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morguefile.com (ant, page 35); Chris Dascher, ©iStock.com (grouper, page 35); Schick, morguefile.com (frog, page 35); Schick, morguefile.com (snake, page 35); Christopher
Michel, flickr.com (penguin, page 35); Nicole S. Young, ©iStock.com (eggs and bird, page 36); Brooke Anderson (spider, page 36); Judhi Prasetyo, flickr.com (guppy, page 36);
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page 38); Keepps, flickr.com (pumpkin plant, page 38); Ruben Holthuijsen, flickr.com (wheat, page 38); K. Kendall, flickr.com (moss, page 38); IRubén, flickr.com (lemon tree,
page 38); Tomás Royo, flickr.com (pine tree, page 38); Colin Brough, sxc.hu (palm tree, page 38); Dluogs, flickr.com (rockrose flower, page 38); Orthoboric, flickr.com (tulip
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38); Oriol Massana (pistil, page 39); Jason Bacon, flickr.com (stamen, page 39); halfrain, flickr.com (flower, page 39); Triplefivechina, flickr.com (sunflower seed, page 40);
morguefile.com (hazelnuts, page 40 Jeltovski; Inuycho, flickr.com (walnuts, page 40); Muyral; morguefile.com (almonds, page 40); Andrea Nguyen, flickr.com (chestnuts,
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Ettore Ballocchi, flickr.com (rosebush, page 41); Ettore Balocchi, flickr.com (rowan tree, page 41); Herman Shachner, flickr.com (elm tree, page 41); Kretyen, flickr.com (prickly
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 Life Sciences

Unit

Reproduction
 Unit Structure

Cover Page
The unit title is highlighted and the learn-
ing objectives presented. An index of the
contents according to the 5-E Model is also
provided. The digital version also includes an
activity to review the skills and knowledge
required to undertake the unit.

Engage
A video and a related activity are available
with the digital version. Both versions have
a summary on page one. Different activities
are proposed for the video; some of these
may be interactive in the digital version, but
they all contain open-ended questions.

Explore
This exploratory and discovery activity is
devised to mobilize prior knowledge and
check it against the results obtained from
the experience. The digital version con-
tains the necessary multimedia resources
required for this activity: simulators, videos,
interactivities, etc.

4 science-bits.com
 Unit Structure

Explain
The unit’s key concepts are formally and
systematically addressed. The digital version
includes a wide range of multimedia resourc-
es to facilitate understanding of the ideas
presented. The printable version includes
all basic graphical elements and references
to the digital resources available. The digital
version may also include reinforcement or
enrichment activities.

Elaborate
In this section, the newly acquired knowl-
edge can be applied in a practical way.
Thus, a problem-solving activity is pro-
posed, one which requires the application
of the concepts, attitudes, and procedures
learned throughout the unit. The digital
version may provide multimedia tools (such
as simulators or videos) to help develop
and solve the activity.

Exercises
Each of the concepts addressed in the
“Explain” section is related to interactive
or open-ended exercises with the aim of
consolidating the topics covered through
practice. The printable version includes all
the exercises except for reinforcement or en-
richment activities, and they are organized
in accordance with the contents from the
“Explain” section.

science-bits.com 5
 Reproduction
Index
· Engage
· Life’s Mysteries ......................................................................08
· Explore
· How are Living Organisms Created?.................................10
· Explain
· Only Life can Generate Life ................................................12
· Two Methods of Reproduction .........................................12
· Asexual Reproduction .........................................................13
· Identical Copies of a Single Parent ..............................13
· Organisms that Reproduce Asexually .........................13
·Types of Asexual Reproduction ....................................13
· Sexual Reproduction ........................................................... 16
· Combining Traits ...........................................................16
· Organisms that Reproduce Sexually ..........................16
· The Perspective from the Cell ......................................16
· Sex Cells ...........................................................................17
· Fertilization ......................................................................17
· Embryonic Development .............................................18
· An Organism’s Biological Cycle .....................................18
· Reproduction in Animals ....................................................19
· Reproduction in Plants ....................................................... 21
· Elaborate
· Born on the Same Day ......................................................... 25
· Exercises ................................................................................... 27

In this unit, you will learn:

That every living organism originates from the reproduction of
other living organisms.
That there exist two forms of reproduction: sexual and asexual.
That through asexual reproduction, a single organism generates
descendants that are identical copies of itself (i.e., clones).
That through sexual reproduction, two organisms cooperate to
generate organisms whose traits are a combination of the traits
of both parents.
That sexual reproduction is based on the fertilization or fusion of
two sexual cells into a cell called a zygote.
That the zygote grows and gives rise to all the different cells that
make up a many-celled organism.
That even when embryonic development has finished, the or-
ganism must reach sexual maturity to be able to reproduce, and
to complete in this way its life cycle.

6 www.science-bits.com
www.science-bits.com 7
 Engage

Life’s Mysteries
Things don’t just appear out of nowhere. You and I did not emerge out
of nowhere. We are the result of the reproduction of other living organ-
isms of the same species.

Many of the living organisms around us come to life in the same fash-
Video ion: birds are hatched from an egg, plants grow from a seed, etc. But,
does this hold true for all living organisms?

We have one kilogram of rice in a tightly sealed package. We pour the

rice into a clean jar and keep it well sealed. Amazingly, two months
later the jar is crammed with weevils. Where do these insects come
from? Did they appear out of nowhere?

Throughout history, philosophers and natural scientists alike have pon-

dered similar questions. Sea acorns appearing on rocks, earthworms in
the soil of an isolated flower pot...

Aristotle thought that the simplest life forms could be generated

spontaneously from the transformation of lifeless things. According to
him, rocks and water transformed into sea acorn worms and moist soil
transformed into earthworms.

This belief continued for centuries. People were so convinced of it that

even recipes were made to create animals:

Put together in a basket a handful of wheat seeds, some old, used

clothes and let it sit. Twenty-one days later… Voilà! A mouse!

We now know that this is not true. All living organisms come from the
reproduction of another living organism.

However, where did the rice weevils come from?

8 science-bits.com
Questions

The Appearance of Living Organisms

You have probably been surprised at some point by the appearance of liv-
ing organisms in the most unexpected places: between clothes in a locked
closet, inside a piece of fruit, or in the soil of a flower pot.

Present an example of an “appearance” of living organisms that surprised

you, and try to explain how it happened.

The Importance of Proper Observation

Natural philosophers in ancient Greece used to think that there were two
ways of generating living organisms:

By the reproduction of another living organism, as they could observe

from many animals and plants in their environment.

By the transformation of lifeless forms, which they believed explained

the appearance of tiny animals.

a. Why do you think the Greek philosophers came up with this alternative
explanation for reproduction?

b. We saw in the video in the digital version how, over a period of two months,
hundreds of tiny insects appeared inside the sealed container containing rice.
How would one of Aristotle’s contemporaries explain this phenomenon?

Rice Weevils
The insects inside the rice jar are weevils—long-beaked beetles that live on
this cereal. Thanks to detailed observation using magnifying lenses, we know
that weevils are born from tiny eggs—approximately 0.6 mm in diameter—
laid by the adult weevils. Therefore, weevils are actually generated by the
reproduction of other living organisms.

Try to explain how the weevils appeared in the rice jar.

science-bits.com 9
 Explore

How Are Living Organisms Created?

Introduction
From ancient times, many humans have believed that some living organ-
isms—the smallest and simplest—were created from inert materials.

This idea was first proposed by the natural philosophers of ancient Greece,
and it gave rise to the theory of spontaneous generation, which was sup-
ported by the scientific community until the nineteenth century.

Nowadays, the systematic observation of nature allows us to ascer-

tain that all living organisms are created through the reproduction
of other living organisms.

Animation
Maggots that Come from Meat?
Observe what happens when a
piece of meat is left to sit for a few In seventeenth-century Europe, the theory of spontaneous generation
days. enjoyed much credibility.

One phenomenon that was used to exemplify the generation of living or-
day 1
ganisms from inert materials was the appearance of maggots in a piece of
decomposing meat.

According to the theory, contact with air made the meat become putrid,
and this then turned into white maggots.

Watch the animation of the phenomenon in the digital version and propose
an alternative explanation.

10 science-bits.com
The Power of Observation
Francesco Redi (1626−1697) was a Tuscan naturalist,
physician, and poet. He described several species of in-
sects from observations made with the aid of magnify-
ing lenses.

Thanks to his observations, Redi was sure that the mag-

gots did not come from the meat, but instead their ap-
pearance was somehow caused by the presence of flies.

Propose an experiment which would let you prove that

maggots do not come from meat, but that their appear-
ance is due to the flies that land on it.

Francesco Redi (1626-1697)

Redi’s Experiment
In 1668, Redi carried out an experiment to confirm what
his observations had suggested to him.

The experiment consisted of observing rotting meat un- Simulator

der two different conditions.

Allowing flies access to one piece of meat. Simulation of Francesco Redi’s

experiment.
Preventing flies from accessing a second piece of meat.

a. With the materials available in the simulator, prepare Re-

di’s experiment. Activate it and observe its development.

b. Fill out this report from the observations made:

Open Closed
container container
Flies have landed on the meat. q yes q no q yes q no

The meat looks different. q yes q no q yes q no

White maggots appear on the meat. q yes q no q yes q no

c. Which of these conclusions can be drawn from the

results of the experiment?
q Maggots are only formed if flies land on the meat.
q The meat can turn into maggots.
q The meat only changes in appearance if flies land on it.
q The change in color of the meat is not related to the
flies landing on it.

science-bits.com 11
 Revising the Experiment
Those in favor of spontaneous generation did not consid-
er Redi’s experiment valid, because in one of the contain-
ers air from outside was not allowed to enter into contact
with the piece of meat.

They alleged that it was necessary for air from outside to

come into contact with the rotten meat in order for it to
turn into maggots.

a. Propose an experimental design to carry out the same

experiment, but this time, allowing air from outside to
come into contact with the piece of meat in both cases.

To overcome this objection, Redi covered the mouth of the

container with gauze. Flies could not pass through, but air
could enter through the small holes.
Simulator
b. Prepare a newer version which allows air to enter both
Simulation of Francesco Redi’s containers. Activate it and closely observe how the experi-
second experiment. ment unfolds.

c. Fill out the report according to the observations made:

Open Closed
container container
Air circulates and contact with the meat. q yes q no q yes q no

Where do the flies land?

The meat looks different. q yes q no q yes q no

Where do maggots appear?

d. What conclusions can be drawn from the results of this

experiment?
q The contact of flies with the meat causes it to rot.
q Maggots only form on the meat.
q The mix of rotten meat and air does not become mag-
gots.
q The appearance of maggots on a material depends on
the previous presence of flies on it.

12 science-bits.com
On Flies and Maggots
Attracted by the smell of the meat, flies have also landed on the gauze of
container B. Two days later, some maggots appeared on the gauze.

It seems clear that flies create maggots, whether on the meat or on the
gauze.

a. What do you think flies do when they land on the meat or on the gauze?

Through close observation, it is possible to verify that flies do in fact de-

posit eggs when they land on the meat or on the gauze.

Maggots emerge from these eggs, and they grow as they feed on the
meat.

Therefore, flies reproduce through eggs, from which maggots emerge. We

can presume that flies and maggots are really two forms of the same or-
ganism.

b. What would you do to confirm this supposition?

Conclusion Animation
Through close observation of the maggots
on the meat, Redi managed to clarify their Life cycle of the fly.
relationship of the maggots and the meat.
The flies reproduce through eggs, from
which larvae emerge. These are the mag-
gots on the meat, which grow until they
form a pupa, in which they transform into
a fly.
Therefore, maggots and flies are two forms fly
of the same organism.

eggs
The maggots on the meat, like all liv- pupa
ing organisms, are created through
the reproduction of another living
organism. Only life can generate
larva
new life.

science-bits.com 13
 Explain

Only Life Can Generate Life

Image Lifeless matter cannot be transformed into life: living organisms can only
be produced by other living organisms of the same species.

The process by which living organisms produce new living organ-

isms is called reproduction.

Every living organism is the result of other living organisms reproducing.

All living organisms are capable of reproducing during a period of their

lives.

A family of African elephants.

Two Methods of Reproduction

Reproduction is the process by which organisms produce new

organisms that are identical or almost identical to the parents.
Animations
Examples of asexual reproduction Living organisms reproduce in two ways, depend-
and sexual reproduction. ing on whether one or two parents are involved
in the process.

Asexual reproduction. Asexual reproduc-

tion is the process through which one organ-
ism creates new living organisms without
the participation of another organism. The
offspring are identical copies of the parent
organism.

Sexual reproduction. In sexual reproduc-

tion, two compatible organisms of the same
species cooperate to create new living or-
ganisms. The descendants’ characteristics
are a mix of the characteristics of the two
parents.

Some living organisms can reproduce either

sexually or asexually, depending on the environ-
mental conditions. Others can only reproduce in
one way.

14 science-bits.com
Asexual Reproduction
Identical Copies of a Single Parent Animation
By means of asexual reproduction, a parent organism produces new
Asexual reproduction of bacteria.
organisms identical to itself.

Both the parent’s cells and offspring’s cells contain exactly the same
genetic material.

Organisms that are identical copies of another organism, and

which thus contain the same genetic material, are called clones.

When the environmental conditions are constant, asexual reproduction

is fast and effective due to the fact that:

The parent organism does not need to find a compatible organism

to reproduce.

If the parent is suitably adapted to the environmental conditions, its

offspring will also be, as they are clones.

Organisms that Reproduce Asexually

Not all living organisms reproduce asexually. However, many organ- Image Gallery
isms use this type of reproduction.
Image gallery of organisms repro-
Asexual reproduction is the only form of reproduction in bacte- ducing asexually.
ria and other prokaryotic organisms.

This type of reproduction is also widespread among single-

celled eukarotic organisms, such as protozoa, single-celled al-
gae, and yeast.

Many fungi and multicellular algae, as well as some animals and

plants, adopt this form of reproduction in certain circumstances.

Types of Asexual Reproduction

Bipartition: the organism spontaneously divides into two iden-
tical individuals. Videos
Budding: the organism spontaneously generates a bud or out- Animated examples of the four types
growth which ends up separating and becoming another identical of asexual reproduction.
individual.

Fragmentation: organisms which are capable of fully regenerat-

ing their bodies after being fragmented accidentally. Each fragment
can generate a new individual.

Spore formation: the organism generates special cells (spores)

which are capable of spreading and becoming new individuals.

science-bits.com 15

Animation
Animation about sexual reproduc-
tion and the combination of traits.
Sexual Reproduction
Combining Traits
When two organisms reproduce sexually, they produce new organ-
isms that share traits with both parents. These organisms, however,
are not identical to each other, and neither are they identical to any
of the parents.

The offspring’s traits are a combination of the parents’ traits.

Unfavorable environmental conditions pose a threat for the asexual

reproduction of an organism: the clones produced will be as badly
adapted to those conditions as the parents were.

In contrast, sexual reproduction produces varied organisms, each one

with a different mixture of traits. Therefore, it is more likely that at least
Image Gallery one of the offspring will be better adapted to the conditions.

Image gallery of organisms repro-

ducing sexually.
Organisms that Reproduce Sexually
With a few exceptions, we can say that all living organisms formed
by eukaryotic cells—that is, formed of cells containing a nucleus—
reproduce sexually, regardless of whether they are one-celled or
multicellular.

In contrast, bacteria and prokaryotic organisms in general do not

reproduce sexually.

The Perspective from the Cell

The specialized cells that take part in sexual reproduction are called
Image sex cells or gametes.

Both animals and plants produce two types of sex

cells: male and female.

Sexual reproduction takes place when a

male sex cell and a female sex cell pro-
duced by organisms of the same species
fuse in a single cell.

The first cell of the new organism resulting from

the fusion of these gametes is called zygote.

Beginning of the fusion of male

(spermatozoon) and female
(egg) gametes.

16 science-bits.com
Sex Cells
Gametes or sex cells are produced inside specialized reproductive
organs.

Specific characteristics allow us to differentiate a female gamete from

a male gamete in any organism:

Female sex cells. Female gametes are large cells, usually spherical,
whose cytoplasm stores reserve substances to be used as a source
of energy and matter during at least the early stages of the zygote’s
development.

Male sex cells. Male gametes are relatively small cells whose nucle-
us typically occupies the majority of space in the cytoplasm. These
cells specialize in traveling to the female gamete. Outlines
The nucleus of sex cells contains half of the genetic material present in Models of a female sex cell and a
the other cells of the animal or plant. male sex cell (those common in
mammals).

cytoplasm

nucleus nucleus

plasma
membrane
flagellum
plasma
35 µm membrane
7 µm

Fertilization

The fusion of a female sex cell and a male sex cell results in a
zygote. This process is called fertilization.
Video

Video in the digital version showing

The zygote is the first cell of an organism produced by sexual repro- the process of fertilization. Fusion of
duction. the nuclei of the male and female
gametes is highlighted.
Zygote formation is only the first stage in the sexual reproduction of a
multicellular organism.

The fusion of the genetic material in the nuclei of both male and
female gametes takes place during the process of fertilization.

science-bits.com 17
 Embryonic Development

Video
Embryonic development of a human
being from the zygote stage onward.
The process by which the zygote transforms into a multicellular or-
ganism with its tissues and organs fully formed is called embryonic
development.
Besides the growth of the embryo, two very important
processes take place during this period:

Cell division. The zygote’s genetic material is dupli-

cated, and its cell membrane contracts to divide the
cell body into two halves, producing two cells each
with a copy of all the genetic material. This process,
called mitosis, repeats many times to produce bil-
lions of cells.

Cell differentiation. At the beginning of develop-

ment, all the cells are identical. However, according
to the position of each cell in the embryo, each one
develops in a certain way until it becomes a differen-
tiated cell, with a definite form and function.

During development, which occurs inside specialized

structures, we refer to the living organism as an embryo.

Two examples of the structures in which develop-

ment occurs are the uterus or womb of mammals
and the eggs of many animals.

An Organism’s Biological Cycle

When an organism completes its embryonic development, it is ready
to abandon the structure in which it has spent this stage. The birth of
the organism then occurs.

After birth, organisms are not yet ready to reproduce. We call them
juveniles or immature organisms.

Video Tadpoles, fry, saplings, and caterpillars are examples of immature

organisms.
Biological cycle of the frog.
Juveniles grow and develop un-
til they become adult organisms,
embryo
zygote whose mature reproductive organs
will allow them to reproduce.

The biological cycle of an

organism is the set of stag-
es that the organism goes
through from zygote to
sexual maturity. The or-
juvenile ganism is then capable of
reproducing.
adult

18 science-bits.com
Reproduction in Animals
Images
Although some simple animals can reproduce asexually through bud-
ding or fragmentation, animals usually reproduce sexually.

To carry out sexual reproduction, animals produce gametes in

specialized organs called gonads.

There are two types of gonads: testicles, which produce male sex cells—
spermatozoa—; and ovaries, that produce female sex cells—ova.
Sexual dimorphism is very common
Depending on whether the individuals of a species have only one type among birds.
of gonad or two, species can be:

Unisexual species. Individuals have either female gonads or male go-

nads. In some species, males and females can only be distinguished by
their gonads. In others, the differences in appearance between males
and females are clear. This is known as sexual dimorphism.

Hermaphroditic species. Individuals have both types of gonads si-

multaneously, or possess both types at different stages of develop-
ment. However, these individuals seldom fertilize themselves (which Most snail species are hermaphro-
is called self-fertilization). ditic.

Fertilization in Animals

Images
Fertilization is the union of the sperm and the egg to form the
first cell that gives rise to the new individual organism—the a. Example of internal fertilization: to
zygote. prevent the sperm from drying up,
the male must release them into the
female’s body.
For fertilization to occur, the sperm must be released into an aqueous b. Example of external fertilization:
medium, through which it will travel until it finds a receptive egg. female frogs release hundreds of
eggs into the water, and the male
There are two types of fertilization, depending frog covers them with sperm.
on the aqueous medium into which the sperm
are released: a.

Internal fertilization. Internal fertilization oc-

curs inside the female’s body, and so it requires
the male gametes to be inserted with the male
reproductive organ. This type of fertilization is
common among land animals, although there
are some exceptions.

External fertilization. In external fertiliza- b.

tion, the males and females both release their
gametes into the open, and fertilization oc-
curs there. This is common among aquatic and
semiaquatic animals: the gametes must be
released into the aqueous medium in order to
survive and find one another.

science-bits.com 19
 Embryonic Development in Animals
Images
After fertilization, the zygote repeatedly divides, eventually be-
Different types of embryonic
coming an embryo made up of thousands of cells.
development in animals.

The embryo will continue to develop, encased within a specialized

structure, until birth.

There are three types of reproduction, depending on the type of struc-

ture that encloses the developing embryo:

Oviparous. Here, the embryo develops inside an egg, which hatches

outside of the female’s body. The egg contains the food required by
the embryo for growth. All animals apart from mammals (except for
the platypus and the echidna), some fish, and reptiles are oviparous.

Viviparous. Here the embryo develops in the mother’s womb, in

a specialized structure called the placenta that allows food to be
continuously taken in from the mother’s body. All mammals—with
the exception of the platypus and the echidna—are viviparous.

Ovoviviparous. Here the embryo develops within an egg that re-

mains within the maternal body until it is ready to hatch. However,
the embryo is not nourished by the mother. This category includes
some species of fish, reptiles, and amphibians.

Enrichment activity Postembryonic Development in Animals

+ about metamorphosis.
When embryonic development is completed, the animal emerges from
the structure that protected it and birth occurs.

Next, the animal must grow and develop until it becomes an adult
organism capable of reproducing.

Postembryonic development is the stage of an animal’s life

cycle that begins with birth and includes growth and reaching
Videos sexual maturity—that is, the ability to reproduce.

Direct and indirect development. There are two types of embryonic development:

Direct. Young animals look similar to adults and lack only mature re-
productive organs, as these need to grow and develop. This group
includes viviparous and oviparous organisms whose eggs are rich in
nutrients (birds, reptiles, and some insects).

Indirect. Newborn organisms, called larvae, are not fully developed

and look different to adults. To attain maturity, they must undergo a
series of changes known as metamorphosis. These may be progres-
sive or occur dramatically while the individual goes through a period
of inactivity called pupation.

20 science-bits.com
Reproduction in Plants
Animations
Asexual Reproduction in Plants Different organs of vegetative
reproduction.
Asexual reproduction is more common among plants than animals.

Asexual reproduction in plants bearing roots, stems, and leaves occurs

through the buds, which are plant structures with the ability to sprout
and develop into plants genetically identical to the parent plant.

This form of asexual reproduction is called vegetative repro-

duction.

Buds only form on stems. The different organs of vegetative reproduc-

tion are therefore all stems with specific characteristics:

Tubers
Tubers, such as potatoes, are under-
ground stem masses thickened by the
large amounts of food they contain.
Their surface is covered with growth
buds or eyes.
Bulbs
Bulbs, such as garlic cloves, are formed
at the base of the stem. They contain
growth buds covered by leaves that
have been modified to store food.

Rhizomes
Rhizomes, such as those of the gin-
ger plant, are horizontal underground
stems. They grow slowly and stay close
to the surface.
Stolons
Stolons, such as those of the strawberry
plant, are horizontal stems that grow
along the ground surface, looking for
a place to take root. They contain buds
from which new plants will sprout.

Sexual Reproduction in Plants

All plants are capable of reproducing sexually. Image Gallery

The sexual reproduction of most land plants takes place in the flowers,
where the seeds develop.

These plants are called spermatophytes or flowering plants

(sperma is Greek for ‘seed’ and phyta is Greek for ‘plants.’)

Mosses and ferns also reproduce sexually, although they do not pos-
sess flowers.

Plants can be hermaphroditic if each individual is capable of produc-

ing both male and female gametes simultaneously. They are dioecious
if individuals are always distinctly male or female. Blossoms of a crabapple tree, a
spermatophyte.

science-bits.com 21
 The flower
Interactivity
The flower is the organ that performs sexual reproduction in plants with
Flower anatomy. seeds.

Flower
9 1) Receptacle 6) Style
4 The receptacle is a thickening of the The style is a sort of neck that supports
stem that holds the flower, upon which the stigma.
the corona of sepals, petals, stamens,
7) Ovary
and pistils is arranged (listing from the
The ovary is the base of the pistil. It con-
outside in).
tains one or more ovules.
2) Sepals
8) Ovule
Sepals are usually green. The sepals
A female gamete forms inside each
together form the calyx, which is the
ovule. When fertilization occurs, the
2 3 outermost corona of the flower.
ovule gives rise to a seed.
3) Petals
9) Stamens
1 In many flowers, the petals are large
Stamens are reproductive structures
and have attractive colors. The different
specialized to produce male gametes.
colors and shapes of flower petals give a
The stamens together form the an-
particular appearance to the whole set,
droecium, which is the flower’s male
Pistil Stamens know as the corolla.
reproductive organ.
5 4) Pistil
10) Filaments
The pistil houses the female gametes
The filaments support the anthers.
and the development of zygotes occurs
6 here. In some plants, the flowers have 11) Anthers
more than one pistil, and the entire set The grains of pollen are produced in-
11 is called the gynoecium, the flower’s side the anthers.
female reproductive organ.
12 12) Pollen
5) Stigma Grains of pollen are microscopic struc-
The stigma is a thickening at the tip tures, measuring between 10 and 100
10 of the pistil. It specialized in captur- µm in diameter. The male gametes
ing grains of pollen coming from other form inside these grains.
7 8 flowers.

Pollination
Video
In flowering plants, the male gametes are contained in the pollen grains.
Pollinators in action.
Pollen grains are between 10 and 100 µm in diameter. They are
formed of 2 or 3 cells and covered by a hard, water-resistant coat
that protects them.

To fertilize a female gamete, which is housed inside a pis-

til, the pollen grain must travel from the anther where
was formed to the stigma of another flower of the same
species. This process is called pollination.

Pollen grains cannot travel by themselves; they need to be

transported.

22 science-bits.com
The two most common means of pollination are: Image
By wind. Pollen can be transported by wind over long distances.
However, most pollen will not reach the stigma of a compatible flower.
This is why these plants produce abundant pollen and have large stig-
mas.

By animals. Many insects—as well as other flying animals, such as

hummingbirds and certain bat species—are attracted to flowers to
feed on the nectar and pollen they produce. The pollen grains stick
to the animal’s body, and in this way are transferred from flower to
flower. These animals are called pollinators. Male pine cones release pollen into
the wind.

Fertilization in Flowering Plants

Video
Fertilization occurs when a pollen grain reaches the stigma of a compat-
ible flower: Formation of the pollen tube and
fertilization in a cherry blossom.
1) The wall of the pollen grain breaks down, and one of the cells
within forms a pollen tube which grows down through the pistil
tissues to the ovary at the base of the pistil.
2) Once it reaches the opening of the ovule, the pollen tube dies
and male gametes travel down the tube.
3) One of the male gamete comes into contact with the female gam-
ete, resulting in fertilization: the fusion of the nuclei to generate
the zygote.

Since each ovule only contains one female gamete, each flower can have
as many fertilizations as there are ovules in the pistil.

Seed and Fruit Formation

After fertilization, the zygote develops into an embryo.
Video
At the same time, fertilization triggers the ovule to transform into the
future seed. Observe how the fruit of the tomato
is formed from the ovary.
The seed is a plant structure that protects the embryo and keeps
it alive with the food reserves it stores.

Fertilization also triggers the ovary to transform into the fruit.

A fruit is a plant structure derived from the flower that protects

the seeds and helps to disperse them.

The number of seeds that a fruit contains is equal to the number of ovu-
les that have been fertilized in the flower.

science-bits.com 23
 Seed Dispersal and Germination

Plants have developed seed dispersal mechanisms to reach

distant places where the seeds will not compete with their pa-
Images rents for resources in the environment.

Means of dispersal of seeds and Fruits have adaptations to facilitate seed dispersal by different means.
fruits.

Wind Animal fur

In fruits dispersed by wind, the pistil The rigid edges of these fruits, or the
forms structures, like the wings of the minute hooks on their surface, catch
maple fruit, or the feathery append- in the fur of animals and in the clothes
ages of the dandelion fruit. worn by humans.

Water Animal guts

Some plant species have water-resis-
tant fruit that can be transported by
water currents. This is the case with
coconuts: they can be transported
across the ocean for kilometers, until
they reach a beach where they can
germinate.
These fruits are loaded with food and
have attractive colors and odors. When
an animal eats them, it also eats the
seeds that go with them. The seeds in-
side travel through the animal’s digestive
tract, protected by their thick coats, until
they are released with the animal’s feces.

Germination will occur if the seed finds appropriate environmental

conditions.

Germination is the process by which the embryo detaches

itself from the seed and grows into a plant able to produce its
own food.

24 science-bits.com
 Elaborate

Born on the Same Day

Image Gallery
You probably know someone who has his or her birthday on the
same day as you. It is much more difficult to find someone born
on the same day of the same year as you… Unless you have a twin
brother or sister, of course.

As you know, there are two types of twins:

Fraternal twins are those who look as much alike as any other
pair of siblings.

Identical twins are those that look exactly alike, and are genuine
clones.

Research
What biological phenomenon is responsible for the formation of frater-
nal and identical twins?

Look up the information you need to understand the process through

which identical and fraternal twins are formed.

Consult thorough sources of information, such as encyclope-

dias, educational texts, and scientific articles. Contrasting sever-
al sources serves to reinforce or cast doubt the certainty of what
you read.

Also, keep the following indications in mind:

Focus your search on the first stages of reproduction. Look for dif-
ferences in the number of fertilizations and the first cell divisions of
the embryo’s development.

Remember that the genetic material of two clone organisms is

identical.

science-bits.com 25
 Task

Present Your Work

Prepare a slideshow presentation in which the formation of the two types
of twins is explained.

For each kind of twin, organize your presentation in the following slides:

Slide 1:
Title: Presentation
Content:
- Technical term for the kind of twins
- Their general characteristics
- Photographic example

Slide 2:
Title: Fertilization
Content:
- Number of fertilizations necessary to produce twins of this type
- Number of zygotes formed

Slide 3:
Title: First cell divisions
Content:
- Are there any special phenomena that occur during the first cell divi-
sions of the embryo?

Slide 4:
Title: Nourishment of the embryos
Content:
- Through which organ do the developing embryos receive their nour-
ishment? (They are joined to this organ by the umbilical cord.)
- Do both embryos share this same organ?

Slide 5:
Title: Genetics
Content:
- Is the genetic material of the cells of the two siblings identical?
- What determines whether they are the same or different?

Slide 6:
Title: Summary outline or diagram
Content:
- Show an explanatory outline or diagram of the process of fertilization
and the first stages of development in the embryos.

26 science-bits.com
 EXERCISES
Only Life Can Generate Life

1. Facts about Living Organisms q Lifeless forms can generate living organisms.
Read the statements below and indicate whether
q No living organism originates from lifeless
they are true or false.
forms.
All the living organisms you can observe have
q All living organisms get to reproduce over the
been formed by the reproduction of other
course of their lives.
living organisms.
Lifeless forms can become living organisms
under appropriate conditions.
Some living organisms die without having ever
reproduced.
Living organisms resemble those that they
have originated from.
There are several ways of generating living
organisms, and reproduction is one of them.

2. From Living Organism to Living Organism

Consider the sentence “every living organism
originates from another living organism.”

Which of the following sentences can be correctly

deduced from it?

Two Methods of Reproduction

3. Sexual or Asexual Reproduction? 4. Facts about Reproduction

Indicate whether the following statements about
Planaria are aquatic animals with the ability to
reproduction are true or false.
reproduce both sexually and asexually.
The illustrations show groups of “sister” planaria,
that is, planaria which originate from the
reproduction of the same parent, or of the same
pair of parents.
Select the groups of planaria which could only
have resulted from sexual reproduction.
a. c.
b. d.
Through asexual reproduction, an organism
produces offspring that are identical to it.
In sexual reproduction, the offspring’s traits are
the same as those of one of the parents.
All living organisms have been produced
by the reproduction of one or more living
organisms.
In sexual reproduction, the offspring’s traits are
a mixture of the traits of the parents.
By means of asexual reproduction, two
organisms cooperate to produce offspring.
Asexual reproduction is typical of mammals.

science-bits.com 27
 EXERCISES

5. Seahorses b. Complete the following statements with the

As part of a study on marine ecology, a scientific most suitable option.
expedition caught several seahorses in order to
Tiny seahorses were generated by the
analyze them.
reproduction of [a single seahorse / two
Each of the captured seahorses was placed in an seahorses].
individual fishbowl, and their environment was
This process of reproduction began [before /
replicated artificially. The physical and chemical
after] the seahorse was caught and placed in
conditions were controlled, and the seahorses
the fishbowl.
were fed.
When the new seahorses grow, they will be
One week later, one of the seahorses’ abdomen
[identical / similar] to the organism they were
became swollen. A few days after that, the
generated from.
seahorse gave birth to tens of tiny seahorses.
a. Seek information about the reproduction of
seahorses, and select the appropriate option
below.
q The seahorse reproduced sexually.
q The seahorse reproduced asexually.

Asexual Reproduction: Identical Copies of a Single Parent

6. Characteristics of Asexual Reproduction 7. Spyrogyra

Which of the following characteristics are specific
to asexual reproduction?
q An organism generates offspring which are
identical to one another.
q An organism reproduces without the help of
another organism.
q If an organism is not properly adapted to a
stable environment, its offspring might still
possibly be.
q Two organisms generate offspring which are
different to one another.
q Two organisms collaborate to produce
offspring which are different from both
parents.
q If an organism is properly adapted to a stable
environment, its offspring will certainly be,
too.
Algae of the genus Spyrogyra live in fresh water.
These algae, like many others, can reproduce both
sexually and asexually.
Under which of the following conditions is asexual
reproduction an efficient way of generating
offspring that have a chance of surviving?
q When there are no other algae to reproduce
with.
q When the algae are located in lakes or ponds
with stable and abundant levels of water and
nutrients.
q When the algae are located in small puddles
which are likely to dry up or to receive water
with changing levels of nutrients.

28 science-bits.com
 EXERCISES

8. Starfish
The animation in the digital version shows three A
stages in the asexual reproduction of starfish.
a. Can we assert that organism D is an identical
copy of organism A? B
b. What name do we call the identical organisms
that are generated through this type of D
reproduction? C
c. The genetic material inside the cells of an
organism is responsible for determining its traits.
All cells of a single many-celled organism have
the same genetic material.
q The four samples of genetic material are
If we isolate a cell from each of the four starfish
identical.
in the video and compare their genetic material,
what will we find? q There are differences among the four samples
of genetic material.

Asexual Reproduction: Organisms that Reproduce Asexually

9. Bacterial Reproduction 10. Planaria

Bacteria are simple microorganisms which can The name planaria or turbellaria refers to a group
reproduce very quickly. When the environmental of worm species with a flat body and a simple
conditions are favorable, a bacterium such as structure.
Escherichia coli can reproduce every 30 minutes.
a. Complete the following text by choosing the
correct options.
[A single bacterium produces / Two bacteria
together produce] a new [identical / similar]
bacterium. This is an example of [sexual / a
sexual] reproduction.
b. Examine the table and predict how many
bacteria there will be after 4 hours.

Time (h) 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 The worm in the video in the digital version is
Dugesia, a planarium that lives in fresh water and
Number of
bacteria measures approximately 1 centimeter in length.
a. What type of reproduction does this planarium
employ?
Look for information on the turbellaria and answer
the following questions:
b. How do turbellaria (planaria) reproduce?
c. What specific term do we use to refer to the
reproduction of planaria shown in the video?

science-bits.com 29
 EXERCISES
11. Garlic Cloves
If garlic is stored for a long time, especially if it is
kept cool in the fridge, an phenomenon such as
the one shown in the picture tends to occur.
Types of Asexual Reproduction
12. Types of Asexual Reproduction
Read the following statements and indicate
whether they are true or false.
Some animals become two independent
specimen when their body accidentally splits
in two.
Bipartition is the only means of reproduction
bacteria employ.
Sexual Reproduction: Combining Traits
13. Characteristics of Sexual Reproduction
Which of the following sentences refer to sexual
reproduction?
q An organism generates offspring that are the
same as one another.
q An organism can reproduce without mating
with another organism.
q Two organisms produce offspring that are
different to one another.
Sexual Reproduction: Organisms that Reproduce Sexually
14. Do These Organisms Reproduce Sexually?
Indicate which of the following organisms reproduce sexually.
a. q Yes q No b. q Yes q No
30
a. What is the tender green tissue forming on the
tip of this clove of garlic? What will it become?
Cloves of garlic can germinate and produce a new
plant. However, the cloves of garlic are not seeds,
since they are not formed in the flowers of the
garlic plant: cloves of garlic instead form inside a
bulb called a head of garlic.
b. Can we treat cloves of garlic as a means of
reproduction? Explain your answer.
c. If you answered yes, indicate whether this
means of reproduction is sexual or asexual.
d. Is this the only way that garlic plants can
reproduce?
Some multicellular (many-celled) organisms
can reproduce asexually by bipartition.
Planaria are simple flat worms capable of
reproducing by budding.
Spores are cells that propagate and produce
new specimen that are genetically identical to
the parent.
Unicellular (single-celled) unicellular organisms
duplicate by fragmentation.
q Even though an organism may not be
properly adapted to a stable environment, its
offspring might still possibly be.
q Two organisms collaborate to produce
offspring that are different from the two
parents.
q If an organism is properly adapted to a stable
environment, its offspring will be, too.
c. q Yes q No d. q Yes q No
science-bits.com
 EXERCISES

e. q Yes q No f. q Yes q No g. q Yes q No h. q Yes q No

15. The Reproduction of Microorganisms

Indicate whether each of the statements below is
true or false:
Protozoa and one-celled algae are, like bacteria,
prokaryotic organisms.
Microorganisms only reproduce asexually.
Eukaryotic microorganisms can reproduce
sexually.
Protozoa can reproduce sexually.
Many eukaryotic microorganisms perform both
sexual and asexual reproduction.
Prokaryotic microorganisms cannot reproduce
sexually.
Sexual Reproduction:
The Perspective from the Cell
16. Cells and Sexual Reproduction
Certain cells play a key role in the process of sexual
reproduction.
Read the definitions below and write the name of the
cell they refer to.
Each of the cells which fuse with one another in
the process of sexual reproduction.
The first cell of the new organism generated by
sexual reproduction.

Sexual Reproduction: Sex Cells

17. Male or Female?

The cells shown on the slideshow are sex cells.
Indicate whether they are male or female.

Cell 1: sex cell of a moss species. Cell 2: sex cell of a moss species.

Cell 3: sex cells of a sea urchin species. Cell 4: sex cells of a sea urchin species.

science-bits.com 31
 EXERCISES

18. Characteristics of Sex Cells

Read the following cell characteristics and indicate
whether they are specific to female gametes, male
gametes, or both.
They are produced in the reproductive organs.
The are large cells.
They have a nucleus.
Their adaptations enable them to move.
They usually have food substances in their
cytoplasm.
Their nucleus takes up most of the cytoplasm.
They contain half the amount of genetic
material as other cells in the organism.

Sexual Reproduction: Fertilization

19. About Fertilization 20. Fertilization and Genetic Material

Read the following statements about fertilization,
and select those which are true:
The zygote is formed when the cytoplasm of
the two sex cells or gametes and the nucleus of
the male gamete fuse.
Fertilization occurs when two or more male
gametes fuse with the same female gamete.
The zygote’s genetic material consists of the
combination of the genetic material of the two
gametes.
Fertilization is the process by which two
organisms generate a new organism similar to
the parent organisms.
The fusion of a male and female gamete into a
zygote is called fertilization.
The male gamete, the female gamete, and
the zygote have the same amount of genetic
material inside their nuclei.
All the cells of an organism generated by
sexual reproduction come from a single cell
—the zygote.
During fertilization, the fusion of the genetic
material of the two sex cells occurs.
a. Complete the following text with the
appropriate option.
Sex cells have exactly [half as much / the same
amount of /twice as much] genetic material as
the rest of the cells in a multicelled organism.
This is why the zygote—which is formed by the
fusion of two sex cells—has exactly [half as much
/ the same amount of /twice as much] genetic
material as the ordinary (nongamete) cells of its
parents.
b. What would happen if gametes had the same
amount of genetic material as the rest of the
cells of an organism?
The zygote would then have [half as much /
the same amount of /twice as much] genetic
material as the cells of its parents have.
c. Is it possible for a zygote to be formed by the
fusion of a female gamete with two or three
male gametes?
q No. The resulting zygote would have an
excess of genetic material.
q Yes. The resulting zygote would have the same
amount of genetic material as its parents.

32 science-bits.com
 EXERCISES
Sexual Reproduction: Embryonic Development

21. On Embryonic Development

Indicate which of the following statements are
correct.
During embryonic development, the number
of cells and the organism’s mass increase.
All the cells of a multicellular organism are the
same.
Cell differentiation is the growth and division of
the embryo’s cells.
Through cell division or mitosis, a cell creates
another cell which has a copy of its genetic
material.
All the cells of an organism created through
sexual reproduction are ultimately the product
of the division of the zygote cell.
The nucleus takes up the largest part of its
cytoplasm.
They contain half as much genetic material as
the remaining cells of the organism.

Sexual Reproduction: An Organism’s Biological Cycle

22. On the Biological Cycle

Fill the blanks in the following sentences using the
correct word:
During embryonic development, the ................
becomes an embryo which grows and
develops.
Once this development is complete, the
organism is born, and we refer to it as ................,
to indicate that it cannot yet reproduce.
This organism grows and develops until it
reaches sexual maturity. Then the organism is
................ , able to reproduce.
When one of the ................ produced by this
organism fuses with a compatible ................ and
forms a ................ , ................ will have occurred to
start another episode of reproduction.

science-bits.com 33
 EXERCISES
Animal Reproduction

23. Asexual Reproduction in Animals

Watch the videos and indicate the type of asexual
reproduction used by the animal in each of them.
a. Asexual reproduction in planaria
b. Asexual reproduction in starfish
c. Asexual reproduction in hydra

24. Hermaphrodite or Unisexual?

Classify the following animals based on whether they are hermaphrodite or unisexual.
Look up information if necessary.

a. Octopus b. Snail c. Clownfish d. Earthworm

e. Dog f. Slug g. Human being h. Jellyfish

25. Two Sexes, One Individual

Classify the following animals according to whether they are simultaneous or sequential hermaphrodytes.
Look up information if necessary.

a. Earthworm b. Sea angelfish c. Turbellaria d. Slug

e. Parrotfish f. Hamlet g. Snail h. Clownfish

(Hypoplectrus)

34 science-bits.com
 EXERCISES
26. Sexual Dimorphism
Classify the following animals based on whether there is clear evidence of sexual dimorphism.
Look up information if necessary.

a. Macaw b. Dog c. Sparrow d. Deer

e. Mallard f. Mouse g. Crocodile h. Dolphin

i. Lion j. Chicken k. Mantis l. Octopus

Embryonic Development in Animals

27. Eggs
Not Only Birds…
Eggs are structures characteristic of birds and many other animals. They are specialized in protecting and
supporting embryonic development.
Look up information and indicate which of these animals develop inside eggs.

e. Squirrel f. Turtle g. Echidna h. Ant

i. Grouper j. Frog k. Snake l. Penguin

science-bits.com 35
 EXERCISES
What Is an Egg? They completely isolate the embryo from
An ostrich egg and a shrimp egg are very different. the environment, preventing the entrance of
However, they all have certain characteristics in oxygen.
common, which leads us to refer to them by the They support the embryo’s development
same name. through the use of organic nutrients stored as
Indicate which of these characteristics are shared food reserves inside them.
by all eggs. Inside the egg, the zygote transforms into a
They shelter and protect the embryo during multicellular organism with all its organs fully
development. formed.
They have a layer of calcium carbonate.

28. Types of Embryonic Development

Classify the following animals into oviparous, viviparous, or ovoviviparous.
Look up information if necessary.

a. Crocodile b. Dolphin c. Clownfish d. Dog e. Spider

f. Guppy g. Suriname toad h. Snail i. Octopus j. Ostrich

k. Great white shark l. Boa constrictor m. Platypus n. Mantis o. Human being

Postembryonic Development in Animals

29. Metamorphosis Complete Incomplete
Metamorphosis is the set of anatomical and physio- metamorphosis metamorphosis
logical changes undergone by animals with indirect
postembryonic development to attain sexual maturity.
There are two types of metamorphosis:
Incomplete metamorphosis: the larva goes
through successive growing stages and does not
undergo any period of inactivity nor ceases feeding.
In insects with this type of metamorphosis, the larva
is called nymph.
Complete metamorphosis: after a period of growth,
the larva forms a cocoon and remains inactive in a
stage known as pupa or chrysalis. During this stage,
the body undergoes a process of reorganization and
emerges as a completely different adult called imago.

36 science-bits.com
 EXERCISES
a. Observe figure 1 and complete the statements Figure 1
below:
It shows a case of ........... metamorphosis.
During the larva stage, this specimen is called
........... .
Among other differences, adults of this species
differ from larvae in that they bear ........... . This
allows them to travel long distances..
Although it may not be apparent, adults of this
species can also be distinguished from larvae
because they have developed the ability to ........... .

b. Observe figure 2 and complete the statements

below: Figure 2
It shows a case of ........... metamorphosis.
When the larva stage is completed, the speci-
men stops feeding and starts the ........... stage.
When the adult emerges from the pupa, it is
called ........... .
Among many other differences, adults of this
species differ from larvae in that they bear ........... .
This allows them to travel long distances..
Although it may not be apparent, adults of this
species can also be distinguished from larvae
because they have developed the ability to ........... .

Asexual Reproduction in Plants

30. Organs of Vegetative Reproduction
What type of organ of vegetative reproduction is
being described in each of these sentences?
The buds are protected by modified leaves.
q Bulb q Stolon q Rhizome q Tuber
The buds are on the surface of a thickened,
underground stem.
q Bulb q Stolon q Rhizome q Tuber
An above-ground stem that grows horizontally
and very quickly.
q Bulb q Stolon q Rhizome q Tuber
An underground stem that grows horizontally.
q Bulb q Stolon q Rhizome q Tuber

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 EXERCISES
Sexual Reproduction in Plants

31. On the Sexual Reproduction of Plants

Indicate which of the following statements about the sexual reproduction of plants are true and which
are false:
All plants reproduce sexually through seeds Spermatophytes reproduce sexually through
produced in their flowers. seeds that are produced in their flowers.
All plants reproduce sexually. Only spermatophytes reproduce sexually.
Mosses and ferns produce small flowers. The sexual reproduction of plants begins when
one male sex cell joins one female sex cell.

32. Seed Plants

Indicate which of the following plants are spermatophytes, that is, plants that reproduce through seeds.

a. Fern b. Cactus c. Pumpkin plant d. Wheat

e. Moss f. Lemon tree g. Pine tree h. Palm tree

The Flower

33. Identifying the Parts of the Flower

What are the names of the parts of the flower indicated in the picture?

a. Rockrose flower b. Tulip flower

c. Campanula flowers d. Prickly pear flower

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 EXERCISES
34. Pistil Dissection Sexual Reproduction in Plants
Write the name of each part of this cherry blossom
pistil.
37. About Pollen
Complete the following statements about pollen us-
ing the correct word.
Grains of pollen contain .......... sex cells.
The cells of the grain of pollen are covered by
a ...........
.......... is the process by which a grain of pollen
travels from the .......... of one flower to the ..........
of another.
The ovules, which contain the .......... sex cell, are
found in the .......... of the flower.

35. The Parts of the Stamen Fertilization in Flowering Plants

Write the name of each part indicated in the pho-
tograph.
38. Pistil, Ovules, and Sex Cells
a. The cherry blossom has a pistil that contains
only one ovule. Complete this description of the
gynoecium of the cherry blossom:

The number of sex cells contained in any ovule is

........., and therefore the total number of female sex
cells in the pistil of the cherry blossom is ......... . Like-
wise, we can be sure that the maximum number of
zygotes that can form in a cherry blossom is ......... .

b. An apple blossom has a pistil that contains 5

ovules. Complete the description of the gynoe-
cium of the apple blossom:

The number of female sex cells contained in an

36. Male or Female? ovule is ......... . Therefore, the total number of female
For each of the following elements of the flower, sex cells in the pistil of the apple blossom is ......... .
indicate whether it is male or female: Likewise, we can be sure the maximum number of
zygotes that can form in the apple blossom is ......... .
Pistil Pollen
Anther Style c. A certain pea flower has a pistil that contains 8
ovules. Complete the description of the gynoe-
Stamen Stigma cium of the pea flower:
Ovary Filament
The number of female sex cells contained in an
ovule is ......... . Therefore, the total number of female
sex cells in the pistil of the pea flower is ......... . Like-
wise, we can be sure that the maximum number of
zygotes that can form in the pea flower is ......... .

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 EXERCISES
39. About the Pollen Tube
Indicate whether each of the following statements about the pollen tube is true or false:

The pollen tube puts the male sex cell in con-
tact with the female sex cell.
The pollen tube is a cellular structure.
The cell of the pollen tube is the male sex cell.
The grain of pollen is the male sex cell.
The pollen tube goes down the pistil from the
stigma to the ovule.
Sex cell fertilization occurs in the stigma.
More than one pollen tube can form in a single
pistil.

Seed and Fruit Formation

40. How Many Seeds Do they Contain?

Categorize each of the following fruits according to whether it contains one or more seeds.

a. Pear b. Plum c. Zucchini d. Tomato e. Pepper

f. Pod of broad g. Peach h. Avocado i. Sun flower j. Apple

beans seed

41. Nuts
Identify the structures in the images that correspond to the fruit and to the seed.

a. b. c.

d. e. f.

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 EXERCISES
42. Are Seeds Alive?
All living organisms perform cellular respiration
to obtain energy for life. Cellular respiration is a
chemical reaction between oxygen (O2) and an 0.5
organic nutrient. In this process, these materials are
transformed into carbon dioxide (CO2) and water.

mL O2 consumed
0.4
a. Does the process of cellular respiration take
place in seeds?
0.3
A respirometer measures the amount of oxygen
consumed by a living organism.
The following graphs show the amount of oxygen
0.2
consumed by:
20 dry beans
20 germinating beans 0.1
20 glass beads
A B C
b. For each of these, choose the appropriate mea-
surement on the graph. Oxygen consumed in 30 minutes.
c. Why do the germinating seeds consume more
oxygen than seeds at rest?

Seed Dispersal

43. A Proper Dispersal

Which of the following situations result from a proper dispersal?
q The seeds reach a place where conditions
q The seeds reach a place with conditions com-
favor plant growth..
pletely different to those of the parent plant.
q The seeds develop inside the ovary of the
q The seeds end up far enough away so that the
flower.
plants that germinate from them will not have
to compete for resources with the parent q The cotyledons gather sufficient reserves in
plant. the seeds.

44. Means of Dispersal of Seeds

Group these fruits according to their means of dispersal (wind, animal fur, or animal guts).

a. Ripgut brome b. Rosebush c. Rowan tree d. Elm tree e. Prickly pear

f. Blackberry g. Basswood h. Burdock i. Maple j. Cobbler’s pegs

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 Reproduction

Related units:

Formed by Cells Life Processes

Nutrition Responses to the Environment

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