obtained, or both. For
example, capacity to retain fertilizers is a land quality relevant to most forms of agriculture, and
one which influences both fertilizer inputs and crop yield. Erosion resistance affects the costs of
soil conservation works required for arable use, whilst the nutritive value of pastures affects the
productivity of land under ranching.
Land qualities can sometimes be estimated or measured directly, but are frequently described by
means of land characteristics. Qualities or characteristics employed to determine limits of land
suitability classes or subclasses are known as diagnostic criteria.
A diagnostic criterion is a variable which has an understood influence upon the output from, or
the required inputs to, a specified use, and which serves as a basis for assessing the suitability of
a given area of land for that use. This variable may be a land quality, a land characteristic, or a
function of several land characteristics. For every diagnostic criterion there will be a critical
value or set of critical values which are used to define suitability class limits.
For each land quality a linguistic scale is established such as high, moderate, low and very low
moisture availability.
Examples of land qualities...
A. Land qualities Related to Productivity from Crops or other plant growth
Crop yields (a resultant of many qualities listed below)
-Moisture availability
- Nutrient availability
- Oxygen availability in the root zone

55
 56

-Root condition
- Adequacy of foothold for roots
- Conditions for germination
- Workability of the land (ease of cultivation)
- Salinity or alkalinity
- Soil toxicity
- Resistance to soil erosion
- Pests and diseases related to the land
- Flooding hazard (including frequency, periods of inundation)
- Temperature regime
- Radiation energy and photoperiod
- Climatic hazards affecting plant growth (including wind, hail, frost)
- Air humidity as affecting plant growth
- Drying periods for ripening of crops.
B. Land qualities Related to Domestic Animal Productivity
Productivity of grazing land (a resultant of many qualities listed under A.)
- Climatic hardships affecting animals
- Endemic pests and diseases
- Nutritive value of grazing land
- Toxicity of grazing land
- Resistance to degradation of vegetation
- Resistance to soil erosion under grazing conditions
- Availability of drinking water.
C. Land qualities Related to Forest Productivity
The qualities listed may refer to natural forests, forestry plantations, or both.
- Mean annual increments of timber species (a resultant of many qualities listed under A.)
- Types and quantities of indigenous timber species
- Site factors affecting establishment of young trees
- Pests and diseases
- Fire hazard.
D. Land qualities Related to Management and Inputs

56
 57

The qualities listed may refer to arable use, animal production or forestry.
- Terrain factors affecting mechanization (traffic ability)
- Terrain factors affecting construction and maintenance of access roads (accessibility
- Size of potential management units (e.g. forest blocks, farms, fields
- Location in relation to markets and to supplies of inputs.

Effects of land qualities

Land qualities can affect by:-
1. Physical suitability: This kind of LUT is typically a hazard and influences the land use
in negative manner. Examples: erosion hazard, drought hazard. The idea here is that
excessive severity levels of the corresponding the qualities makes the land unfit for the
lands and that increasing severity levels increases the management requirements.
2. Reduce yields: these land use requirements typically have to do with intrinsic factors of
plant growth, such as water, light, temperature, and nutrients. Some limitations to culture
can also be included here. E.g. planting condition or harvesting conditions.
3. Increase costs: if limiting value of the LQ will be overcome by increasing inputs, the
numbers of deferent levels of the inputs define the number of severity levels.
4. any combination: combing decreases yield and increasing costs
Land use requirement (LUR) and their Limitations
A condition of the land necessary for successful and sustained implementation of a
specific LUT or Requirements of the land use refers to the set of land qualities that determine the
production and management conditions of a kind of land use. E.g. the crops require light and
suitable temperatures, a continuous supply of water and nutrients, a suitable environment for root
growth, suitable conditions in a seedbed for germination, suitable land conditions for irrigation
or for harvesting, mechanization, post-harvest ripening etc. on the other hand, For example, the
land can supply a certain amount of water to the crop; this might be called the moisture
availability, i.e. land quality. On other hand, plant require water in order to grow, this might be
called moisture requirement.

Each LUT is defined by a set of LURs that specify its demands on the land (FAO 1983, 1985).
Land use requirement determine the data on land resources that is needed for land evaluation.

57
 58

Each land use type may have one or more land use requirements

Limitations are land qualities, or their expression by means of diagnostic criteria, which
adversely affect a kind of land use. For example, the requirements for mechanized cultivation of
wheat include high availability of oxygen in the root zone and absence of obstructions (boulders
or rock outcrops); waterlogging and the presence of boulders, excess water, excess salts or
toxicities, deficiencies, pests, frost, storms, etc. limit crop growth and yield irrigation methods
such as surface, sprinkler, or drip have their different requirements and limitations. Thus
limitations may be regarded as land qualities expressed in such a way as to show the extent to
which the conditions of the land fall short of the requirements for a given use.

Land improvements

Land improvements are activities which cause beneficial changes in the qualities of the land
itself. Land improvements should be distinguished from improvements in land use, i.e. changes
in the use to which the land is put or modifications to management practices under a given use.

Land improvements are classed as major or minor. A major land improvement is a substantial
and reasonably permanent improvement in the qualities of the land affecting a given use. A large
non-recurrent input is required, usually taking the form of capital expenditure on structure and
equipment. Once accomplished, maintenance of the improvement remains as a continuing cost,
but the land itself is more suitable for the use than formerly. Examples are large irrigation
schemes drainage of swamps and reclamation (recover, recycle) of salinized land.

A minor land improvement is one which either has relatively small effects or is non-permanent or
both, or which lies within the capacity of individual farmers or other land users. Stone clearance,
eradication of persistent weeds and field drainage by ditches are examples.

The separation of major from minor land improvements is intended only as an aid to making a
suitability classification. The distinction is a relative one; it is not clear-cut and is only valid
within a local context. In cases of doubt, the main criterion is whether the improvement is within
the technical and financial capacity of individual farmers or other landowners (including small
communal owners, e.g. village co-operatives). In many areas improvements such as sub soiling,
dynamiting or terracing cannot be undertaken by individual farmers, and are therefore regarded

58
 59

as major land improvements; in countries with large farms and high capital resources coupled
with good credit facilities, however, these changes may be within reach of individuals and are
therefore considered as minor improvements. Field drainage is another improvement that may or
may not be regarded as major, depending on farm size, permanency of tenure, capital availability
and level of technology.

Land suitability and land capability

There are various interpretations for land suitability and land capability among scholars.
Capability is viewed by some as the inherent capacity of land to perform at a given level for a
general use, and suitability as a statement of the adaptability of a given area for a specific kind of
land use; others see capability as a classification of land primarily in relation to degradation
hazards, whilst some regard the terms "suitability" and "capability" as interchangeable.

Land suitability

Land suitability is the fitness of a given type of land for a defined use. The process of land
suitability classification is the appraisal and grouping of specific areas of land in terms of their
suitability for defined uses.

Structure of Land Suitability Classification

In land suitability evaluation four categories of generalization are recognized in decreasing order:
i. Land Suitability Orders: reflecting kinds of suitability.
ii. Land Suitability Classes: reflecting degrees of suitability within Orders.
iii. Land Suitability Subclasses: reflecting kinds of limitation, or main kinds of improvement
measures required, within Classes.
iv. Land Suitability Units: reflecting minor differences in required management within
Subclasses.

Land Suitability Orders

Land suitability Orders indicate whether land is assessed as suitable or not suitable for the use
under consideration.

59
 60

There are two orders that can be represented in maps, tables, etc. by the symbols S and N
respectively.

Order S Suitable: Land on which sustained use of the kind under consideration is expected to
yield benefits which justify the inputs, without unacceptable risk of damage to land resources.

Order N Not Suitable: Land which has qualities that appear to preclude sustained use of the
kind under consideration.

Land may be classed as Not Suitable for a given use for a number of reasons. It may be that the
proposed use is technically impracticable, such as the irrigation of rocky steep land, or that it
would cause severe environmental degradation, such as the cultivation of steep slopes.
Frequently, however, the reason is economic: that the value of the expected benefits does not
justify the expected costs of the inputs that would be required.

Land Suitability Classes

Land suitability Classes reflect degrees of suitability. The classes are numbered consecutively, by
Arabic numbers, in sequence of decreasing degrees of suitability within the Order. The three
Classes recognized within the Order Suitable can often be recommended and the following
names and definitions may be appropriate in a qualitative classification:

Land having no significant limitations to sustained application of a given use, or

Class S1 Highly
only minor limitations that will not significantly reduce productivity or benefits and
Suitable:
will not raise inputs above an acceptable level.
Land having limitations which in aggregate are moderately severe for sustained
Class S2 application of a given use; the limitations will reduce productivity or benefits and
Moderately increase required inputs to the extent that the overall advantage to be gained from
Suitable: the use, although still attractive, will be appreciably inferior to that expected on
Class S1 land.
Class S3 Land having limitations which in aggregate are severe for sustained application of a
Marginally given use and will so reduce productivity or benefits, or increase required inputs,
Suitable: that this expenditure will be only marginally justified.

60
 61

In a quantitative classification, both inputs and benefits must be expressed in common

measurable terms, normally economic. Differences in degrees of suitability are determined
mainly by the relationship between benefits and inputs.

Within the Order Not Suitable, there are normally two Classes:

Class N1 Currently Land having limitations which may be surmountable in time but which
Not Suitable: cannot be corrected with existing knowledge at currently acceptable cost; the
limitations are so severe as to preclude successful sustained use of the land in
the given manner.

Class N2 Land having limitations which appear so severe as to preclude any

Permanently Not possibilities Of successful sustained use of the land in the given manner.
Suitable:

The upper limit of Class N1 is already defined by the lower limit of the roast suitable class in
Order S.
The boundary of Class N2, Permanently Not Suitable, is normally physical and permanent. In
contrast, the boundary between the two orders, Suitable and Not Suitable is likely to be variable
over time through changes in the economic and social context.

Land Capability Classification

Capability factors are the characteristics of land that determine its best crop/alternative use.
These factors include both surface and subsurface characteristics. Or to determine the land
capability classes, soil texture, soil depth, drainage, coarse fragments, erosion hazards and slope
surface and runoff are taken in to consideration for study area.

Surface texture is the proportion of sand, silt, and clay in the soil in the A horizon (top Layer)
Soil can be classified as either:

Coarse – sand, Moderately Coarse – sand, loam mix

Medium – loam, moderately fine- clay, loam mix and Fine- clay particles

61
 62

Internal drainage is known as permeability.

-Soil permeability is the movement of air and

water through the soil.

-It is determined by the texture and structure of

the soil.

-It can be classified as very slow, slow, moderate,

and rapid.

Soil depth is the thickness of the soil layers

that are important in crop production.

-Soil depth classifications are very

shallow, shallow, moderately deep, or deep.

Classifications of Current and Potential

Suitability

62
 63

A classification of current suitability refers to the suitability for a defined use of land in its
present condition, without major improvements. A current suitability classification may refer to
the present use of the land, either with existing or improved management practices, or to a
different use.

A classification of potential suitability refers to the suitability, for a defined use, of land units in
their condition at some future date, after specified major improvements have been completed
where necessary.

Common examples of potential suitability classifications are found in studies for proposed
irrigation schemes. For a classification to be one of potential suitability it is not necessary that
improvements shall be made to all parts of the land; the need for major improvements may vary
from one land unit to another and on some land units none may be necessary.

The Objectives of Land Evaluation

Land evaluation supports many other disciplines. It may be used for many purposes, ranging
from land use planning to explore the potential for specific land uses or the need for improved
land management or land degradation control. The primary objective of land evaluation is the
improved and sustainable management of land for the benefit of the people.

The main objective of land evaluation is to select the optimum land use for each define land use
unit ,taking in to account both physical and socio-economic consideration and the conservation
of environmental resources for future use. Land evaluation is focused upon the land itself, its
properties, functions and potential.

Land evaluation links various kinds of natural resource survey (soil survey, agro-climatic
analysis, water resources appraisal, etc.) with technological aspects (agronomy (the science
of soil management and crop production), forestry, etc.) and with economic and social analysis.
There is a particular need for land evaluation wherever the problems of farmers are caused or
compounded by problems of the land, e.g. soil fertility decline, erosion, increased frequency of
droughts due to climatic change.

63
 64

The revised UN/FAO Principle of land evaluation framework

1. Land suitability is assessed and classified with respect to specified kinds of use and services.
2. Land evaluation requires a comparison of benefits obtained and the inputs needed on
different kinds of land to assess their productive potential and environmental services, and
the social equity (sustainable livelihood) of the land use.
3. Land evaluation requires a multi-disciplinary and cross-sectorial approach.
4. Land evaluation should take into account the biophysical, economic, social and political
context as well as the environmental concerns.
5. Suitability refers to use on a sustained basis. The sustainability concept includes productivity,
social equity and environmental aspects.
6. Land evaluation involves a comparison of more than one kind of use or service.
7. Land evaluation needs to consider the needs, preferences and views of all
stakeholders.so, Land evaluation should consider all stakeholders
8. The scale and level of decision-making needs to be clearly defined prior to the land evaluation
process.
Method of Land Evaluation
1. FAO land suitability evaluation (in FAO, 32 types of soil classification)
2. USDA land capability classification (in USDA, 12 types of soil)
3. USDA land suitability for irrigation
4. Soil survey interpretation
5. Parameter index
6. Yield estimation
7. Agro ecological zone
8. The fertility capability soil classes.
Land suitability evaluation: there are two types of land suitability evaluation.
A. Qualitative evaluation: qualitative classification is one in which relative suitability is
expressed in qualitative terms only, without precise calculation of costs and returns.
Qualitative classifications are based mainly on the physical productive potential of the land,
with economics only present as a background. They are commonly employed in
reconnaissance studies, aimed at a general appraisal of large areas.

64
 65

B. Quantitative evaluation: is the comparison of benefits and inputs in economic terms plays a
major part in the determination of suitability (cost benefit analysis of inputs and outputs or
production). Quantitative classifications normally involve considerable use of economic criteria,
i.e. costs and prices, applied both to inputs and production. Specific development projects,
including pre-investment studies for these, usually require quantitative evaluation.

Levels of intensity and approach of land evaluation

Levels of Intensity: Three levels of intensity may be distinguished: reconnaissance, semi-

detailed and detailed. These are normally reflected in the scales of resulting maps.
Reconnaissance (observation) surveys are concerned with broad inventory of resources and
development possibilities at regional and national scales. Economic analysis is only in very
general terms, and land evaluation is qualitative. The results contribute to national plans,
permitting the selection of development areas and priorities.
Surveys at the semi-detailed, or intermediate, level are concerned with more specific aims such
as feasibility studies of development projects. The work may include farm surveys; economic
analysis is considerably more important, and land evaluation is usually quantitative. This level
provides information for decisions on the selection of projects, or whether a particular
development or other change is to go ahead.
The detailed level covers surveys for actual planning and design, or farm planning and advice,
often carried out after the decision to implement has been made

Two-stage and parallel approaches to land evaluation

The relationships of resource surveys and economic and social analysis, and the manner, in
which the kinds of land use are formulated, depend on which of the following approaches to land
evaluation is adopted (Fig. 1):

 a two-stage approach in which the first stage is mainly concerned with qualitative land
evaluation, later (although not necessarily) followed by a second stage consisting of
economic and social analysis;
 a parallel approach in which analysis of the relationships between land and land use
proceeds concurrently with economic and social analysis.

65
 66

The two-stage approach is often used in resource inventories for broad planning purposes and in
studies for the assessment of biological productive potential. The land suitability classifications
in the first stage are based on the suitability of the land for kinds of land use which are selected at
the beginning of the survey, e.g. arable cropping, dairy farming, maize, tomatoes. The
contribution of economic and social analysis to the first stage is limited to a check on the
relevance of the kinds of land use. After the first stage has been completed and its results
presented in map and report form, these results may then be subject to the second stage, that of
economic and social analysis, either immediately or after an interval of time. In two stage
approach, the biophysical and socio-economic land evaluation activity has conducted phase by
phase.

66
 67

In the parallel approach the economic and social analysis of the kinds of land use proceeds
simultaneously with the survey and assessment of physical factors. The kinds of use to which the
evaluation refers are usually modified in the course of the study. In the case of arable farming,
for example, this modification may include selection of crops and rotations, estimates of the
inputs of capital and labor, and determination of optimum farm size.

Similarly, in forestry it may include, for example, selection of tree species dates of thinning and
felling and required protective measures. This procedure is mostly favored for specific proposals
in connection with development projects and at semi-detailed and detailed levels of intensity.

67
 68

The parallel approach is expected to give more precise results in a shorter period of time. It
offers a better chance of concentrating survey and data-collection activities on producing
information needed for the evaluation.

However, the two-stage approach appears more straightforward, possessing a clear-cut sequence
of activities. The physical resource surveys precede economic and social analysis, without
overlap, hence permitting a more flexible timing of activities and of staff recruitment. In two-
stage approach is used as a background in the subsequent text except where otherwise stated.

Procedures of Land evaluation

The main activities in land evaluation procedures are follows:

 Initial consultations with all stakeholders, concerned with the objectives of the
evaluation, and the data and assumptions on which it is to be based.
 Diagnosis of land use problems
 identification of kinds of land use (land utilization types) to be considered, and
establishment of their requirements
 Land use requirements, functions and limitations
 Description of land mapping units and land qualities
 Economic and social analysis
 Comparison of kinds of land use with the types of land present
 Agronomic and biophysical research program
 Land suitability classification (qualitative or quantitative)
 Presentation of the results of the evaluation.

The land evaluation framework considers the top-down approach than a bottom-up approach,
involving stakeholders at all stages of the process. Because of the environmental concerns,
which have become more explicit, land evaluation will need to include environmental impact
and risk assessment activities.

I. Initial consultation with all stakeholders

68
 69

The active participation of all stakeholders and their representatives in the formulation of
land-use objectives and in a dialogue on the procedures of land resource evaluation should
ensure that the proposed land uses are socially acceptable to these groups. Consultation between
the planning authorities that have initiated the study and the organization which will carry it out
is an essential first stage in all cases. At this stage, the following items need to be dealt with:
Among matters to be decided at this stage are:

-The objectives of the evaluation

- The data and assumptions on which the evaluation is to be based

- The extent and boundaries of the area to be evaluated

- The kinds of land use which appear to be relevant for consideration

- Whether a two-stage or parallel approach is to be followed

- The type of suitability classification to be employed

- The intensity and scale of the required surveys

- The phasing of activities in the evaluation.

The general assumptions can be divided into those referring to the physical, economic and social
context of the area, and those underlying the evaluation process itself. In addition to these
general assumptions, there may be assumptions specific to particular kinds of land use (e.g. size
of landholdings, minor land improvements, techniques of farming); these latter assumptions are
given in the descriptions of the respective uses.

II. Diagnosis of land use problems

‘Diagnosis of land use problems’ is one of the procedure in many land evaluation exercises, and
where one of the objectives of the evaluation is to assist in solving these. Examples are declining
soil fertility, overgrazing, fuel wood shortage. There is an input of information on land units
and from the stakeholders. Diagnosis is an important stage in the land evaluation. It has an
effect on the information needed for social analysis.

69
 70

III. The identification of kinds of land use (land utilization types)

The identification and description of the type" of land use which are to be considered is an
essential part of the evaluation procedure. Some restrictions to the range of uses relevant for
consideration will have been set by the objectives and assumptions. Two situations may be
distinguished:

 The kinds of land use are specified at the beginning of the evaluation procedure.
 The kinds of land use are broadly described at the beginning and subject to modification
and adjustment in accordance with the findings of the evaluation procedure.

The first situation can arise in qualitative surveys aimed at evaluation in terms of major kinds of
land use. It can also occur in studies aimed at locating land for only one or for a limited number
of land utilization types, e.g. sites for irrigated fruit growing or for a forest reserve; in such
circumstances the kinds of land use to be considered are largely defined by the objectives.

The second situation occurs, for example, in land development projects which are likely to
include arable farming of several kinds, livestock production and forestry. Initially the land
utilization types are described in general terms, for example, arable farming by smallholders. As
the evaluation precedes, such details as crop selection, recommended rotations, required soil
conservation measures and optimum farm size are progressively determined, so that at the end of
the study the land utilization types are described in detail.

IV. Land use requirements, functions and limitations

When the land use is known, the related requirements, expected functions and limitations
need to be defined. Land use requirements play a major role in land evaluation procedures, an
early stage guiding what properties of the land should be ascertained, and at a later, key, stage,
determining suitability when they are compared with these properties.
Where functions of the land other than biomass production are being assessed, such as
carbon sequestration or stabilized outflow from catchment areas, a point that requires further
consideration is whether the suitability for these functions (related to environment,
settlement, economy) can be formulated in terms of requirements –preferably quantitative

70
 71

or whether a different approach to the estimation of suitability for such functions would be
more practical.

V. Description of land mapping units and land qualities

These stages correspond to the land resource survey. The objectives of such surveys are to define
and delineate boundaries of land mapping units and to determine their land qualities.

The surveys will generally include a soil or soil-landform survey, and sometimes pasture
resource or other ecological surveys, forest inventory, surveys of surface-water or groundwater
resources, or road engineering studies. The delineation of land mapping units will be based in
part on land characteristics most readily identified frequently landforms, soils and vegetation.

For example, in surveys for irrigation projects, particular attention is given to the physical
properties of the soil, to the quality and amount of available water and to the terrain conditions in
relation to methods of irrigation considered.

VII. Economic and social analysis

Economic land evaluation: The chief obstacle to economic land evaluation is the difficulty of
obtaining reliable data on the economics of production and how these are affected by land
qualities. When due attention is paid to details, it can provide a more useful prediction of land
performance than a purely physical evaluation, because it can better reflect the decision-making
criteria of land users.

Social land evaluation factors: The impact of any changes in land use should be assessed in
relation to the following social factors. Access to land resources (including wild plant and animal
products) nutritional status (particularly of vulnerable groups) health status (presence and
vulnerable of endemic diseases) education (opportunities to learn new skills).
It may be necessary to conduct a focused rapid rural appraisal at community level with
stakeholder groups or key informants to elucidate/justify/ what exactly might happen when
land-use changes take place (FAO 1999a).

VIII. Comparison of land use with land

71
 72

The focal point in the evaluation procedure is that at which the various data are brought together
and compared, the comparison leading to the suitability classification. These data are:

- The relevant kinds of land use and their requirements and limitations
- The land mapping units and their land qualities
- The economic and social conditions.

X. Agronomic and biophysical research program

The ‘need for research’ is the assessment of the state of knowledge about the proposed
land utilization types in the area. The dual function of the research may be noted that
Firstly, research is seek to improve and optimize land utilization types, e.g. Through the
selection of crop and tree varieties, fertilizers or other aspects of management. Secondly, it
determines the performance of the improved systems, thus providing data for revision of the land
evaluation.

XI. Land suitability classification

The results of the matching process are combined with those of the cross-sectorial
analysis, environmental impact and risk assessment, production modeling, agro-
environmental indicators and economic and social analysis to produce a classification showing
the suitability of each land mapping unit for each relevant kind of land use. This land suitability
classification needs to be checked in the field.

XII. Presentation of results

Resulting of land evaluation should be presented to all stakeholders at any early stage, to
allow wide discussion. A practical point is that project and staff time should be allowed for
making modifications consequent upon the responses received.

72
 73

Chapter Five

Land Use Planning

What is land use planning?

Definition of land use planning (LUP)
 LUP is the process of making decision on land area for best land uses (economically
viable or sound, socially acceptable, and environmentally sustainable for feature
utilization).
 Planning is matching land with its best land uses resource. It is the wise use of land for
resource values. Even if, land planning also use specific kinds of land use that the
decision made based on land evaluation results.
 So as, LUP is the important role in the combination of both Land Utilization Type(LUT)
and Land Mapping Unit(LMU) with specified use of land management practice for
sustainable developments.
 LUP is the systematic assessment of physical, social and economic factors in such ways
as to encourage and assist land users in selecting options that increases their productivity,
are sustainable and meet the needs of the society.
 Its purpose is to select and put into practice those land uses that will best meet the need of
the people while safeguarding resources for the future.
The driving force in planning is (1) the need for change, like to sustain to the future utilization
and management practice may change e.g. erosion management, overgrazing management etc.
(2) The need for improved management practice. E.g. buffer zone area-along the drainage line
and water body. Or it can be buffering area/fencing/ from forage land preserves.
(3) The need for quite different pattern of the land use dictated by changing circumstance. E.g.
sugar development, resolving land user conflict, cultivation versus grazing to consider economic
benefits.
All kind of rural land use is involved: agriculture, pastoralism, forestry, wildlife conservation and
tourism. Planning also provides guidance in cases of conflict between rural land use and urban or
industrial expansion, by indicating which areas of land are most valuable under rural land use.
Fundamental Understanding of LUP

73
 74

The working group on integrated land use planning (WGLUP) has formulated the following
basic understanding based on previous project experience:
This basic understanding contains the following definitions:
1. The core element in land use planning is the dialogue amongst all participants to reach
decisions based on consensus. A major task of land use planning is to accompany and
motivate the participants and those affected in order to attain a conciliation of interests
concerning land resources, types and extent of land use.
2. Participants in land use planning are direct and indirect land users, as well as those
affected by the consequences of land use activities. Another group is formed by people
who often have political or economic influence; this includes authorities, organizations,
middlemen and women, processing industries for agricultural products, etc. However, the
most important target group in land use planning is made up of the direct land users.
3. The Land Use planning process covers all steps extending from the collection of data and
information through its processing, analysis, discussion and evaluation right up to the
negotiation for a consensus concerning the form of land use to be practiced. This includes
the prerequisites for preparing, initiating, and implementing the plan.
4. Land use planning is first and foremost a process of clarification and understanding
between people who together wish to change something and prepare future actions
systematically. In the process, the elements of a plan are worked out co-operatively. The
core part of a planning process is therefore a commonly desired objective to be achieved
by implementing the plan.
5. Land use is considered to be sustainable when it is both socially and environmentally
compatible desired by the society, technically viable and when it makes economic sense.
This means:
 Social justice: When considering the effects of planning measures, attention
should be paid to the distribution and kind of benefits. Those should be spread in
such a way that even socially weak parties should participate in the process.

 Long-term sustainability of natural resources: The land utilization type must

be designed to ensure that the natural basis of living is sustained in the long-term

74
 75

run, i.e. the use of the land should correspond to its natural potential. Existing
environmental damage should be minimized and damaging developments avoided
by supporting and developing suitable approaches.
 Acceptance and social compatibility: The measures applied are to be desired,
accepted, supported and largely carried out by those affected by them. The effects
of such measures can only be sustainable if they are socially compatible and
culturally suitable and if they take into account local knowledge and capacities.
 Economic efficiency: The measures planned should be designed to contribute to
the long-term security of the economic basis of living of the people. Therefore,
the measures should be self-financing and thereby economically justified. In this
way, they contribute to the improvement of the living conditions and to the overall
economic development.
 Viability: The planned measures should be sound with the level of tolerance of
the local population in terms of technology, economy and organization. Decisions
are generally guided by the local technological understanding and culture as well
as the available resources. Even if large expenses can be considered as
investments for the future, the magnitude must be assessed realistically and the
amortization should be kept within clear time limits. This applies particularly to
major infrastructural measures.
Objective of Land Use Planning
To sum up, the following objective of land use planning can be defined:
Land use planning creates the prerequisites or preconditions required to achieve a type of land
use, which is sustainable, socially and environmentally compatible, socially desirable and
economically sound. It thereby activates social processes of decision making and consensus
building concerning the use and protection of private, communal, or public areas.

When is land-use planning useful?

Two conditions must be met if planning is to be useful:

1. the need for changes in land use, or action to prevent some unwanted change, must be
accepted by the people involved; e.g. land degradation;
2. There must be the political will and ability to put the plan into effect.

75
 76

Where these conditions are not met, and yet problems are pressing, it may be appropriate to
mount an awareness campaign or set up demonstration areas with the aim of creating the
conditions necessary for effective planning.

Aims of Land Use Planning

LUP aims to make the best use of limited resources by:
 Assessing present and future needs and systematically evaluating the lands ability to
supply them.
 Identifying and resolving conflicts between computing uses, between the needs of
individuals and those of the community and between the needs of the present
generation and those of future generations
 Seeking suitability options and choosing those that best meet to bring about desired
changes
 Planning to bring about desired changes
 Learning from experiences
 There can be no blueprint (paper-based technical drawing or reproduction that
producing white-on blue image, used now largely replaced by other technologies) for
change.
 The whole process of planning is iterative and continuous.
 At every stage, a plan may have to be changed as better information is obtained.
Goals of Land Use Planning
Goals define what is meant by the "best" use of the land. They should be specified at the outset
of a particular planning project. Goals may be grouped under the three headings of efficiency,
equity and acceptability and sustainability.

1. Efficiency. Land use must be economically viable, so one goal of development planning is to
make efficient and productive use of the land. For any particular land use, certain areas are better
suited than others. Efficiency is achieved by matching different land uses with the areas that will
yield the greatest benefits at the least cost. Efficiency means different things to different people,
however. To the individual land user, it means the greatest return on capital and labor invested or
the greatest benefit from the area available.

76
 77

2. Equity and acceptability. Land use must also be socially acceptable. Goals include food
security, employment and security of income in rural areas. Land improvements and
redistribution of land may be undertaken to reduce inequality or, alternatively, to attack absolute
poverty. To achieve this it needs equal distribution of resources such as land and finance and
setting threshold standard of living (income, nutrition, food security and housing) to which those
of target groups should be raised. Planning to achieve these standards then involves the
allocation of land for specific uses as well as the allocation of financial and other resources.

3. Sustainability. Sustainable land use is that which meets the needs of the present while, at the
same time, conserving resources for future generations. This requires a combination of
production and conservation: the production of the goods needed by people now, combined with
the conservation of the natural resources on which that production depends so as to ensure
continued production in the future.

The focus of land-use planning

A. Planning is for people:
 People's needs drive the planning process
 Land-use planning must be positive.
 Regulations to prevent people doing what they now do for pressing reasons are bound to
fail.
B. Land is not the same everywhere
 Capital, labour, management skills and technology can be moved to where they are
needed.
 Land cannot be moved, and different areas present different opportunities and different
management problems
 Good information about land resources, potential land and area coverage of the land is
the essential to land-use planning.
C. Technology - at what level with the technology that recommended?
 Knowledge of land-use technologies: agronomy, tissue culture, livestock husbandry and
other means by which land is used.

77
 78

 The technologies recommended must be those for which users have the capital, skills and
other necessary resources; that is, appropriate technology.
 New technologies may have social and environmental implications that should be
addressed by the planner.
D. Integration
 Land-use decisions are not made just on the basis of land suitability but also according to
the demand for products and the extent to which the use of a particular area is critical for
a particular purpose. It is the of combine both top-up and bottom up approach uses
 Therefore, planning has to integrate information about the suitability of the land, the
demands for alternative products or uses and the opportunities for satisfying those
demands on the available land, now and in the future.
Principles of Land Use Planning
On the basis of the central idea, eleven principles are explained below and converted into
proposals for practical actions in subsequent characteristics.
1. Land use planning is orientated to local conditions in terms of both method and content.
Planning approaches often fail because global models and implementation strategies are applied
and taken over automatically and uncritically. But LUP is not a standardized procedure which is
uniform in its application world-wide. Its content is based on an initial regional or local situation
analysis.
2. Land use planning considers cultural viewpoints and builds up on local environmental
knowledge.
Rural societies or groups can often provide complex indigenous knowledge of the environment.
If this is the case, such local knowledge should be part of the basis for planning and
implementing a sustainable land use.
3. Land use planning takes into account traditional strategies for solving problems and
conflicts.
Traditional rural societies have their own way of approaching problems and settling conflicts
concerning land use. In the process of land use planning, such mechanisms have to be
recognized, understood and taken into account.
4. Land use planning assumes a concept which understands rural development to be a
"bottom-up" process based on self-help and self-responsibility.

78
 79

The population should actively participate in the process of LUP. Participatory land use planning
is people-centered, bottom-up approach that recognizes the differences that exist from place to
place with respect to socio-cultural, economic, technological and environmental conditions. The
results of planning and the implementation of measures can only are sustainable if plans are
made with and by the people, not behind them or even against them. Planning is therefore not
just a matter for experts, but should be carried out together with those affected by it.
To ensure a feeling of ownership concerning self-help activities, people who are affected have to
be involved in the planning process from the early beginning.

5. Land use planning is a dialogue, creating the prerequisites for the successful negotiation
and co-operation among stakeholders.
The core task of LUP consists of initiating a process of communication and co-operation which
"allows all participants to formulate their interests and objectives in the dialogue". On the basis
of sound decisions a sustainable form of land use is proposed "whereby the aims and interests of
other participating groups are taken into account to the greatest possible extent" (GTZ/Rauch
1993, p.16).
An important element of participation-orientated LUP is the identification of the various groups
of participants and differentiating them in terms of their land use and access to land resources. In
addition, their position on the social scale (gender approach) and their capacities, either as
stakeholders or as members of authorities and of other organizations have to be considered.
6. Land use planning is a process leading to an improvement in the capacity of the
participants to plan and take actions.
The participatory methods used in all planning steps of LUP promote the technical and
organizational capabilities of all participants, thereby extending their capacity to plan and to act.
In the medium term, this qualification process leads to an improvement in the capacity of local
groups for self-determination.
7. Land use planning requires transparency. Therefore, free access to information for all
participants is a prerequisite.
Transparency in planning and the extent, to which stakeholders are informed, strengthen both
their willingness and capacity to participate in planning and decision-making. It increases the
motivation of the people for creating sustainable results. An open exchange of information leads

79
 80

to discussions about objectives among the key figures and promotes the willingness to reach a
consensus. The dissemination of information in the local language(s) contributes to an improved
transparency. In addition, it strengthens the trust of the population in land use planning activities.
8. The differentiation of stakeholders and the gender approach are core principles in land
use planning.
A prerequisite for realistic land use planning is the detailed analysis of the various interest
groups. The aim is to find out the various interests of the participants in order to create a basis for
the negotiation and decision-making process. Different interests are arising from the economic
and social character of their roles and scope of duties. Therefore, the role of gender is an
important criterion when differentiating stakeholders.
9. Land use planning is based on interdisciplinary cooperation.
The ecological, economic, technical, financial, social, and cultural dimensions of land use make
and it necessary to work with an interdisciplinary approach. Land use planning provides many
interfaces with other technical disciplines and planning fields. It uses a broad spectrum of tools.
A one-sided view of planning will be avoided due to the interdisciplinary and inter sectorial
configuration of the planning groups.
10. Land use planning is an iterative process; it is the flexible and open reaction based on
new findings and changing conditions.
LUP is more than the preparation of a planning document; it is an iterative process. Iteration is
both the principle and the method simultaneously. New developments and findings are
specifically observed and incorporated into the planning process. It may lead to the revision of
decision and the repetition of steps already taken. This can render superfluous (unnecessary,
especially through being more than enough.) both analyses and data bases which would have
been set up at some expense. Iterative planning requires flexibility in planning, but in no way
constitutes a "concealed lack of planning".
Planning as an Iterative Process:
 Iteration means the act of repeating a process usually with the aim of approaching a
desired goal or target or result.
 Each repetition of the process is also called iteration, and the results of one such iteration
are used as the starting point for the next iteration.

80
 81

 With each iteration, the planning and the plan(s) become more detailed and better adapted
to the circumstances. Planning and plan are always up-to-date.
 Within such a continuous planning cycle different elements of the planning process (such
as data collection, analysis, negotiation) can be carried out simultaneously.
 Iterative planning is based on a continuous learning process
 Each activity and each interaction between those involved in the planning process
provides new information and experience.
 Land use planning is not a straight step-by-step procedure, but is iterative and cyclical.
11. Land use planning is implementation-orientated.
Land use planning has to consider how the negotiated decisions and the solutions identified are
to be implemented. LUP does not end with the land use plan. The implementation of limited
measures (e.g. the development of cultivation techniques which conserve land resources) right at
the outset, or parallel to the LUP process, plays an important role in increasing the trust of the
people in the village as far as the planning process is concerned.

Land Use Planning at Different Planning Levels

Land-use planning can be applied at three broad levels: national, district, and local. These are not
necessarily sequential but correspond to the levels of government at which decisions about land
use are taken.
Different kinds of decision are taken at each level, where the methods of planning and kinds of
plan also differ. However, at each level, there is need for a land-use strategy, policies that
indicate planning priorities, projects that tackle these priorities and operational planning to get
work done.
The greater the interaction between the three levels of planning, the better. The flow of
information should run in two directions. This is especially necessary as far as exchange between
the planning levels is concerned. Thinking in hierarchical structures frequently hampers the free
exchange of information. Figure-Illustrates the way in which the flow of information should run
between village, district and nation levels. The concept on which this model is based is called the
“counter flow principle“.

81
 82

1. National level
At national level, planning is concerned with national goals and the allocation of
resources.it is all general level of activity. In many cases, national land-use planning
involves the actual allocation of land for different uses and also the establishment of
priorities for district- level projects.
At national land-use plan may cover:
 Land-use policy: balancing the computing demands for land among different
sectors of the economy food production, export crops, tourism, wiled
conservation, housing and public service, roads, industry;

82
 83

 National development plans and budgets: project identification and the

allocation of resources for development;
 Coordination of sectoral agencies involved in land use;
 Legislation on such subjects as land tenure, forest management, wetland
management, and water rights;
 Proclamation, legislation law of land use and implementation
2. District level
District level refers the necessarily to administrative and to specific area the land that
found between national and local levels.
The kind of issues tackled at this stage includes:
 The setting of developments such as settlements, forest plantation and irrigation
schemes (a systematic plan or arrangement for attaining some particular object or
putting a particular idea into effect);
 The need for improved infrastructure such as water supply , roads and marketing
facilities
 The development of management guidelines for improved kinds of land use on
each type of land.
3. Local level
 The planning units may be the village, a group of villages or small water
catchment.
 At this level, it is the easiest to fit the plan to the people, making use of local
people’s indigenous knowledge and give great contribution for LUP.
 Alternatively, this may be the first level of planning, with its priorities drawn up
the local people.
 Local – level planning is about getting things done on particular areas of land-
what shall be done where and when, and who will be responsible.
 It is a place where land use planning activity which is a direct
implemented/practice at this stage.
 In Ethiopia all LUP are watershed based level of planning activities.

83
 84

Starting at the local level: bottom-up planning

‘’Bottom-up’’ planning is initiated at local level and involves active participation by the local community. The experience and
The advantages are
More popular awareness of land-use problems and opportunities
Plans can pay close attention to local constrains, whether these are related to natural resources or socio-economic problems
Better information is fed upwards for higher levels of planning
The disadvantages are that:
Local interests are not always the same is regional or national interests
Difficulties occur in integrated local plans with in a wider frame work
Limited technical knowledge at the local level means technical agencies need to make a big investment in time and labor in w
Local efforts may collapse because of a lack of higher- level support or even obstruction

People in planning
Land-use planning involves getting many different people to work together towards common
goals. Three groups of people are directly involved: land users, decision makers and planning
team
Land users: These are the people living in the planning area whose livelihood depends wholly
or partly on the land. The involvement of all land users in planning is essential. Ultimately, they
have to put the plan into effect and must therefore believe in its potential benefits as well as in
the fairness of the planning process. Achieving effective public participation in planning is a
challenge. Planners have to invest the time and resources needed to secure participation through

84
 85

local discussions, by broadcasting and newspaper articles, through technical workshops and
extension services. Interest of people and the land as well as a willingness to experiment mark
the more successful efforts.

Decision-makers: Decision-makers are those responsible for putting plans into effect. They
authorities of the government at national, district and local level. The planning team provides
information and expert advice. The decision-makers guide the planning team on key issues and
goals while also deciding whether to implement plans and, if so, which of the options presented
should be chosen.

The planning team: An essential feature of land-use planning is the treatment of land and land
use as a whole.
This involves crossing boundaries between disciplines (natural resource, engineering,
agricultural and social sciences), so teamwork is essential.
Ideally, a team needs a wide range of special expertise; for example a soil surveyor, a land
evaluation specialist, an agronomist, a forester, a range and livestock specialist, an engineer, an
economist and a sociologist. Government agency staff and universities may be useful sources of
assistance.
Application of LUP: These guidelines are written in general terms, applicable to any
environment or region.
Many problems of land use are specific to particular areas, not only because of their differing
physical environments but also because of local social conditions such as those of land tenure.
Overview of the planning process/ Steps in land-use planning

Every land-use planning project is different. Because objectives and local circumstances are
extremely varied, so each plan will require a different treatment.
However, a sequence of ten steps has been found useful as a guide. Each step represents a
specific activity, or set of activities, and their outputs provide information for subsequent steps.
Step 1: Establish goals and terms of reference
As certain the present situation; find out the needs of the people and of the government; decide
on the land area to be covered; agree on the broad goals and specific objectives of the plan; settle
the terms of reference for the plan.

85
 86

The planning effort is launched by discussions between those who want the plan (land users and
government) and the planners. This crucial first step should be a mutual exchange of ideas and
information. The decision-makers and representatives of the people of the planning area have to
brief the planner about the problems of the area and what they want to achieve. The planner has
to make clear how a land-use plan might help. A reconnaissance field tour, during which
representatives of the people concerned with to meet, can be especially useful.

Responsibility: decision-makers and planners together

• Define the planning area.

• Contact the people involved.
• Acquire basic information about the area:
-Land resources - social structure
- present land use - government and commercial organization
- infrastructure and NGOs
- population
- land tenure
• Establish the goals.
• Make a preliminary identification of problems and opportunities.
• Identify constraints to implementing land improvements.
• Establish the criteria for making decisions on land use.
• Set the scope of the plan. • Decide on operational questions for the
• Set the planning period. planning project: personnel, cooperating
• Agree on the content and format of the agencies, timing and budget plan.
plan.
Step 2: Organize the work
Decide what needs to be done; identify the activities needed and select the planning team;
decides on the methods, identifies who will do it, specifies the responsibilities of each team
member, draw up a schedule of activities and outputs; ensure that everyone who may be affected
by the plan, or will contribute to it, is consulted.
Responsibility: planning team leader and administrator
• List the planning tasks and activities. For each task:

86
 87

- Identify the people and organizations, set out the resources needed and also to estimate the time
needed and responsible for or contributing to it
• Decide which tasks need to be completed before others can be commenced.
• Draw up a work plan for the project as a whole (table, bar chart or critical path analysis).
• Draw up individual, personal work plans.
• Allocate money and equipment.
• Arrange administrative matters and logistics (movement and supply of troops):
- Check and arrange security clearances for staff and equipment, e.g. for the purchase and use of
maps, cartography, air photographs and computers.
- Budget for staff, equipment and transport costs.
- Provide for:
• Transport (vehicles, spares, fuel,
servicing); equipment, office facilities
- Provide and coordinate technical support: field assistance, inputs from other agencies etc.
Step 3: Analysis the problems
After the previous focus on discussion, terms of reference and preparation, Step 3 is the first to
involve the detailed technical aspects of land-use planning. It is a big step. First, study the
existing land-use situation, including in the field; talk to the land users and find out their needs
and views; Next, identify the problems and analyses their causes; identify constraints to change.;
to do this requires the identification of land units.
Responsibility: planning team
• Collect data on the existing situation; where possible, compile maps:
- Population - present land use;
- land resources; - production and trends;
- employment and income; - infrastructure.
• Sources: maps, satellite imagery, air photographs, censuses, departmental records, check in the
field whether the sources are reliable and up to date.
• Identify land use problems
- Land nature and severity, land units and land-use systems affected;
- analysis of causes.

87
 88

• Methods: interviews with land users, local leaders, extension staff, agencies; field
reconnaissance.
• Prepare problem statements.
Step 4: Identify opportunities for change
Now that the problems was identified needing attention are known, the next step is to consider
what can be done to solve or ameliorate them. This requires interaction between the planning
team, which devises and presents its alternative opportunities for change, the land users, who
comment on these opportunities and may offer their own solutions and the decision-makers, who
choose which alternatives are to be analyzed further.
Seek a variety of solutions in the first instance and then select those that seem most promising. It
is important for the land users, planners and decision-makers to reach a consensus about what the
priorities are, and this entails both public involvement and wide-ranging executive discussion.
Responsibility: planning team
• Based on the goals from Step I and problem statements from Step 3, isolate problems for which
solutions other than land-use planning must be sought.
Generate a range of options for solving each problem, in terms of:
- Opportunities: the people, land resources, improved technology, economic measures,
government action;
-Land-use strategies: no change, maximum production, minimum investment, maximum
conservation, maximum equity;
- Kinds of production, the role of conservation, self-reliance versus external investment.
• Develop realistic options that best meet the needs of production, conservation and sustainability
and that minimize conflicts of land use.
• Prepare outline budgets and time frames for each option.
Step 5: Evaluate land suitability
For each promising land-use type, establish the land requirements and match these with the
properties of the land to establish physical land suitability.
Responsibility: planning team
• Describe land-use types in sufficient detail for subsequent analysis.
• Select land qualities and land characteristics to be used in comparisons of land-use
requirements with land.

88
 89

• Map the land units and determine their relevant land characteristics and qualities.
• Take into account sustainability and the ratio of benefits to inputs.
• Match land use with land:
- compare land-use requirements with land qualities or characteristics to determine provisional
land suitability classes;
- consider modifications to land-use types, in order that they become better suited to the land;
- consider land improvements that could make the land better suited to the land use.
• Plan for research needed: additional surveys, research by outside agencies or within the land-
use plan.
6: Appraise the alternatives: environmental, economic and social analysis
For each physically suitable combination of land use and land, assess the environmental,
economic and social impacts, for the land users and for the community as a whole.
List the consequences, favorable and unfavorable, of alternative courses of action.
Responsibility: planning team
• The following studies refer first to individual combinations of land use with land units that have
been classed as suitable in physical terms and, second, to alternative combinations of land use
that are being considered in the plan.
- Environmental impact assessment: soil and water resources, pasture and forest resources,
wildlife conservation, resources for tourism and recreation; off-site effects.
- Financial analysis: are the proposed land-use types profitable for the farmer or other land users?
- Economic analysis: what is the value of the proposed changes to the community, within and
beyond the planning area? Are there areas of land of critical importance (for production or
conservation) for certain uses?
- Social impact: what effects will the proposed changes have on different sections of the
community, especially women, minority groups and the poor?
- Strategic planning: how do the proposed changes in land use affect wider aspects of rural
development planning, including national goal?
Step 7: Choose the best option
Hold public and executive discussions of the viable options and their consequences. Based on
these discussions and the above appraisal, decide which changes in land use should be made or
worked towards.

89
 90

Responsibility: planning team and decision-makers

• Make arrangements for consultations with the communities affected as well as with the
implementing agencies; obtain views about feasibility and acceptability.
• Assemble and review the comments received. In the light of these, make any necessary changes
to the options.
Step 8: Prepare the land-use plan
Make allocations or recommendations of the selected land uses for the chosen areas of land;
make plans for appropriate land management; plan how the selected improvements are to be
brought about and how the plan is to be put into practice; draw up policy guidelines, prepare a
budget and draft any necessary legislation; involve decision-makers, sect oral agencies and land
users.
Responsibility: planning team
• Prepare maps - the basic or master land-use plan and supporting maps.
• Set out the land-use allocations and recommendations, based on the preferred option selected in
Give descriptions of land-use types, including management recommendations on each kind of
land.
• Set targets for achievement, by land-use type, area and agency. Specify how they will be
reached. Check that they are within the capabilities of the agencies and infrastructure.
• Draw up logistic preparations, specifying the capital works, recurrent inputs and
responsibilities for implementation.
Step 9: Implement the plan
Either directly within the planning process or, more likely, as a separate development project, put
the plan into action; the planning team should work in conjunction with the implementing
agencies.
The objective of the entire land-use planning exercise so far has been to identify and put into
practice beneficial land-use changes. Hence, implementation is included as a "step" in the
planning process
Step 10: Monitor and revise the plan
Now the planning process comes full circle. Information is needed on how well the plan is being
implemented and whether it is succeeding, so that the implementation agencies can improve the
way in which the plan is being applied and so that the planning team may learn from experience

90
 91

and respond to changing conditions. Monitor the progress of the plan towards its goals; modify
or revise the plan in the light of experience.
Responsibility: planning team
• Gather data relevant to each criterion of attainment: physical, economic and social.
• Compare what has been achieved with what was planned. Identify elements of success and
failure.
• Seek explanations for failures. Were they caused by?
- Incorrect assumptions of the plan?
- Changed economic or political circumstances?
- Logistic problems of implementation?
- Problems of communication and participation?
• Review the goals: are they still valid?
• Initiate modification or revision of the plan:
- Minor modifications through action by implementing agencies;
- larger revisions by the preparation of proposals and reference back to decision-makers.
Generally, in broader view, the steps can be grouped into the following logical sequence:
 Identify the problems. Steps 1-3.
 Determine what alternative solutions exist. Steps 4-6.
 Decide which the best alternative is and prepare the plan. Steps 7-8.
 Put the plan into action, see how it works and learn from this experience. Steps 9-10.
Land-use problems: symptoms and causes
Symptoms of land-use problems

 Migration to towns  Encroachment on forest and wildlife

 Low rural incomes
 Lack of employment opportunities
 Poor health and nutrition
 Inadequate subsistence production
 Shortage of fuel and timber
 Shortage of grazing land
 Low, unreliable crop yields
 Desertion of farmland
reserves
 Conflicts among farming, livestock
and non-agricultural uses
 Visible land degradation, e.g. eroded
cropland, silted bottom lands,
degradation of
 woodland, salinity in irrigation
schemes, flooding

91
 92

Underlying causes related to land use

Social problems
Population pressure on land resources
Unequal distribution of land, capital and opportunities
Restrictions of land tenure and landownership etc.
Natural hazards and limitations
inadequate water supply and distribution
Irregular relief
Drought-prone soils and different land crop diseases
Poor drainage etc.
Mismatch between land use and land suitability
inadequate water management and control
Clearance of forest on steep lands
inadequate soil conservation practices
inadequate periods of bush fallow
What is the application of land use planning

LUP for various field of application

-A tool for Sustainable natural resource management

-Terrestrial development
-A tool for food security
-A tool for disaster risk management
-A tool for adaptation and mitigation of climate change
-A tool for conflict prevention and resolution
-A tool for responsible land governance
LUP: a Tool for Sustainable Natural Resource Management
Definition: Sustainable Natural Resource Management is the integrated management of natural
resources recognizing the values of both their conservation and their productive use and striving
to achieve sustainability in all kinds of resource use.
Contribution of LUP to Natural Resource Management: Land use planning is a key element of an
effective natural resource management. It helps to define adequate uses which balance

92
 93

ecological, economic and social objectives, thereby preventing land use conflicts as well as
social conflicts. It can also help to clarify tenure issues and – if integrated into the institutional
set-up – to improve law enforcement. Land use planning represents an important decision-
making tool for natural resource management.
LUP: a Tool for the Protection of Biodiversity
Biodiversity – Definition: Biodiversity is the variability among living organisms. The term
includes both natural and agricultural biological diversity.
Contribution of Land Use Planning to the Protection of Biodiversity: The sustainable use and
protection of biological diversity is an integral component of successful land use planning.
The guiding principle here is to catalogue biodiversity together with the local population and
thus to perceive it more clearly and appreciate its importance. In successive steps, conflicts of
interest are to be brought to light and fairly resolved, resulting in greater social acceptance.
Another element is to document traditional wisdom as a prerequisite for ‘access and benefit
sharing’ (ABS) regulations and to prevent restrictions on use.
Protecting biodiversity does not mean concentration on individual species, but rather forming
ecosystems and contributing to their stability or resilience.

LUP: a Tool for National Park and Buffer Zone Management

National Park and Buffer Zone Management need to consider many different purposes which
have to be fulfilled and conflicts which need to be prevented. Research, tourism and the
preservation of unique ecosystems and wildlife have to be achieved in the core area. Both
national park and buffer zone management require long- and medium-term planning when
residents are involved. It includes resource use and management plans as well as educational
issues to sensitize and coach, people as well as to improve
Contribution of Land Use Planning to National Park and Buffer Zone Management: Participatory
resource use planning is a core element in national park and buffer zone management. Resource
use planning includes more aspects than land use planning as it can, for instance, include access
to use water or non-timber forest products. Resource use planning provides the basis for national
park and buffer zone management as it defines where, what kinds of use are allowed and which
ones are forbidden.
LUP: a Tool for Food Security

93
 94

Food Security – Definition: “Food security exists when all people, at all times, have physical and
economic access to sufficient, safe and nutritious food that meets their dietary needs and food
preferences for an active and healthy life” (World Food Summit, 1996).
 Food Security encompasses the following four dimensions:
 Availability of food;
 Access to food;
 Safe and healthy utilization of food;
 Stability of food availability, access and utilization
Contribution of Land Use Planning to Food Security: Land use planning can contribute to
improving the availability of food within defined areas at region level, at local or national level
in a number of ways:
In many regions, the recognition and promotion of subsistence farming as well as the promotion
and support of agricultural production for the local markets during land use planning can also
contribute to food security.
LUP: a Tool for Disaster Risk Management
Definition: Disaster risk management aims to avoid the adverse effects of hazards such as
storms, earthquakes, floods, droughts or landslides through a variety of activities and preventive
measures, mitigation and preparedness.
Contribution of Land Use Planning to Disaster Risk Management: Land use planning is a very
important instrument in disaster risk management. By determining land uses, it affects both the
vulnerability of the local population and infrastructure as well as potential hazards, and can
accordingly be used to minimize disaster risk.
The goal of land use planning for disaster risk management is to achieve a utilization of land and
natural resources which is adapted to local people conditions and needs and takes into account
disaster risks.
Benefit/Outcome/Impact: Land use planning can significantly contribute to preventing new
hazards, such as landslides and flooding, which are frequently caused by inappropriate land use.
Land use planning can also reduce the vulnerability of people and infrastructure by identifying
safe locations for settlements and constructions and by defining and applying adequate building
standards during plan implementation.

94
 95

Thus, considering disaster risks in land use planning can save human lives and material as well
as reduce economic losses. It contributes to sustainable development and poverty reduction.
LUP: a Tool for Adaptation and Mitigation of Climate Change
Adaptation to and Mitigation of Climate Change – Definitions and Concepts:
The human response to global climate change and climate variability can be characterized in two
ways: adaptation and mitigation.
Adaptation: Adaptation involves developing ways to avoid negative impact on people, their
livelihoods, economic activities and places by reducing their vulnerability to climate impacts.
Adaptation is about doing things differently because of climate change. Examples of adaptation
include changing building codes, for instance, to make constructions more resistant against
hurricanes(strong wind), building infrastructure to protect communities against increased
flooding, relocating buildings to higher ground and making changes in land use such as
switching to more drought-resistant crops, or substituting intensive with extensive agriculture.
Mitigation: Mitigation involves attempts to slow the process of global climate change by
lowering the level of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. Examples include mechanisms such as
reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation or planting trees that absorb carbon
dioxide from the air and store it in the soil or in their trunks and roots. Global efforts for
mitigation are prerequisites for sustainable development.
Contribution of Land Use Planning to Adaptation to and Mitigation of Climate Change:

A) LUP for Adaptation:

Adaptation consists of assessing vulnerabilities and impacts related to climate change,

identifying and prioritizing adaptation options, often from a cross-sectoral perspective, and
governing the implementation of adaptation.

Impacts and adaptation needs are very different from location to location; therefore, land use
planning has an important role to play in adaptation to climate change.

Benefit/Outcome/Impact: By considering climate change, land use planning can be made

resilient and contribute to adapting to climate change. It enables site-specific adaptation e.g. by
adjusting the assessment of guiding parameters like land suitability for different purposes.

B) LUP for Mitigation:

95
 96

Land use planning can be used to reduce deforestation and forest degradation by limiting
agricultural expansion, conversion of forests to pasturelands, infrastructure development,
destructive logging, fires etc.

Land use planning can also be used to identify areas for carbon sequestration (as an
environmental service for which farmers could receive a payment), e.g. through afforestation or
for the introduction of agroforestry.

LUP: a Tool for Conflict Prevention and Resolution

Definition: Conflict resolution addresses the causes of conflict and seeks to build new and lasting
relationships between hostile groups. Conflict prevention aims at preventing the outbreak of
(violent) conflict (Fisher et al. 2000).

Contribution of LUP to Conflict Prevention and Resolution: Land use planning is the key
instrument in reconciling competing interests in land between individuals as well as groups,
between different villages and distinct users as well as between traditional rights’ holders and
state authorities or private companies etc.

A participatory comprehensive land use planning which anticipates and guides future land use
while respecting existing uses represents an effective tool for preventing and solving land
conflicts.

LUP: a Tool for Responsible Land Governance

Responsible Land Governance – Definition: Land governance concerns the rules, processes and
structures through which decisions are made about access to land and its use, the manner in
which the decisions are implemented and enforced as well as the way that conflicting interests in
land are managed.

Land governance consists of statutory, customary, religious, neo-customary and extra-legal

actors, rules and processes governing access to and use of land.

Weak land governance gives rise to state capture (e.g. illegal allocation of public land), large-
scale land acquisitions and leases (often ignoring local people’s rights over land) and
administrative corruption (e.g. illegal allocation of building permits due to bribery).

96
 97

Contribution of Land Use Planning to Responsible Land Governance: Effective, transparent and
participatory land use planning contributes to responsible land governance in different ways:

1. Broad participation allows for the inclusion of society’s current and future needs into decision-
making over the use of land;

2. Transparent land use planning reduces opportunities for rent-seeking (state capture and
administrative corruption) and it thereby limits the risk for the rural poor to be landless;

3. Land use planning is a key instrument for reconciling competing interests in land and thereby
preventing land use conflicts;

4. Land use planning can help to identify local peoples’ use and possession rights over land and
prepare for their formal recognition (legalization);

5. This allows everybody to equitably participate and to receive an adequate share while at the
same time guaranteeing an economically, socially and environmentally sustainable land
development is guaranteed.

97