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FRUIT CROPS
 FRUIT CROPS
Diagnosis and Management of Nutrient
Constraints

Edited By

A.K. SRIVASTAVA, Ph.D.

Principal Scientist (Soil Science), ICAR-Central Citrus Research Institute, Nagpur, India

CHENGXIAO HU, Ph.D.

Professor & Principal Scientist (Citrus nutrition and fertilization), Institute of Citrus Science and College of Resources & Environment,
Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, China
Elsevier
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 Contributors
Vojtěch Adam Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry,
Faculty of AgriSciences, Mendel University in Brno, Brno,
Czech Republic
Riaz Ahmad Department of Horticulture, Bahauddin Zakariya
University, Multan, Pakistan
Selena Ahmed The Food and Health Lab, Department of
Health and Human Development, Montana State University,
Bozeman, MT, United States
Kashif Akram Department of Food Sciences, Cholistan Uni-
versity of Veterinary & Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur,
Pakistan
M.S. Alam Horticulture Division, Bangladesh Institute of
Nuclear Agriculture, Mymensingh, Bangladesh
Paula Alayón Luaces Fruticultura, Facultad de Ciencias
Agrarias, Universidad Nacional del Nordeste, Corrientes,
Argentina
Wasayf J. Almalki Department of Chemical and Biological
Engineering, The University of Sheffield, Sheffield, United
Kingdom
Muhammad Akbar Anjum Department of Horticulture,
Bahauddin Zakariya University, Multan, Pakistan
Chrysovalantou Antonopoulou Department of the Agricultural
Development, School of Agricultural and Forestry Sciences,
Democritus University of Thrace, Orestiada, Greece
Ji
rı́ Antošovský Department of Agrochemistry, Soil Science,
Microbiology and Plant Nutrition, Faculty of AgriSciences,
Mendel University in Brno, Brno, Czech Republic
Margarida Arrobas Centro de Investigação de Montanha
(CIMO), Instituto Politecnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal
Ignácio Aspiazú State University of Montes Claros, Montes
Claros, Brazil
Cuihua Bai College of Natural Resources and Environment,
South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, People’s
Republic of China
Elena Baldi Department of Agricultural and Food Sciences,
Alma Mater Studiorum University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy
Allen V. Barker University of Massachusetts, Amherst, MA,
United States
Betina Pereira de Bem Instituto Federal de Santa Catarina
(IFSC), Urupema, Brazil
Adalberto Benavides-Mendoza Autonomous Agricultural Uni-
versity Antonio Narro, Department of Horticulture, Saltillo,
Mexico
Maja Benkovi University of Zagreb, Faculty of Food Technol-
ogy and Biotechnology, Zagreb, Croatia
xiii
Renato Vasconcelos Botelho Agronomy Department, State
University of Midwestern Paraná—Unicentro, Paraná, Brazil
Alberto Fontanella Brighenti Empresa de Pesquisa Agrope-
cuária e Extensão de Rural de Santa Catarina (Epagri), São
Joaquim, Brazil
Gustavo Brunetto Universidade Federal de Santa Maria
(UFSM), Campus Universitário, Centro de Ci^encias Rurais,
Departamento de Solos, Camobi, Santa Maria, Brazil
David R. Bryla U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural
Research Service, Horticultural Crops Research Unit,
Corvallis, OR, United States
Hakan Burhan Sen Research Group, Department of Biochem-
istry, Faculty of Arts and Science, Dumlupınar University,
Evliya Çelebi Campus, K€ utahya, Turkey
Thomas O. Butler Department of Chemical and Biological
Engineering, The University of Sheffield, Sheffield, United
Kingdom
Miaomiao Cai College of Resources and Environment/
Micro-element Research Center/Hubei Provincial Engi-
neering Laboratory for New Fertilizers, Huazhong Agri-
cultural University; Key Laboratory of Horticultural
Plant Biology (HZAU), MOE, Wuhan, People’s Republic
of China
Rodolfo Canet Center for the Development of Sustainable
Agriculture, Valencian Institute of Agricultural Research,
Valencia, Spain
Luciano Cavani Department of Agricultural and Food Sci-
ences, Alma Mater Studiorum University of Bologna, Bolo-
gna, Italy
James Chapman School of Medical and Applied Sciences,
Central Queensland University, Rockhampton, QLD,
Australia
John M. Chater Department of Botany and Plant Sciences,
University of California, Riverside, CA, United States
Christos Chatzissavvidis Department of the Agricultural
Development, School of Agricultural and Forestry Sciences,
Democritus University of Thrace, Orestiada, Greece
Jianjun Chen Department of Environmental Horticulrture and
Mid-Florida Research and Education Center, University of
Florida, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, Apopka,
FL, United States
Li-Song Chen Institute of Plant Nutritional Physiology and
Molecular Biology, College of Resources and Environment,
Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou, China
Marlise Nara Ciotta Empresa de Pesquisa Agropecuária e
Extensão de Rural de Santa Catarina (Epagri), Lages, Brazil
xiv Contributors
Jucinei Jose Comin Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina
(UFSC), Departamento de Engenharia Rural, Florianópolis,
Brazil
Lessandro De Conti Instituto Federal de Educação, Ci^encia e
Tecnologia Farroupilha—Campus Santo Augusto, Santo
Augusto, Brazil
Márcio Cleber de Medeiros Corr^ea Federal University of Ceará,
Fortaleza, Brazil
Juan Manuel Covarrubias-Ramı́rez CESAL-INIFAP, Saltillo,
Mexico
Daniel Cozzolino School of Science, RMIT University,
Melbourne, VIC, Australia
Sjoerd E.A.T.M. van der Zee Soil Physics and Land Manage-
ment Group, Wageningen University, Wageningen, The
Netherlands; School of Chemistry, Monash University,
Melbourne, VIC, Australia
Jose Aridiano Lima de Deus Institute of Technical Assistance
and Rural Extension of Paraná (EMATER-PR), Curitiba, Brazil
Sara Di Lonardo Research Institute on Terrestrial
Ecosystems—Italian National Research Council (IRET-CNR),
Sesto Fiorentino, Italy
Bartolomeo Dichio Department of European and Mediterra-
nean Cultures: Architecture, Environment and Cultural
Heritage (DiCEM), University of Basilicata, Matera, Italy
Zhihao Dong College of Resources and Environment/
Micro-element Research Center/Hubei Provincial
Engineering Laboratory for New Fertilizers, Huazhong
Agricultural University; Key Laboratory of Horticultural
Plant Biology (HZAU), MOE, Wuhan, People’s Republic
of China
Ladislav Ducsay Department of Agrochemistry and Plant
Nutrition, The Faculty of Agrobiology and Food Resources,
Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra, Nitra, Slovakia
Madeleine F. Dupont School of Science, RMIT University,
Melbourne, VIC, Australia
Aaron Elbourne School of Science, RMIT University,
Melbourne, VIC, Australia
Fatima Elmusa Sen Research Group, Department of Biochem-
istry, Faculty of Arts and Science, Dumlupınar University,
Evliya Çelebi Campus, K€ utahya, Turkey
Jeanette M. Van Emon EVE Sciences, Henderson, NV, United
States
Hassan Etesami Agriculture & Natural resources Campus,
Faculty of Agricultural Engineering & Technology, Depart-
ment of Soil Science, University of Tehran, Tehran, Iran
Róger Fallas-Corrales Soil Physics and Land Management
Group, Wageningen University, Wageningen, The
Netherlands
Umar Farooq Department of Food Science & Technology,
Muhammad Nawaz Shareef University of Agriculture,
Multan, Pakistan
Laura Olivia Fuentes-Lara Autonomous Agricultural Univer-
sity Antonio Narro, Department of Animal Nutrition, Saltillo,
Mexico
Jose E. Gaiad Fruticultura, Facultad de Ciencias Agrarias,
Universidad Nacional del Nordeste, Corrientes, Argentina
Bin Gao Department of Agricultural and Biological
Engineering, University of Florida, Institute of Food and
Agricultural Sciences, Gainesville, FL, United States
Maciej Ga˛stoł Department of Pomology and Apiculture,
Agricultural University in Kraków, Kraków, Poland
Melanie D. Gomez Herrera Fruticultura, Facultad de Ciencias
Agrarias, Universidad Nacional del Nordeste, Corrientes,
Argentina
Fulya Gulbagca Sen Research Group, Department of Bio-
chemistry, Faculty of Arts and Science, Dumlupınar Univer-
sity, Evliya Çelebi Campus, K€utahya, Turkey
Peng Guo Institute of Plant Nutritional Physiology and
Molecular Biology, College of Resources and Environment,
Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou; College
of Life Sciences, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou,
China
Zafar Hayat Department of Animal Sciences, CVAS-University
of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Jhang, Pakistan
Jia-Dong He College of Horticulture and Gardening, Yangtze
University, Jingzhou, China
Chengxiao Hu College of Resources and Environment/Micro-
element Research Center/Hubei Provincial Engineering
Laboratory for New Fertilizers, Huazhong Agricultural Uni-
versity; Key Laboratory of Horticultural Plant Biology
(HZAU), MOE, Wuhan, People’s Republic of China
Antonio Ibacache Instituto de Investigaciones Agropecuarias
(INIA), Centro Regional de Investigación Intihuasi, La Serena,
Chile
Diego S. Intrigliolo Irrigation Deparment, CEBAS-CSIC, Mur-
cia; CSIC Associated Unit “Riego en la agricultura Mediter-
ránea,” Instituto Valenciano de Investigaciones Agrarias,
Moncada, Spain
Maria Del Rosario Jacobo-Salcedo CENID RASPA-INIFAP,
Gómez Palacio, Mexico
Byoung Ryong Jeong Horticulture Major, Division of Applies
Life Science (BK21 Plus Program), Graduate School,
Gyeongsang National University, Jinju, Republic of Korea
Wei Jia College of Resources and Environment/Micro-
element Research Center/Hubei Provincial Engineering
Laboratory for New Fertilizers, Huazhong Agricultural Uni-
versity; Key Laboratory of Horticultural Plant Biology
(HZAU), MOE, Wuhan, People’s Republic of China
Huan-Xin Jiang Institute of Plant Nutritional Physiology and
Molecular Biology, College of Resources and Environment,
Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou, China
Antonio Juárez-Maldonado Autonomous Agricultural Univer-
sity Antonio Narro, Department of Botany, Saltillo, Mexico
Tamara Jurina University of Zagreb, Faculty of Food Tech-
nology and Biotechnology, Zagreb, Croatia
Davie Kadyampakeni University of Florida, Institute of Food
and Agricultural Sciences, Citrus Research and Education
Center, Lake Alfred, FL, United States
 Contributors
Evangelos Karagiannis Laboratory of Pomology, Department
of Agriculture, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki,
Thessaloniki, Greece
Jasenka Gajdoš Kljusuric University of Zagreb, Faculty of Food
Technology and Biotechnology, Zagreb, Croatia
Jinxue Li College of Resources and Environment/Micro-
element Research Center/Hubei Provincial Engineering
Laboratory for New Fertilizers, Huazhong Agricultural
University; Key Laboratory of Horticultural Plant Biology
(HZAU), MOE, Wuhan, People’s Republic of China
Wenhuan Liu National Engineering Research Center for
Citrus Technology/Citrus Research Institute, Southwest
University-Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences,
Chongqing, China
Arc^angelo Loss Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina
(UFSC), Centro de Ciencias Agrarias, Florianopolis, Brazil
Cledimar Rogerio Lourenzi Universidade Federal de Santa
Catarina (UFSC), Departamento de Engenharia Rural,
Florianópolis, Brazil
Donglin Luo College of Natural Resources and Environment,
South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, People’s
Republic of China
YanYan Ma National Engineering Research Center for Citrus
Technology/Citrus Research Institute, Southwest University-
Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Chongqing, China
Rui Machado ICAAM—Mediterranean Institute for Agricul-
tural and Environmental Sciences; Crop Sciences Department,

School of Science and Technology, University of Evora, 
Evora,
Portugal
Victor Martins Maia State University of Montes Claros, Montes
Claros, Brazil
Belen Martı́nez-Alcántara Certification Section, Plant Health
Service, Ministry of Agriculture, Environment, Climate
Change and Rural Development, Valencia, Spain
Renato de Mello Prado São Paulo State University—UNESP,
Jaboticabal, Brazil
George Wellington Bastos de Melo Embrapa Uva e Vinho, Bento
Gonçalves, Brazil
Donald J. Merhaut Department of Botany and Plant Sciences,
University of California, Riverside, CA, United States
Michail Michailidis Laboratory of Pomology, Department of
Agriculture, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Thessalo-
niki, Greece
Nebojša Miloševic Department of Pomology and Fruit Breed-

cak, Republic of Serbia
ing, Fruit Research Institute, Ca

Tomo Miloševic Department of Fruit Growing and Viticulture,

cak,
Faculty of Agronomy, University of Kragujevac, Ca

Republic of Serbia
Alba N. Mininni Department of European and Mediterranean
Cultures: Architecture, Environment and Cultural Heritage
(DiCEM), University of Basilicata, Matera, Italy
Athanassios Molassiotis Laboratory of Pomology, Department
of Agriculture, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki,
Thessaloniki, Greece
xv
Isidro Morales National Polytechnic Institute, CIIDIR-Oaxaca,
Oaxaca, Mexico
Babak Motesharezadeh Department of Soil Science, University
of Tehran, Tehran, Iran
Seyed Majid Mousavi Soil and Water Research Institute, Agri-
cultural Research, Education and Extension Organization
(AREEO), Karaj, Iran
Marcelo Marques Lopes M€
uller Agronomy Department, State
University of Midwestern Paraná—Unicentro, Paraná, Brazil
William Natale Federal University of Ceará, Fortaleza, Brazil
Erika Nava-Reyna CENID RASPA-INIFAP, Gómez Palacio,
Mexico
Rolf Nestby Division Food and Society (Horticulture), Nor-
wegian Institute of Bioeconomy (NIBIO), Ås, Norway
Danúbia Aparecida Costa Nobre State University of Montes
Claros, Montes Claros, Brazil
Kenneth Nyombi Makerere University, College of Agricultural
and Environmental Sciences, Kampala, Uganda
Dámaris Leopoldina Ojeda-Barrios Autonomous University of
Chihuahua, Laboratory of Plant Physiology, Chihuahua,
Mexico
Fernanda Soares Oliveira State University of Montes Claros,
Montes Claros, Brazil
_
lbrahim Ortaş University of Cukurova, Faculty of Agriculture,
Department of Soil Science and Plant Nutrition, Adana,
Turkey
Gloria Padmaperuma Department of Chemical and Biological
Engineering, The University of Sheffield, Sheffield, United
Kingdom
Leon Etienne Parent Department of Soil and Agri-food Engi-
neering, Universite Laval, Quebec, QC, Canada
Vı́ctor Manuel Parga-Torres CESAL-INIFAP, Saltillo, Mexico
Margarita Parra Irrigation Deparment, CEBAS-CSIC, Murcia,
Spain
Bet^ania Vahl de Paula Universidade Federal de Santa Maria
(UFSM), Campus Universitário, Centro de Ci^encias Rurais,
Departamento de Solos, Camobi, Santa Maria, Brazil
Rodinei Facco Pegoraro Federal University of Minas Gerais,
Belo Horizonte, Brazil
Ana Perez-Piqueres Center for the Development of Sustainable
Agriculture, Valencian Institute of Agricultural Research,
Valencia, Spain
Raffaella Petruccelli Institute of BioEconomy—Italian National
Research Council (IBE-CNR), Sesto Fiorentino, Italy
Aoife Power School of Medical and Applied Sciences, Central
Queensland University, Rockhampton, QLD, Australia
John E. Preece National Clonal Germplasm Repository,
USDA-ARS, University of California, Davis, CA, United
States
Fangying Qiu National Engineering Research Center for Citrus
Technology/Citrus Research Institute, Southwest University-
Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Chongqing,
China
xvi
Ana Quiñones Center for the Development of Sustainable
Agriculture, Valencian Institute of Agricultural Research,
Valencia, Spain
M.A. Rahim Department of Horticulture, Bangladesh Agri-
culture University, Mymensingh, Bangladesh
R.A. Ram ICAR-Central Institute for Subtropical Horticulture,
Lucknow, India
Hermann Restrepo-Diaz Departamento de Agronomia, Facul-
tad de Ciencias Agrarias, Universidad Nacional de Colombia,
Bogotá, Colombia
Jorge B. Retamales Head ISHS Division Vine and Berry Fruits,
Viña del Mar, Chile
Felipe Klein Ricachenevsky Universidade Federal de Santa
Maria (UFSM), Departamento de Biologia, Santa Maria, Brazil
Patrizia Ricciuti Department of Soil, Plant and Food Sciences
(DiSSPA), University of Bari ‘Aldo Moro’, Bari, Italy
M. Ângelo Rodrigues Centro de Investigação de Montanha
(CIMO), Instituto Politecnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal
Isabel Rodrı́guez-Carretero Center for the Development of
Sustainable Agriculture, Valencian Institute of Agricultural
Research, Valencia, Spain
Danilo Eduardo Rozane São Paulo State University, UNESP,
Registro, Brazil
Jose S. Rubio-Asensio Irrigation Deparment, CEBAS-CSIC,
Murcia, Spain
Pavel Ryant Department of Agrochemistry, Soil Science,
Microbiology and Plant Nutrition, Faculty of AgriSciences,
Mendel University in Brno, Brno, Czech Republic
Alefsi David Sánchez-Reinoso Departamento de Agronomia,
Facultad de Ciencias Agrarias, Universidad Nacional de
Colombia, Bogotá, Colombia
Alberto Sandoval-Rangel Autonomous Agricultural University
Antonio Narro, Department of Horticulture, Saltillo, Mexico
Eva Sapáková Department of Languages, Faculty of Regional
Development and International Studies, Mendel University in
Brno, Brno, Czech Republic
Djalma Eug^enio Schmitt Universidade Federal de Santa
Catarina (UFSC), Curitibanos, Brazil
Fatih Sen Sen Research Group, Department of Biochemistry,
Faculty of Arts and Science, Dumlupınar University, Evliya
Çelebi Campus, K€ utahya, Turkey
Ricardo Serralheiro ICAAM—Mediterranean Institute for
Agricultural and Environmental Sciences; Agricultural
Engineering Department, School of Science and Technology,
 
University of Evora, Evora, Portugal
Afshan Shafi Department of Food Science & Technology,
Muhammad Nawaz Shareef University of Agriculture,
Multan, Pakistan
Bo Shu College of Horticulture and Gardening, Yangtze
University, Jingzhou, China
*Retired
Contributors
Faqih A.B. Ahmad Shuhaili Department of Chemical and
Biological Engineering, The University of Sheffield, Sheffield,
United Kingdom
Petr Škarpa Department of Agrochemistry, Soil Science,
Microbiology and Plant Nutrition, Faculty of AgriSciences,
Mendel University in Brno, Brno, Czech Republic
Adriano Sofo Department of European and Mediterranean
Cultures: Architecture, Environment and Cultural Heritage
(DiCEM), University of Basilicata, Matera, Italy
Giovambattista Sorrenti Department of Agricultural and Food
Sciences, Alma Mater Studiorum University of Bologna,
Bologna, Italy
Andre Luiz Kulkamp de Souza Empresa de Pesquisa Agrope-
cuária e Extensão Rural de Santa Catarina (Epagri), Videira,
Brazil
Matheus Severo de Souza Kulmann Universidade Federal de
Santa Maria (UFSM), Campus Universitário, Centro de
Ci^encias Rurais, Departamento de Solos, Camobi, Santa
Maria, Brazil
A.K. Srivastava Indian Council of Agricultural Research-
Central Citrus Research Institute, Nagpur, India
Lincon Oliveira Stefanello Universidade Federal de Santa
Maria (UFSM), Campus Universitário, Centro de Ci^encias
Rurais, Departamento de Solos, Camobi, Santa Maria, Brazil
Alyssa L. Stewart The Food and Health Lab, Department of
Health and Human Development, Montana State University,
Bozeman, MT, United States
Margie L. Stratton*
Qiling Tan College of Resources and Environment/Micro-
element Research Center/Hubei Provincial Engineering
Laboratory for New Fertilizers, Huazhong Agricultural Uni-
versity, Wuhan, People’s Republic of China
Ning Tang Institute of Plant Nutritional Physiology and
Molecular Biology, College of Resources and Environment,
Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou; Research
Institute for Special Plants, Chongqing University of Arts and
Sciences, Chongqing, China
Georgia Tanou Institute of Soil and Water Resources, ELGO-
DEMETER, Thessaloniki, Greece
Adriele Tassinari Universidade Federal de Santa Maria
(UFSM), Campus Universitário, Centro de Ci^encias Rurais,
Departamento de Solos, Camobi, Santa Maria, Brazil
Tadeu Luis Tiecher Instituto Federal Farroupilha, Campus
Alegrete, Alegrete, Brazil
Moreno Toselli Department of Agricultural and Food Sciences,
Alma Mater Studiorum University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy
Vi Khanh Truong School of Science, RMIT University,
Melbourne, VIC, Australia
Matjaž Turinek University of Maribor, Maribor, Slovenia
Ana Jurinjak Tušek University of Zagreb, Faculty of Food
Technology and Biotechnology, Zagreb, Croatia
 Contributors
Seetharaman Vaidyanathan Department of Chemical and Bio-
logical Engineering, The University of Sheffield, Sheffield,
United Kingdom
Davor Valinger University of Zagreb, Faculty of Food
Technology and Biotechnology, Zagreb, Croatia
Tripti Vashisth University of Florida, Institute of Food and
Agricultural Sciences, Citrus Research and Education Center,
Lake Alfred, FL, United States
Nicolás Verdugo-Vásquez Instituto de Investigaciones Agro-
pecuarias (INIA), Centro Regional de Investigación Intihuasi,
La Serena, Chile
Zonghua Wang Institute of Oceanography, Minjiang Univer-
sity; Fujian University Key Laboratory for Plant-Microbe
Interaction, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University,
Fuzhou, China
Xiangying Wei Institute of Oceanography, Minjiang Univer-
sity; Fujian University Key Laboratory for Plant-Microbe
Interaction, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University,
Fuzhou, China; Department of Environmental Horticulrture
and Mid-Florida Research and Education Center, University
of Florida, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences,
Apopka, FL, United States
Qiang-Sheng Wu College of Horticulture and Gardening,
Yangtze University, Jingzhou, China
Cristos Xiloyannis Department of European and
Mediterranean Cultures: Architecture, Environment and
Cultural Heritage (DiCEM), University of Basilicata, Matera,
Italy
xvii
Lin-Tong Yang Institute of Plant Nutritional Physiology and
Molecular Biology, College of Resources and Environment,
Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou, China
Lixian Yao College of Natural Resources and Environment,
South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, People’s
Republic of China
Jovani Zalamena Instituto Federal do Rio Grande do Sul
(IFRS)—Campus Restinga, Porto Alegre, Brazil
Ting Zhan College of Resources and Environment/Micro-
element Research Center/Hubei Provincial Engineering
Laboratory for New Fertilizers, Huazhong Agricultural
University; Key Laboratory of Horticultural Plant Biology
(HZAU), MOE, Wuhan, People’s Republic of China
Yuanyuan Zhao College of Resources and Environment/
Micro-element Research Center/Hubei Provincial
Engineering Laboratory for New Fertilizers, Huazhong
Agricultural University; Key Laboratory of Horticultural
Plant Biology (HZAU), MOE, Wuhan, People’s Republic
of China
Yongqiang Zheng Citrus Research Institute, Southwest
University-Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences,
Chongqing, China
Vasileios Ziogas Institute of Olive Tree, Subtropical Plants and
Viticulture, Hellenic Agricultural Organization (H.A.O.)—
Demeter, Chania, Greece
Andres Zurita-Silva Instituto de Investigaciones Agropecuar-
ias (INIA), Centro Regional de Investigación Intihuasi, La
Serena, Chile
 Editors’ biography

Dr. A.K. Srivastava, received his MSc (Ag) and PhD in soil science from Banaras Hindu
University in 1984 and 1988, respectively, and is currently the principal scientist (Soil Science)
at Central Citrus Research Institute (formerly, National Research Centre for Citrus), Nagpur
under the Indian Council of Agricultural Research, New Delhi. He has extensively pursued
research work on different aspects of citrus nutrition including nutrient constraints analysis
of citrus orchards by developing DRIS-based soil-plant nutrient diagnostics, orchard efficiency
modeling, targeted yield-based site-specific nutrient management exploiting spatial variabil-
ity in soil fertility, citrus rhizosphere-specific microbial consortium and soil carbon loading,
INM module, fertigation scheduling, nutrient mapping using geospatial tools, nutrient
dynamic studies, transformation of soil microbial biomass nutrients within citrus rhizosphere,
and soil fertility map as decision support tool for fertilizer recommendation. He has handled
30 projects (13 as principal investigator and 17 as coprincipal investigator), exclusively on
FRUIT NUTRITION.
Awards: He has been credited with a large number of publications including 161 research
papers (102 papers in Indian journals and 59 papers in foreign journals), 49 policy review
papers (32 in Indian journals and 17 in foreign journals), delivered 102 invited lead/keynote
lectures, and 252 abstracts in seminar/symposium/conference. He is the recipient of numerous awards including S.N. Ranade
Award for Excellence in Micronutrient Research, FAI Silver Jubilee Award, International Plant Nutrition Institute-FAI Award,
Netaji Subhash Chandra Bose Award for Excellence, National Magnum Foundation Award for Excellence, Dhirubhai Morarji
Award, B.L. Jain Award, World Aqua Foundation Award, Best Citrus Scientist Award, etc. In addition, his biography appeared
in two world-famous biographical compilations.
Academic fellowships: He is the life member of as many as 32 academic societies besides being an honorary member of World
Association of Soil and Water Conservationists. He is also the author of books like Citrus: Soil and Climate, Citrus Nutrition pub-
lished by IBDC, Lucknow and editor of book titled Advances in Citrus Nutrition by Springer-Verlag, Netherlands. He has been
inducted as a Fellow of 10 professional academic societies (Maharashtra Academy of Sciences, National Environmental Science
Academy, Environmental Research Academy, United Writers Association, Indian Society of Citriculture, Indian Society of Soil
Science, Indian Society of Agricultural Chemists, Confederation of Horticultural Associations of India, Gramin Vikas Society,
and National Academy of Biological Sciences). He is a member of Asian Council of Science Editors at Seoul, Korea.
Editorial assignments: He is an editor-in-chief of Research Journal on Earth Sciences and International Journal of Horticultural
and Crop Science Research, Current Horticulture; honorary editor, Agricultural Science Digest; executive editor, Agritechnology;
regional editor of International Journal of Food, Agriculture, and Environment; and Advances in Horticultural Science and
a member of editorial board of prestigious peer-reviewed journals including Journal of Plant Nutrition, Communications in
Soil Science and Plant Analysis (Taylor & Francis, USA), Journal of Agronomy and Crop Sciences (Crop Sci. Soc. Am.), and
associate editor, Agronomy Journal (Am. Soc. Agron.) and Scientia Agricola (Brazilian Acad. Agri. Sci.) to name a few and
20 national journals. He is also a regular paper setter on advance courses on soil fertility and soil chemistry across nine agricultural
universities in India. He is also a member of the management committee of three ICAR-based organizations, viz., ICAR-NRC on
Seed Spices, Ajmer, Rajasthan and ICAR-NRC on Pomegranate, Solapur, Maharashtra; ICAR-Indian Institute of Vegetable
Research, Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh; and ICAR-National Bureau of Soil Survey and Land Use planning, Nagpur, Maharashtra
in addition as a member of Technical Advisory Committee, Central Institute of Horticulture, Nagaland, India. He is a panel member
of a committee constituted by Ministry of Agriculture, Government of India, New Delhi for Codex Standards for Organic Farming
and Integrated Nutrient Management. He is also an adjunct faculty of three agricultural universities and a visiting professor
at Huazhong Agricultural University, Hubei and Yangtze University, Jingzhou, China.
Foreign assignments: He was invited as a citrus expert by Government of Nepal in 1999 under Indo-Nepal MOU, as a keynote
speaker in World Citrus Congress held at Wuhan, China in 2008, and as a resource person for Soil–Plant Interaction Workshop in
2018 at Huazhong Agriculture University (Wuhan) and Yangtze University (Jingzhou), China. He was also invited as a lead speaker
in International Symposium by Huazhong Agriculture University China in November 2018 and is invited as a keynote speaker
at International Symposium on Mineral of Fruit crops scheduled to be held on June 7–11, 2020 in Jerusalem (Israel).
More information may be obtained at his URLs: www.aksrivastavacitrus.com http://livedna.org/91.949, scholar.google.co.in/
citations and contacted at email: aksrivas2007@gmail.com. Mob: 91-9422458020/07709150513.

xix
xx Editors’ biography

Dr. Chengxiao Hu has been the director of the International Cooperation and Exchange
Division of Huazhong Agricultural University (and the Dean of the International College),
and has received his BA, MS, and PhD degree in agronomy from Huazhong Agricultural
University in 1988, 1991, and 1999, respectively. He joined Huazhong Agricultural University
in July 1991, and was promoted as associate professor and professor, respectively, in 1997 and
2002. His research fields include citrus and some other crop rotation formula fertilization
technology system, agricultural product safety production and nutrient management, crop
molybdenum nutrition mechanism and application of molybdenum fertilizer technology,
urban sludge agricultural pollution control principles and technologies, mechanisms of
mid- and micronutrient functions, especially Mo, Se of horticultural plants for edible quality
development particularly the sugar/acid ratio, Vitamin C, etc.. He has presided over more than
40 projects, including the National Natural Science Foundation, Scientific and Technological
Support Program of the Ministry of Science and Technology, 948 projects of the Ministry of
Agriculture, the Ministry of Education, and the New Zealand ASIA2000 fund.
Awards: He has won the second prize of Science and Technology Progress Award by
Education Ministry in 2017; the second prize of Hubei Science and Technology Progress Award
in 1998, 2016, and 2018; excellent patent project and the Hubei outstanding doctoral dissertation for five times by the Education
Department of Hubei Province. Two papers won the first prize of provincial excellent scientific papers and two papers won the
second prize. The book Practical Formula Fertilization Technology coedited by him won the second prize of the 4th Excellent Science
Works Award (Science Book) in Hubei Province in 2002. He is credited with five invention patents and one utility model patent.
He has published more than 280 papers in various domestic and foreign journals, and 92 articles were included in SCI. He has edited
or participated in the compilation of five books.
Academic fellowships: For more than a decade he has been the director of the New Fertilizer Engineering Laboratory of Hubei
Province, the deputy director of the Academic Committee of the Key Laboratory of cultivated land conservation in the middle and
lower reaches of the Yangtze River, the deputy director of the Chinese Academy of Plant Nutrition and Fertilizer Education Work
Committee, the executive member of the council of the Chinese Citrus Society, the executive director of the Hubei Soil and Fertilizer
Society, and the director of the Hubei Fertilizer Application Association. He was selected as the youth expert of Huazhong
Agricultural University (1998), young and middle-aged experts with outstanding contributions to Hubei province (2001), the high
level talent project of the new century of Hubei province (2003), the “excellent talent support program in the new century” from
Education Ministry (2004), Senior Members of the Ministry of Agriculture (2006) and the “fifteenth” Advanced Individuals in the
Field of Intelligence (2006) at the national level.
Editorial assignments: Professor Hu has served as a member of the Degree Committee of the People’s Government of Hubei
Province, a member of the Expert Committee of Textbook Construction of the Textbook Office in the Ministry of Agriculture, a
member of China Fertilizer and Soil Conditioner Standardization Technical Committee, and as deputy chairman of the Education
Working Committee of the Chinese Society of Plant Nutrition and Fertilizer.
Professor Hu can be reached at his email: hucx@mail.hzau.edu.cn and contacted at Tel: +86 27 8728 8840.
 Preface

Fruit crops have been cultivated for centuries, both commercially and in amateur orchards as a major part of agri-
cultural production. Agriculture is conceived as one of the humanity’s crowning achievements and one of the central
dynamics in the rise of human civilization. “An apple a day keeps the doctor away” is a popular adage, signifies the
importance of fruit crops in the human diet (Chapter 1). Presently, fruit crops have touched 675 million metric tons
(114 million metric tons of bananas) of production with most popular fruit varieties such as bananas and apples
followed by grapes and oranges, offering a promising alternative to nutritional security options, besides easing the
load on otherwise heavy per capita consumption of cereal crops. As we race toward a global population of 10 billion,
the business as usual for fruit farming no longer appears as a viable option.
Entangled in multiple stresses, establishing a sustainable production system is the key challenge of present time
fruit science. Decline in soil fertility due to nutrient mining is the major constraint limiting the productivity of fruit
crops. Consistent reduction in nutrient density of different fruit crops is an indication of the nutrient mining-induced
decline in productivity over time (Chapter 2). Fruit crops by the virtue of their perennial nature of woody framework
(Nutrients locked therein), extended demand for nutrient supply across physiological growth stages, differential root
distribution pattern (root volume distribution), and preferential requirement of some nutrients over others, collectively
make them nutritionally more efficient than annual crops (Chapter 3).
Fruit crops by the virtue of being considered most nutrient responsive in nature, often develop certain overlapping
morphogenetic symptoms under nutrient-capped scenario (Chapter 4), where ecophysiology of growing the fruit
crops play a decisive role (Chapter 5). Perennial fruit trees play an important role in the carbon cycle of terrestrial eco-
systems and sequestering atmospheric CO2. An increase in yield of fruit crops such as apple, grape, banana, pineapple,
mango, citrus, etc. in response to elevated CO2 concentration has been extensively studied. It remains to be investi-
gated, how accurate estimation of orchard C budget vis-à-vis timescale and feedback mechanisms of changes in soil
carbon pool and steady-state level under specific fruit crop in order to expand potential of C credits through perennial
fruit crops (Chapter 6). Fruit crops are undoubtedly one such group of perennial crops potentially very promising
while looking at effective options for neutralizing (atmospheric carbon dioxide offset) the increasing menace of climate
change-related issues (Chapter 7).
Plant nutritionists across the globe are on their toes to find ways and means to identify nutrient constraints as early
in standing crop season as possible while dealing with fruit crops. Exciting progress has been made over the years, and
accordingly, the basis of nutrient management strategy has experienced many paradigm shifts. While doing so, it is
being increasingly felt to have some diagnostic tool to identify nutrient constraint as and when it originates by
capturing the signals released at the subcellular level. On the other hand, conventionally used diagnostic tools of iden-
tifying nutrient constraints such as leaf analysis, soil analysis, juice analysis, and to some extent, metalloenzyme-based
biochemical analysis, all have been under continuous use and refinement. And, therefore, the development of nutrient
diagnostics is an extremely complex exercise. The issue becomes still quite complex under the soil conditions facing
multiple nutrient deficiencies.
Not surprisingly, proximal sensing through spectral signatures of crop canopies in the orchards are more complex
and often quite dissimilar from those of single green leaves measured under carefully controlled conditions. Even
when leaf spectral properties remain relatively constant throughout the season, canopy spectra change dynamically
depending upon variation in soil type, vegetation, and architectural arrangement of plant components. Vegetation
indices provide a very simple yet an effective method for extracting the green plant quantity signal from complex
canopy spectra. Narrower band indices such as the photochemical reflectance index, water band index, and normal-
ized pigment chlorophyll ratio index are examples of reflectance indices that are correlated with certain physiological
plant responses, and hold promise for diagnosing water and nutrient stress.
Nondestructive methods of identification of nutrient constraints, especially spectroscopic methods (Chapter 8), hold a
definite edge, capable of sensing nutrient deficit as a biological nutrient sensor (Chapter 9) to track the genesis of nutrient
deficiency on a real-time basis. Ironically, micronutrient deficiencies are diagnosed through a specific pattern of chlorosis,
e.g., Fe versus Mn or Fe/Mn versus Zn backed up by nutrient concentration, capturing symptomatic pattern of chlorosis

xxi
xxii Preface

via spectral norms (signatures), irrespective of crop species further limit this concept toward more wider application. In the
light of these developments, a relatively new concept popularly known as “Nutriomics” has emerged, revealing some
lesser-known facts about fruit nutrition as a function of genomics (Chapter 10). By contrast, the better acknowledged
methods of nutrient constraints diagnosis exploiting the merits of destructive methods of analysis like leaf analysis is
by far the most widely used diagnostic tool (Chapter 11), of which many other developments have taken place
(Chapter 12) to add better precision-based interpretation. However, among destructive methods of diagnostics tools, none
of them is capable of identifying the nutritional disorders in the current seasons crop, thereby, aiming the outcome
of diagnosis supposedly effective in next season crop. Flower analysis, though still in infancy stage, holds a better promise
(Chapter 13), since it offers a comparatively longer time from anthesis to fruit maturity to schedule the fertilizer recom-
mendation without compromising with either fruit yield or any of fruit quality parameters.
Growing fruit crops under diverse agro-pedological conditions confronted with multiple limitations is a consider-
able challenge with respect to the deficiency of calcium (Chapter 14) and boron (Chapter 15) or toxicity of boron
(Chapter 16) and aluminum (Chapter 17), which need some strategic reorientation in our nutrient management
options. On the other hand, the beneficial nutrients such as selenium (Chapter 18) and silicon (Chapter 19) have of
late attracted the researchers, to be part of fruit nutrition program. These two nutrients hold a strong synergism with
nutrients such as potassium, iron, manganese, calcium, etc. with varying agronomic implications. However, the full
potential of such crunch nutrients could be realized only when floor management is properly looked into using suit-
able cover crops, serving multiple soil fertility functions (Chapter 20) through an effective rootstock-scion combination
to optimize quality production, besides prolonging the orchard longevity (Chapter 21).
Rhizosphere security (soil security) is the call of the day these days, where physicochemical and biological prop-
erties of the soil inhibited by the roots are shaped in accordance to crop metabolism. Ecological significance of rhizo-
sphere in terms of genetic, functional, and metabolic responses is another dimension in fruit crops, which need an
incisive analysis (Chapter 22). However, it remains to be seen, whether or not and to what extent, such ecosystem
service functions of rhizosphere are governed by different soil microbial communities. Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi
(AMF) is one of the most influential soil inhabiting fungi able to establish symbiotic relationship with more than 90% of
the plants representing terrestrial ecosystem. How does mycorrhizosphere of fruit crops aid in unraveling the hidden
facts about fruit nutrition through elevated synthesis of glomalin-related-soil-protein (Glycoprotein) are chronologi-
cally analyzed (Chapter 23) in the backdrop of some striking breakthroughs about the role of AMF in fruit nutrition
(Chapter 24) to develop fruit trees with the desired biochemical and physiological preparedness as a result of mycor-
rhization to resist against a variety of other abiotic and biotic stresses. This is where mycorrhization of fruit trees could
develop a better nutrient sink vis-à-vis quality fruit production. Recently, microbial inoculation has assumed a much
greater significance, ever since depleting soil organic carbon has assumed an alarming proportion to facilitate soil fer-
tility and plant nutrition act in a coordinated manner. In this pursuit, microbial consortium showed a clear cut supe-
riority over single or dual microbial inoculation (Chapter 25) which has an added advantage of regulating the
rhizosphere functional dynamics through biofertigation (Chapter 26) as the newest concept of fertigation, a little
known nutrient supply system in fruit crops. Hence, these attempts are likely to provide some plausible answers with
regard to top environmental problems, viz., microbial diversity loss, ecosystem collapse, and climate change to later
tailor them into organic production system.
Regenerative farming using fruit crops could be quite thrilling and remunerative for long-term production sustain-
ability. Adopting organic way (Chapter 27) and biodynamic method of nutrient management (Chapter 28) using cos-
mic energy-based calendar operation are likely to throw up new vistas of addressing different soil fertility constraints
toward an optimized performance. However, foliar nutrition (Chapter 29) is the way forward approach to produce
nutrient-dense fruit crops. But, nutrients aligning through phloem mobility and phloem immobility further pose some
uncompromisable limitations, with the results, foliar feeding of nutrients still remains a formidable challenge.
Overcoming the ever-increasing frequency of different soil fertility constraints, use of soilless method of cultivation
is gradually gaining momentum in perennial fruit crops, called open-field hydroponics (Chapter 30), though not a
popular concept but has many challenges to overcome before open-field hydroponics becomes a popular and conven-
tional method of fruit crops growing.
Sustaining soil fertility with respect to fruit crops is another core agenda where biochar (essentially charcoal having
carbon residence time in soil extending for >100 years) proved its utility, mostly under tropical environment with acid
soils, imparting an additional liming value to biochars. The much value-added biochars have been derived from
banana and orange sun-dried peels. Therefore, biochars need to be utilized for expanding carbon sequestration poten-
tial of soil, improving soil nutrient balances, especially in alkaline soils, soil-crop health under typical long-term field
conditions. Additionally, biochar augers so well in organic production system, need to look afresh (Chapter 31). Iron-
ically, stress and plant nutrition hardly complement each other. Despite quantum of researches dedicated to salinity
 Preface xxiii
responses of fruit crops, physiological basis of salinity tolerance is yet little understood (Chapter 32) at molecular level,
another core area of research in fruit crops has been addressed so beautifully. Managing salinity stress toward better
performance of fruit crops is always tricky issue. Improving the level of plant nutrition plays a combative role in
moderating the impact of salinity exposure to fruit crops (Chapter 33) and has been highlighted with the help of some
success stories.
Considering the thumping success of trunk nutrition, will it not be more advisable to analyze the xylem sap or
phloem tissue for chemical and microbial constituents, since the signal transduction for various nutrients functioning
mediate through these tissues only. Such attempts could provide some meaningful clues about the presence or absence
of those signals to be later utilized in understanding the underlying principles of nutrient stress-induced warning
mechanism. These studies could lay the solid foundation for developing some probe linked to transpiration stream
of plant to act as early warning system for identifying deficiencies of various nutrients (Chapter 34). Use of nano-
fertilizers (synthesized or modified form of traditional fertilizers), though still not a popular option to conventionally
used fertilizers, offer some definite promise toward elevated use efficiency of applied fertilizers (Chapter 35) through
proper delivery system utilizing different types of nano-fertilizers. However, issues relating health hazards need thor-
ough studies with regard to nano-fertilizes to be really effective cropwide. The concept of nutrient-use-efficiency
applied on the principles of 4R Nutrient Stewardship (Right amount of fertilizers using right source is applied at right
time and right place) provides an ultimate framework guide to fertilizer use to any crop, with fruit crops being no
exception (Chapter 36). Such attempt is slated toward increased production, profitability, and environmental safety.
A further understanding of nutrient-microbe synergy provides a solid foundation in unlocking the productivity poten-
tial of fruit crops, besides safeguarding the soil health and possibility of doubling the yield coupled with nutrient-use-
efficiency as central theme. With the availability of more technical know-how on combined use of organic manures,
prolonged shelf life of microbial bio-fertilizers, and inorganic chemical fertilizers, an understanding on nutrient acqui-
sition and regulating the water relations would help switch orchards to better CO2 sink (expanding carbon capturing
capacity of rhizosphere), so that a more sustainable fruit-based integrated crop production system could be evolved
(Chapter 37). A comprehensive comparative study of organic versus inorganic fertilizers will be a booster to add
strength to such integrated approaches (Chapter 38), where use of slow-release fertilizers can be stitched quite effec-
tively to match with nutrient demand with critical growth stages (Chapter 39), a prerequisite to another form of
nutrient-use-efficiency, known as nutrient utilization efficiency.
Correct diagnosis of nutrient constraints and their management are the two contrasting pillars of any successful
fruit nutrition program. One of the most complex issues about fruit nutrition is the time taken to respond to fertilizer
application in fruit crops such as citrus, mango, litchi, pomegranate, grapes, guava to name a few. It is because of
erroneous diagnosis of nutrient constraints or big canopy size that dictates the nutritional behavior of these fruit
crops at different developmental phases during long orchards, life. An assessment on annual nutrient export from
orchard, quantum of nutrients locked into the trees skeletal framework and ability to distinguish between nutrient
remobilized within tree canopy and externally applied fertilizer sources, senile nature of trees etc., singly or collec-
tively govern the nutrient responsiveness of these fruit crops. An extensive attempt has been made to address the
diagnosis and management of nutrient constraints in some of the premier fruit crops such as berries (Chapter 40),
stone fruits (Chapter 41), papaya (Chapter 42), mango (Chapter 43), banana (Chapter 44), litchi (Chapter 45), pome-
granate (Chapter 46), grapes (Chapter 47), guava (Chapter 48), citrus (Chapter 49), and pineapples (Chapter 50).
These fruit-based chapters would go a long way in enriching the literature through state of the art compilation
and in-depth analysis to bring out the long pending issues to limelight and offer a long-term solution for those
researchers and practitioners involved in fruit nutrition.
We place on record our sincere acknowledgment to all the learned researchers/scientists having contributed their
chapters and standing by us for so long. We also wish to thank acquisition editor, Dr. Nancy Maragioglio; Mr. Redding
Morse and Ms. Swapna Srinivasan during the course of this book, an exciting and educative journey through fruit
nutrition to both of us as editors of such massive effort. We earnestly hope, this book will attract a worldwide
readership as a popular source of literature on Fruit Nutrition.

A.K. Srivastava
ICAR-Central Citrus Research Institute, India

Chengxiao Hu
Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, China
 C H A P T E R

1
Fruits and nutritional security
Umar Farooqa,*, Afshan Shafia, Kashif Akramb, Zafar Hayatc
a
Department of Food Science & Technology, Muhammad Nawaz Shareef University of Agriculture, Multan, Pakistan
b
Department of Food Sciences, Cholistan University of Veterinary & Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan
c
Department of Animal Sciences, CVAS-University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Jhang, Pakistan
*Corresponding author. E-mail: ufd302003@gmail.com

O U T L I N E

1 General 1 3.5 Immunity 8

3.6 Diabetes 9
2 Fruits 3
3.7 Infectious diseases 9
2.1 Nutritional components of fruits 3
2.2 Bioactive compounds in fruits 5 4 Conclusion 9
3 Therapeutic benefits of fruits 6 5 Future perspectives 9
3.1 Anticancer properties 6
References 10
3.2 Cardiovascular protection 8
3.3 Hypercholesterolemia 8 Further reading 12
3.4 Brain health 8

1 General

The concept of nutritional security is difficult to define due to its complex, broad, and multidimensional nature.
Food availability, affordability, access, safety, and its stability are the basic pillars or dimensions of food security.
It also has multidisciplinary nature with the involvement of a variety of stakeholders with national and international
status (Candel, 2014; Hendriks, 2015). Food availability refers to the supply of quality food with sufficient quantity,
and access is concerned with socioeconomic status of individuals to purchase appropriate foods to meet nutritional
requirements. Similarly, the stability in food security is referred to the achievement of a situation where an individual
or whole population has access to adequate food all the time (FAO, 2006). These pillars of food security are intercon-
nected, for example, food access is not possible without food availability and food utilization is linked with food access
(Hendriks, 2015). When personal needs of sufficient, safe, and wholesome food are fulfilled for healthy and active life
all the time, then the person is considered as food secured. As per definitions of food security, only a person should not
have access to food; instead, the food must also fulfill the energy and nutritional requirements of the body to prevent
the situation of malnutrition. In current scenario, the food security has become a major issue not only for the devel-
oping countries but also for the developed countries. Not only the solutions for such a complex problem should con-
sider the environmental and technical perspectives, but also the nations should look at the economic, social, and
political aspects to handle the situation of food insecurity (Termeer et al., 2015).
The concerns of food security are not only focused on the prevailing conditions but also related to the future chal-
lenges of feeding of rapidly increasing world population (IFPRI, 2015). The research findings have indicated that there
is a continuous experience of food insecurity. The first or primary indicator of food insecurity is considered to be the
shortage or poverty, which reflects the issues related to food availability and access. To cover such situation, the people

A.K. Srivastava, Chengxiao Hu (eds.)

Fruit Crops: Diagnosis and Management of Nutrient Constraints
https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-818732-6.00001-0 1 © 2020 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
2 1. Fruits and nutritional security

try to find out the ways to cut food consumption. This leads to the usage of cheaper and energy dense food commod-
ities to fulfill the energy requirements of the body, which results in hidden hunger through malnutrition of specific
nutrients especially the micronutrients. The deficiencies of such vital nutrients lead to acute hunger, and such situation
is known as acute food insecurity (Hendriks, 2015).
There are a number of identified reasons for food insecurity, and the major focus of the nations is to improve the
economic status of the individual so that each person may have the capacity of purchasing. The other major target is to
ensure food availability to feed the whole world. To combat such situations of food insecurity, a number of programs
are being launched by the government and nongovernment organizations to fight against food and nutrition insecurity
(Tanumihardjo et al., 2007). However, these programs have been found to be little fruitful in reducing food insecurity
and failed to address the challenges of nutrition insecurity (Lear et al., 2014; Shisana et al., 2014). These programs have
been unable to combat both food and nutrition insecurities (Khoury et al., 2014). The basic reason behind the situations
is basically the lack of food diversification. The people rely on only limited foods specially the staple foods of their
respective regions, which lead to nutritional insecurities. Although different programs of food fortification and sup-
plementation have been launched all over the world, however, these programs are also limited to the fortification of
specific targeted nutrients, and ultimately, the consumer fails to get all necessary nutrients required for a healthy life
(Popkin et al., 2012). Thus, the consumption of only staple food over a long period leads to a number of health diseases
and disorders due to the situation of under nutrition (Smith and Haddad, 2015; Papathakis and Pearson, 2012). Due to
the fact, about 800 million people all over the world are considered to be undernourished with two billion people suf-
fering from micronutrient deficiencies. Similarly, due to unbalanced diet, 1.9 billion people are overweight all over the
globe, and one out of every three persons is malnourished (IFPRI, 2015).
The poor diets mostly based on staple foods are the common sources of hidden hunger as such diets no doubt pro-
vide enough energy for body but fail to provide all essential nutrients like vitamins and minerals. The people suffering
from hidden hunger have not enough awareness about the importance of balanced diet, or they may not have enough
access to wide range of nutritious foods (animal and plant based) due to any reason. The poverty and high prices could
be among the basic factors that tend the consumer to continue longtime intake of staple foods with reduced or even
zero intake of nonstaple foods, which result in nutrition insecurity (Bouis et al., 2011). The major reasons of nutritional
food insecurity are highlighted in Fig. 1.1. These situations necessitate the intake of nonstaple foods like fruits to meet
the needs of nutrient-based food security. Fruits and vegetables have important role in the provision of a healthy diet,
and daily intake of such nonstaple foods helps to control and manage a number of human diseases and health disor-
ders. With intake of fruits and vegetables, 2.7 million lives could be saved through the prevention of chronic diseases
along with alleviation of nutritional deficiencies related to micronutrients (WHO, 2003).
Different strategies have been adopted to combat the situation of hidden hunger. The strategies may include
fortification, biofortification, supplementation, and diversification. The diversification in diet and diet pattern
seems to be one of the effective methods to control hidden hunger. This diet diversification has also positive effect

FIG. 1.1 Determinants of nutritional insecurity. Modified from Aijaz, R., 2017. Preventing hunger and malnutrition in India. ORF Issue Brief 182,
pp. 1–12.
 2 Fruits 3
on child nutritional outcomes even when controlling for socioeconomic factors. The dietary diversification no
doubt ensures a healthy and balanced diet with combination of macro- and micronutrients through a wide range
of food choices including fruits.

2 Fruits

Fruits are the essential part of healthy lifestyle and crucial part of safe and healthy diet. As per recommendations of
the WHO, it has been reported that the less consumption of fruits leads toward various metabolic disorders especially
cardiovasculars such as 11% heart strokes and 31% ischemic heart disease globally. On the basis of aforementioned
facts, it was also predicted that daily consumption of fruits may can protect more than 2.7 million people annually.
Therapeutic significant of fruits also proved might be due to the characteristics of low calories, high nutritional con-
tents, dietary fibers, and robust biologically active compound. These characteristics of fruits make them able to cure a
number of disorders and improve health status of community (Du et al., 2011).

2.1 Nutritional components of fruits

Fruits are not only the most acceptable for their delightful taste but also possess a number of therapeutic benefits
containing frequent nutrients (Buachan et al., 2014; Slavin and Lloyd, 2012). A wide variety of fruits contain significant
amount of ascorbic acid or vitamin C like citrus fruits (orange and mandarin). Vitamin C is present in abundant quan-
tity in citrus fruits that only one mandarin can accomplish the recommended daily allowance (RDA) of vitamin C for a
normal human being. Similarly, other fruits are rich with some other specific nutrients. Generally, fruits contain
70%–80% moisture, 1.5% proteins, 13%–15% carbohydrates, up to 6% dietary fibers, 501 mg minerals, and up to
90 mg vitamins (Fig. 1.2). But this composition varies with fruit to fruit and variety to variety such as mango fruit that
contains nearly 81% moisture, 0.4% fat, 0.6% protein, and 0.8% fibers.
It also contains nearly 17% of carbohydrates. Fruits also contain a perishable amount of minerals like magnesium,
potassium, sodium, phosphorus, and sulfur. Similarly, guava comprises 77%–86% moisture content, whereas the
remaining nutrients include crude fiber (2.8%–5.5%), protein (0.9%–1.0%), fat (0.1–%0.5%), minerals (0.43%–0.7%),
and carbohydrate (9.5%–10%), and it also contains vitamins and minerals. This composition of guava fruit differs
significantly with season, maturity stage, production technology, and variety (Mandal et al., 2009; Jimenez-Escrig
et al., 2001). It is a good source of dietary fiber, dietary minerals (potassium, manganese, and copper), and vitamins
(A, C, and folic acid) (Hassimotto et al., 2005). This fruit is also called “super fruit” as it has considerable amounts of
vitamin A and C (Suntornsuk et al., 2002). Except vitamin C, a good quantity of other nutrients such as folate carot-
enoids and potassium is also present in many fruits. β-Cryptoxanthin and β-carotene are the known precursors of

Phytonutrients

Enzymes Natural acids Antioxidant Phytosterol Nondigestible carbohydrates

Glucosinolates Polyphenols Carotenoids

Organosulfur Indoles Xanthophylls

Carotenes

Flavonoids Lignans Isoflavones Curcuminoids Stillbenoids Tannins

FIG. 1.2 Phytonutrients tree. Modified from FFL (Food Fit for Living), 2016. Phytonutrients—Nature’s Unknown Soldiers. Available from: http://www.
foodfitforliving.com/thisweekatfffl/2016/1/9/week-13-phytonutrients-atures-unknown-soldiers. (Accessed 27 January 2019).
4 1. Fruits and nutritional security

TABLE 1.1 Nutritional composition of various fruits (National Nutrient Database for Standard Reference, 2018).
Nutrient Apple Guava Mango Citrus Pomegranate Pear Peach Banana Watermelon Apricot

Carbohydrates 17.3 g 14.32 g 25 g 11.8 g 18.70 g 27 g 16.7 g 22.84% 21 g 11.12 g

Proteins 0.3 g 2.55 g 1g 0.9 g 1.67 g 1g 1.4 g 1.09% 1g 1.4 g

Lipids 0.2 g 0.95 g 0.5 g 0.1 g 1.17 g 0% 0.4 g 0.33% 0g 0.39 g
Vitamins – – – 70 mg – 15% 22% – – –
Minerals – – – 7% – 2% – 484 mg 270 mg –
Fiber 3.0 g 5.4 g 3g 2.4 g 4.0 g 5% 3.1 g 2.6% 1g –

vitamin A and are classified under the category of carotenoids (Aldeguer et al., 2014). The nutritional composition of
various fruits is shown in Table 1.1.

2.1.1 Lipids
A molecule of nutritive fat normally contains a number of fatty acids (having long chains of hydrogen and carbon
atoms), attached with glycerol. They are normally found as triglycerides (three fatty acids bonded with one glycerol
backbone). In human diet, a minimum of two fatty acids is important. A suitable balance of essential fatty acids—
omega-6 and omega-3 fatty acids—looks also important for health, though conclusive experimental demonstration
has been elusive. Among these “omega” long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids are substrates for a class of eicosanoids
called as prostaglandins, which play a major role in the human body. Fruits like banana, grapes, custard apples, ber,
and cashew nut are good sources of fat (Chadha, 2007).

2.1.2 Water
Water essential to normal body functions as a vehicle for carrying other nutrients. The human body consists of 60%
water, which is crucial for the proper physiology of the human body. Fruits are the richest source of water as they
contain 70%–80% water contents (Desjardins, 2007).pt?>

2.1.3 Proteins
Proteins are the basis of many animal body structures (e.g., muscles, skin, and hair) and form the enzymes, which
catalyze chemical reactions throughout the body. These foods are the building blocks of the body. These are important
for body development. Lack of proteins in the body is responsible for stunted growth, increased chances of diseases,
and lethargy. Protein molecules consist of amino acids having nitrogen and sometimes sulfur (during burning of pro-
tein, a distinctive smell is produced due to these components, such as the keratin in hair). To produce new proteins
(protein retention) and exchange damaged proteins (maintenance), amino acids must be required in the human body.
In digestive juices, amino acids are soluble in small intestine, where they are absorbed into the blood. They cannot be
stored in the body after absorption, so they are either metabolized as required or excreted in the urine. The average
adult requires 1 gram of protein per kilogram of body weight per day; children may require two to three times of this
amount. Cashew nut, almond, filbert, pecan, pistachio, and walnut are rich in protein. Cashew nut is the richest source
of protein among fruits (Kazi et al., 2015).

2.1.4 Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates are among the most important nutritional components of fruit with dominating contents of glucose,
fructose, and sucrose. Among fiber constituents, pectin is the major component present in fruits, which makes 65%–
70% of the total fiber. Other components of the fiber like cellulose, lignin, hemicellulose, and gums are also part of total
fiber. Due to improper blood glucose metabolism, hyperglycemia (high blood glucose) or hypoglycemia (low blood
glucose) may appear (Mayes et al., 2011).

2.1.5 Ascorbic acid (vitamin C)

Vitamin C is a category of ascorbic acid and is included in the group of water-soluble vitamins. In the human
body, the vitamin C takes part in the formation of collagen, which is the main component of connective tissues. In
the consequences, the deficiency of this vitamin causes weakness of tissues. Vitamin C also aids in the iron absorp-
tion. By using citrus products, we can control cold and anemia. The antioxidative activity of vitamin C is well
 2 Fruits 5
recognized, and due to this behavior, it is considered to be responsible in preventing the oxidation of fatty acids, pro-
tein, and DNA. As these radicals are responsible for diseases like cancer, cardiovascular diseases (CVD), and cataract
formation, vitamin C can play role in the management of these diseases as well. The 10 g daily intake of vitamin C is
considered to be effective for prohibition of its deficiencies. High amount of vitamin C may be hazardous as it may
produce danger of iron load (Ford and Giles, 2000).

2.1.6 Folic acid

Folic acid is also known as foliate. This water-soluble vitamin is associated with cell metabolism. Folic acid helps in
DNA, RNA, and hemoglobin formation and has key role in anemia prevention. By using 400 μg folic acid, the defects of
natural tube can be prevented, and 225 mL of fresh orange juice has 75 μg folic acid (NIH, 2018).

2.1.7 Potassium
Potassium controls the acid-base balance of the body. Blood pressure of the body is normally associated with min-
erals. According to daily requirement allowance, 2000 mg of potassium should be taken on daily basis. By using citrus
fruit products and juices, we can improve the intake of potassium. A 235 mg of potassium comes by drinking 225 mL
glass of orange juice (Duarte and Paull, 2015).

2.2 Bioactive compounds in fruits

It plays a role against free radicals and prevents the body from free radicals. It protects against the degenera-
tive sicknesses such as melanoma and cataracts. It also plays a role in boosting immune system, iron absorption,
and bovine collagen development. Bovine collagen plays a role in bone fortification and ligament and wound healing
(Liu et al., 2012).

2.2.1 Phytochemicals
Fruits are known as the amazing natural medicines due to the presence of many bioactive compounds like flavo-
noids, vitamins, minerals, anthocyanins, and other compounds (Halliwell, 2006). These bioactive compounds prevent
fruit from pathogens and are responsible for fruit flavor and fruit color. At the same time, these play an important role
in the prevention of many chronic diseases. However, the debatable discussion is whether the extracts from fruits rich
of phytochemicals have equal beneficial approach toward human health as achievable through whole food having
phytochemical or the mixture of foods. It has been investigated by the researchers that different portions of fruits have
different levels of phytochemicals. For example, the apple peel only contributes 0.4% antioxidant activity due to vita-
min C as compared with the whole antioxidant activity that clearly indicates that the most of the antioxidant activity is
contributed by other compounds like phenolics and flavonoids (Liu, 2003). So, all the phytochemicals play an impor-
tant role in functional outcomes of the fruits. The classification of phytonutrients presents in fruits and other food com-
modities is elaborated in Fig. 1.2. Studies also predicted that the two phytochemicals (quercetin and ellagic acid) in
strawberries were found responsible for anticancer and antimicrobial activity by blocking the suppress progression,
initiation of carcinogenesis, and tumor proliferation (Denny and Buttriss, 2007).

2.2.2 Phenolics
The phytochemicals like phenolic are present in fruits, and due to protective biological functions of the phenolic, the
fruits have prime importance in diet therapies and should be included in diet pattern. The phenolic compounds are
even present in the by-products of fruits and in the fruit industry wastes. A number of phenolic compounds have been
found in the peels of various fruits (Schieber et al., 2001). The fruits like grapes, apples, raspberries, cranberries, and
strawberries and also their drinks such as orange and apple juices are good sources of phenolics. These compounds
offer very strong facts of antimicrobials uniqueness (Urquiaga and Leighton, 2000).

2.2.3 Phenolic acid

Apple contains phenolic acids that are dihydrochalcones (phloretin glycosides), caffeic acid (chlorogenic acid), and
p-coumaric acid (p-coumaryl-quinic acid); both are present with quinic acid in their esterified form (Awad et al., 2000;
Thielen et al., 2005).
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 “You need not discharge your mules, and will start to-morrow.
Good morning to you.”
Mr. P⸺ was equal to the occasion; he walked out of the place
without a word, and he did start the next day (on his march of sixteen
stages).
So much for discipline.
Pierson, who played the concertina, cornet, and piano, suggested
to me as a pastime that he should teach me the cornet. To this I
assented; and the first thing was to learn to blow. This is not so easy
as it seems, and as the noises I produced were not pleasant,
Pierson only allowed my practising in the house when he was not at
home. The flat roof at sunset was my place to practise, and here I
blew to my heart’s content. I only blew one note of various loudness,
and to my astonishment found I had a rival, whose lungs were
stronger than mine; he, too, blew one note in rapid succession. I
blew—he blew—but his were decidedly the stronger sounds, and he
blew longer. I kept up my blowing, but soon came down, feeling my
inferiority.
The next night I was alone, my rival absent. I blew my one note in
rapid succession till I could blow no more. Suddenly I heard cries,
and sounds of beating, and shouts of men and women—a row
evidently. I blew on.
Next morning the British Agent, Syud Houssein (these native
agents are appointed by the English Legation in lieu of consuls
throughout Persia at the great cities; they are really news-writers, but
act as consuls, and look after English interests), came to Pierson,
with a long face, saying that a complaint had been made to him by
the Governor, of the conduct of the sahibs in his (Pierson’s) house.
It appears that when the bath is full of men, and the time allotted to
them expires, the bath is cleared, and the bath-man, on its being
empty, blows on a buffalo horn for a few minutes a succession of
notes. This is the signal to the expectant women, and so on, when
the time for the ladies expires, for the men. The bath-man was my
unknown rival.
 The day before, the bath being full of women, I proceeded to our
roof to indulge in cornet practice. My efforts, alas! were so like the
solos of the bath-man, that the Hamadan men of our quarter rushed
to, and into the sacred precincts of, the bath. The women who were
inside were furious at the unexpected intrusion, and called on their
male relatives for protection. A fight ensued, which only ceased on
both parties uniting to give the innocent bath-man a sound thrashing;
which having thoroughly accomplished to their satisfaction, and
broken his buffalo horn, they retired, hinc illæ lachrymæ. The matter
was soon explained, and a small present consoled the beaten bath-
man, and I gave up the cornet.
Syud Houssein was a dignified little man, with the dark complexion
and scanty black beard that is supposed to characterise the true
descendants of the prophet. I fancy myself that while his duties
consisted merely in looking after the few Persians who were British
subjects in Hamadan, and writing a monthly news-letter to the
Legation at Teheran, he was quite happy; but that the actual
presence of the unbeliever in the city itself was not very palatable to
him. However, we ever found him kind and courteous, though he
avoided breaking bread with us, save in secret and when there was
no escape.
There are a great many Armenians in Hamadan, and there are
villages in the immediate neighbourhood of the place inhabited only
by them. They have mostly adopted the Persian dress and language,
Armenian being in disuse as a language among those living in
Hamadan, and there being no distinctive mark by which one can tell
them in either indoor or outdoor dress; unlike the Armenian of
Teheran, who adopts the dress of those of his nation who are
Russian subjects, or the Julfa (Ispahan) Armenians, who affect the
fez to simulate the Turkish subject, or at times pretend an ignorance
of Persian, and disguise themselves as sahibs. A ludicrous instance
of this occurred once when I was coming into Shiraz chupparee. In
the distance I saw under some trees, by a running brook, where
generally travellers from Shiraz bid their friends farewell, what
appeared to me an officer in the full-dress uniform of the English (?)
army. I was intrigued, and as the trees were off the road I cantered
up to the group.
I found one of our Armenian signallers in an engineer officer’s full-
dress scarlet mess jacket, jack-boots, a full-dress uniform cap,
lambswool drawers (sewn up in front) to simulate buckskins, a huge
cavalry sabre, and three revolvers. The fact was that he had
assumed what he supposed to be the correct get-up of an English
officer of rank, in order that if any highway robbers met him (the
country was very disturbed at the time) on his seven days’ march to
Abadeh, they might refrain from attacking him. He arrived safely.
Unfortunately these assumptions of the appearance of the European
by Armenians does not add to the respect which the real sahib
receives.
Some of the tales these people tell to increase their own
importance in the eyes of their oppressors, the Persians, are
ingenious and amusing. When I was living in Julfa, an Armenian
village close to Ispahan, which had been for divers reasons made
the headquarters of the Persian Telegraph Department in that place,
I was called upon by a great personage, the farmer of the taxes, a
Persian, one Rahim Khan.
After the usual compliments, he remarked, in conversation, that “I
must be very glad to live in so holy a place as Julfa. Full, too, of
churches.”
I demurred.
“But amidst your co-religionists, men whom you so much revere.”
This was too much. I told him that “we could not respect the
Armenians, but that we pitied them for the many years of oppression
they had undergone, which probably had brought out the bad points
in their characters.”
He would not be denied. “But you revere them?” he persisted.
“Quite the contrary.”
He burst into a laugh. “Ah! dogs, and sons of dogs as they are,” he
replied; “only the other day one of them told me, on my
congratulating him on the presence of their protectors, the English—
for you know, sahib, before the Feringhis came, they were as are
now the Jews—that they were not complimented, but rather the
Europeans; for, said the dog, ‘we are to them what your Syuds
(descendants of the prophet) are to you, noble sir’—in fact, holy
men.”
This anecdote is characteristic of the Armenian.
The Hamadan Armenian is brighter and more civilised than his
Ispahan confrère, his frequent journeyings to Russia having
sharpened him, while, there being only two priests in the place, he is
not bigoted. He has adopted the manners and dress of the Persian,
also his language, and is so far less exposed to annoyance by the
reigning people; in fact, in Hamadan he is not looked on or treated
as an outcast; while in Julfa the national dress, specially apparent in
the female attire, the national language, and their ignorance and lack
of politeness, make them a people apart.
The gist of the matter is, that in Hamadan and its environs, the
Armenian is simply a Persian, not a Mahommedan; while in Julfa he
is an Armenian of the Armenians; “and the Jews have no dealings
with the Samaritans.”
As to the Jews, their position is terrible. Probably in no country in
the world are they treated worse than in Persia. Beaten, despised,
and oppressed, cursed even by slaves and children, they yet
manage to exist, earning their living as musicians, dancers, singers,
jewellers, silver- and gold-smiths, midwives, makers and sellers of
wine and spirits. When anything very filthy is to be done a Jew is
sent for.
 CHAPTER VII.
HAMADAN.

Tomb of Esther and Mordecai—Spurious coins—Treasure-finding—Interest—A

gunge—Oppression—A cautious finder—Yari Khan—We become treasure
seekers—We find—Our cook—Toffee—Pole-buying—Modakel—I am nearly
caught—A mad dog—Rioters punished—Murder of the innocents.

Hamadan has no show place save the shrines of Esther and

Mordecai. A poor-looking, blue-tiled dome or “gōmbeza,” some fifty
feet in height, surmounts the shrine, and covers the tombs
themselves; the rest of the building is in red brick, in many places
mudded over. It presents the appearance of an ordinary minor
shrine. In the outer chamber is nothing remarkable. A low door leads
to another apartment by a passage; on crawling through this inner
passage, which can only be done with considerable discomfort,
almost on hands and knees, one enters a vaulted chamber, floored
with common blue tiles. There is no splendour here, and nothing to
attract the cupidity of the Persians.
In one corner lay a heap of common “cherragh,” or oil lamps of
burnt clay, covered with blue glaze, such as are used by the poor.
They are on the same principle as the classic lamp, a reservoir for
the oil or fat, with a projection in which lies the wick of twisted cotton
or rag; these lamps will give a dull, smoky light for some hours
without trimming. Our guides, two evil-looking and squalid Jews,
informed us that twice a year the place was illuminated. In the centre
of the apartment stood two wooden arks, almost devoid of ornament,
but of considerable age; these were thickly sprinkled with small
pieces of paper, on which were inscriptions in the Hebrew character,
the paper being stuck on as is a label. Our guides could only tell us
that pious Jewish pilgrims were in the habit of affixing these to the
arks. We could not even ascertain which was the tomb of Esther and
which that of Mordecai. The arks were shaped like dog-kennels, and
had a slightly ornamented pinnacle of wood at either extremity of
their roofs. The guides declined to allow Pierson to make a drawing
of them; but I fancy this was merely done to extract a further gratuity.
Nothing else was in the place save a poor and much-thumbed copy
of the Jewish Scriptures, quite modern and in the book form.
When we left the tomb, after having gratified the two Jews, one
produced from his pocket a large bag of what appeared to be ancient
coins, both copper and silver. We examined these, and I was
anxious to make a purchase; but Pierson assured me that they were
spurious. And the Jew, after many protestations, acknowledged that
they were so, with the exception of a few coins of Alexander the
Great, with the head in high relief; and Sassanian coins of various
monarchs, on the reverse of which were always represented figures
and an altar (of a fire temple). These two sorts of coin are so
common in Persia as to be absolutely worth merely their weight in
silver, and the coins of the Sassanian monarchs are constantly being
found in crocks.
Treasure-finding in Persia is a frequent thing, and is easily to be
accounted for in a country where the bankers are simply money-
changers, and there is a danger of being a mark for the oppressor, in
being thought a rich man. The only way to invest money is in land or
houses; either of these methods are subject to the same objection,
the owner is known to be a man of property; and unless he can buy
protection is subject to exactions and extortions innumerable.
Burying or secreting remains; for a good Mussulman will not lend his
money at interest, though many who are not strict do so, the current
rate of interest among merchants being twelve per cent. per annum,
paid monthly; while, where there is risk at all, or the loan is given
without full security, twenty-five to forty per cent. is often exacted.
Ruins of all sorts abound in every part of Persia, and these ruins
are constantly being either levelled for cultivation, the earth being
valued as a fertiliser (they are many of them of mud), or taken down
and removed in donkey-loads for the sake of the old burnt bricks,
which it is found practically cheaper to obtain in this manner than to
make and burn; for an old brick is more valuable to the builder, being
always a good brick, than the new one, which is often small and
worthless, except for ornamental facings of decorative brickwork—an
art in which the Persians, particularly in Shiraz, have attained a great
proficiency, but which, from the poverty of the country, and the less
substantial mode of building practised on that account in the present
day, is rapidly dying out.
In these various operations the discovery of a “gunge,” or treasure,
is not infrequent, although such a find is not always a very profitable
transaction for the finder. I have known three such instances.
One occurred at a place called Bonaat, in the province of Fars,
some five stages from Shiraz. The finder was a man of learning, who
had a house and a few acres of land at this place. He had mostly
lived at Baghdad, where he had been well educated, but, on his
marriage, bought the little estate at Bonaat.
He found one day in the mud wall of his house, a very old one
which he was rebuilding, five jars full of coin. He sent away the
workmen, but not before some of them were aware of the discovery,
and at once proceeded to bury the treasure (of the truth of this story
there is no doubt). Two or three days after this, a messenger from
the owner of the greater part of the country in the neighbourhood
arrived, and he proceeded to demand the whole of the treasure-
trove; he gave no good reason, simply saying that his master meant
to have it. The finder tried to make terms with the man, but,
unfortunately, he had no means of bribing him but with the actual
coins found, which the messenger was anxious but afraid to accept.
Taking possession of all the contents of one jar, which my
acquaintance with many protests placed at his disposal, the great
man’s retainer produced a written order for the man to accompany
him to Shiraz, and, putting two men in charge of the house and the
rest of the treasure, the poor fellow’s wife, child, and servant being
sent off to a neighbour’s without ceremony, they started at once for
the residence of the man in power at that place. The end of the
matter was, that the contents of all five jars went to this grandee,
while nothing remained to the unhappy finder but the suspicion of his
having secreted a still greater treasure, and he went about in fear of
his life, frequent demands being made for the supposed balance still
hidden. In disgust he sold his house and land for a trifle, and went to
Bushire, where, under the shadow of the British Residency, he was
safe from further troubles. I never got other details than this, but I am
in a position to vouch for their truth.
Another case was that of a villager who found a treasure of coin in
the ruins of a mud village close to Ispahan. He, luckily for himself,
was alone, and managed to transport the whole amount, little by
little, to a place of safety. Shortly after this he set out, as a poor man,
to walk the pilgrimage to Mecca. This was sufficient and valid excuse
for a disappearance for two years. This time he wisely employed in
the safe investment of the amount. He went in rags, he returned in
comparative affluence; and though often accused of the crime of
having discovered a treasure, he wisely denied it; and having
secured by a handsome payment the protection of a local magnate,
whom he had, doubtless, to heavily subsidise each year, he
remained a wealthy man, and will probably be allowed to die in his
bed.
The last case was that of a peasant of the neighbourhood of
Zinjan, and occurred within the last five years. It was reported to the
local governor that a peasant named Yari was in the habit of selling
ingots of gold to the Jews of Zinjan at a rate considerably below the
market price; the governor seized the man, searched his house,
finding a considerable quantity of gold in ingots therein, and, as the
matter had now become public, reported the whole affair to Teheran,
with a statement that the fellow had discovered a gold-mine, or found
“the treasure of King Darius,” or the way to make gold!
This “treasure of King Darius” is a legendary myth that is
constantly occurring to the minds of the inflammable Persians. An
order came to take the man at once to the capital, but he simply
denied either the treasure or the mine, stating that he had found a
few ingots, and sold them gradually. But the evidence pointed
another way, for the appliances for fusing the metal, of a rough
description, were found in his house, and what could an obscure
villager know of fusing gold?
The man remained a long time in prison in Teheran, and it is
stated on the best authority that means were employed to cause him
to speak, which are common in the East, but are happily no longer in
use in Europe (save, it is said, in Turkey).
At last he confided to his jailers that he had discovered a gold-
mine in the hills; the excitement was intense, he received at once a
dress of honour and the title of Khan, equivalent to our knighthood—
i. e. it converts a nobody into a somebody. And Yari Khan, carefully
guarded and treated with consideration, was taken to Zinjan that he
might point out the site of the mine, for his descriptions, though very
graphic, had not enabled the searchers to find it. On his arrival he
endeavoured by an opportune illness to put off the evil day, but as
finding the mine was of more importance to the authorities than the
health of a villager, he was soon conveyed to the mountains where
he had carefully indicated its situation. But he could not or would not
find it. Free recourse was had to the bastinado, but no mine. The
man was cast into prison, and doubtless, unless ere this he is dead,
or has confessed the source of his wealth, or found means to
administer a bribe, he is still in prison on the lowest diet and a
frequent administration of stick, even if other and nameless horrors
be not resorted to.
Pierson told me that one of the occupations of the Hamadan Jews
is the manufacture of the so-called ancient coins; these are sent in
large quantities to Baghdad, Teheran, Ispahan, and Constantinople,
and sold there to the unsuspicious or ignorant European. He told me,
too, that Hamadan has a great reputation for the finding of real
antiquities, and that many of the Jews actually paid a small sum for
the privilege of searching the ground in certain spots, taking the
chance of a find or a blank day.
A Jew readily acceded to the proposal that he and two labourers
should be paid for their time, and a few kerans should be given by us
for permission to dig, and the intrinsic value of any object in the
precious metals handed over to him, the objects themselves being
ours.
A few days after, the Jew came to show us the place, some miles
from the town where the search was taking place. Two labourers dug
some foot of the surface earth away in clods and piled it in heaps.
The Jew watched the labourers, and we watched the Jew. After they
had uncovered the whole of the ten yards square, which it was
agreed that we should dig, the labourers set to to sift it through a
coarse sieve, but nothing was found; a second sifting, however,
which we noticed that the Jew watched with much more curiosity
than the first, produced four small cubes of gold; they were about
one-third of an inch cube, and were composed of tiny beads of pure
gold soldered together, a hole being left in two of the opposite sides
for stringing; they were hollow, and about two pounds in value (the
four). We found only these, and they were too few to form an
ornament, though doubtless real relics of ancient Ecbatana. So we
rewarded our Jew, and dug no more for hidden treasure, or rather
antiquities.
I frequently laugh at our housekeeping experiences in those early
days. We paid our cook ten kerans a day each for our messing, but
every little extra was debited to us with stern accuracy; as, one day
we made a pound of toffee, and at the month’s end were charged,
“For making the Feringhi sweetmeat, fifteen shillings!” These items
and the pay of my servants and my horse-keep made me fear that I
should not be able to live on my pay; but I soon found that the cook
was simply charging us four times the cost of our living. As Pierson
was now leaving for Teheran, I was able to manage with a humbler
cook on a less extravagant scale, and live better.
An amusing instance of the inveterate habit of making modakel
now occurred prior to Pierson’s departure. In the early days of the
Telegraph Department in Persia the line was supported by wooden
poles, generally poplar, and much trouble was found in buying these.
It would have been impossible for a European to buy them at all, and
as the natives had to be employed, it taxed all Pierson’s ingenuity to
prevent wholesale robbery taking place. The poles had to be paid
for, and the buyer and seller generally managed to put their heads
together to make the “Dowlet Ingleez” (English Government) pay a
very fancy price.
Some poles were suddenly very urgently required, and the
Sarhang or Colonel, the chief of the officials of the Persian office of
the telegraph in Hamadan, the moonshee[12] or interpreter, a
member of our staff, a native of Baghdad, and Pierson’s head-
servant or nazir, were sent together to buy poles to the tune of
kerans two thousand four hundred, in the villages in the
neighbourhood, on the principle that each would act as a check on
the other. These gentry divided their money into two portions, half to
be profit and half to buy poles.
The poles were purchased; but when they returned, the moonshee
desired an interview with Pierson.
After pointing out his own integrity and high sense of honour (this
man’s English was peculiar; it had been acquired of the sailors in
Baghdad, and was freely interlarded with oaths; but, worst of all, he
had never learnt the use of the words very, more, and most,
substituting the more homely expression which is used by Anglo-
Saxons for sanguinary, as a word meaning all three; his conversation
was thus less choice than forcible), he communicated to Pierson that
half of the sum said to be expended had been set aside as plunder,
but that he was no party to such arrangement. When I heard of the
matter I set it down to disinterested virtue, but Pierson, whose
experience of the Oriental was larger than mine, determined to sift
the matter.
Hardly had the moonshee retired than the nazir requested a
private interview, and stated that he too felt impelled by virtuous
indignation to discover to his master the wicked conspiracy of the
Colonel and the moonshee, who had agreed to divide the hundred
and twenty tomans illicitly gained into three shares, making forty for
each; but that the Colonel suggested to him that it would be better to
give the moonshee nothing, which would leave them, the sarhang
and himself, sixty each.
“Of course, I report the affair to the sahib, and he will use his
discretion,” he said. The next morning Pierson sent for the Colonel,
who denied the whole matter, produced receipts duly sealed for the
payment of the whole two thousand four hundred kerans, and
indignantly protested his honesty: “Comme officier Persan—décoré
par sa Majesté!” (he spoke French fluently.) On an inquiry being
instituted, it came out that the original idea was, as the moonshee
said, to divide the plunder into three shares. Then, as the nazir said,
into two—hence the honesty of the moonshee; and at last the
Colonel resolved to keep the whole himself, which accounted for the
virtue of the nazir. The money was disgorged, and the chief of the
Persian Telegraph in Teheran fined his subordinate in Hamadan forty
pounds, or one hundred tomans. So there is not always, in Persia at
least, “Honour among thieves.”
Pierson left for Teheran, and I was alone in Hamadan with no one
to speak to but the two corporals of engineers, who were the office
staff, and the two others, who were inspectors of the line. I was then
very ardent, and pushed my dispensary work, having many and
interesting cases, and finding my patients, especially among the
poor, increasing in number. Ramazan was gayer in his attire than
ever, and my knowledge of the colloquial increased rapidly. I had,
however, to freely have recourse to pantomime, as my only
interpreter, the moonshee, now Pierson was away, seldom came
near me.
But I had, without knowing it, raised up enemies among the native
doctors. I found that, if I could not get money from my better-class
patients, I could get experience; and I had commenced a system of
seeing every one gratuitously. Of course I had no lack of patients,
but the effect was, that the consulting-rooms of the native doctors
were emptied, as the Persians would always prefer gratuitous physic
with the additional “tamasha” (show) of a European doctor, to paying
those who practised medicine strictly as taught by Aflatoon (Plato),
Abu Senna (Avicenna), Galenus (Galen), and Pocrat (Hippocrates).
This state of things was naturally intolerable to the profession in
Hamadan, and my pseudo-friend, the Hakim-bashi, with the rest of
his brethren, took steps to frighten me, in order to make me cease
my obnoxious system.
I had been sitting quietly in the courtyard when my servant ran in
to say that there was a mob at the door. I went on the roof and found
it was so; some two hundred ragamuffins were assembled; they
hooted me, and said a good deal evidently of an uncomplimentary
nature. After a while stones began to come. I returned with a gun,
which I valiantly discharged over their heads, shouting “Bero!” (“Be
off;”) for I felt that, if I did not get rid of the small mob, a big one
would soon form, at whose hands I should fare badly. However, the
gun effectually frightened the fellows off, and the space outside my
door was cleared. I got on my horse to go to the telegraph-office and
seek advice. Off I started, accompanied by my servants (three) and
all Pierson’s dogs.
I noticed on the road that one of these dogs behaved in an
eccentric manner, attacking several people; but I was too occupied
and excited by my own affairs to take much notice. On getting to the
office, I at once sent a message to the director in Teheran, and his
promptitude prevented any further unpleasantness to me. Orders
came by wire to the Governor of Hamadan to punish the rioters the
next morning; and ere I left the office a guard of soldiers (at the
instance of our British Agent in Hamadan, who had heard of the
affair) was sent to escort me to my house, four sentries being placed
to relieve guard at my door.
I felt now that all was safe, and the only result was that my friend
the Hakim-bashi, who got up the row, was severely bastinadoed by
the Governor.
On my return to the house I noticed the very extraordinary
behaviour of “Jill,” a black setter, one of a pair (“Jack” and “Jill”)
belonging to Pierson; she snapped and bit, emitting a peculiar cry,
and showed signs of rabies. I shut her up and made inquiries; it
appeared that she, an unusually quiet and playful dog generally, had
bitten every dog in the house. These were a very fine Arab
greyhound and two young bull-terriers of Pierson’s, a Persian
greyhound of my own, and a little white dog owned by the cook—for
Persians will often own and pet a small, long-haired dog.
Undoubtedly all had been bitten.
There was nothing for it but (Jill being now certainly rabid, for I had
watched her, and she was eating earth and uttering the special cry
which, once heard, can never be forgotten) to destroy them all; this I
had done, and the cook wept bitterly, but assented to the measure. It
is sad, in such a place as Persia, to lose all one’s four-footed friends
at one fell swoop; but so it was, and thus ended an exciting day. I
have never seen, except on this occasion, a rabid dog in Persia; and
as it is a country where water is very scarce, it shows that want of
water can have little to do with causing rabies. I never either saw or
heard of a case of hydrophobia in Persia.
 CHAPTER VIII.
HAMADAN.

Antelope—Hunting and hawking—Shooting from the saddle—Thief-catching—The

prince offers his services as head-servant—Our hunting party—The prince
takes the honours—Kabobs—A provincial grandee—His stud—Quail-shooting
—A relative of the king—Persian dinner—Musicians and singers—Parlour
magic—The anderūn—Cucumber-jam—Persian home-life—Grateful
Armenians—Lizards—Talking lark—Pigeon-flying—Fantails—Pigeons’
ornaments—Immorality of pigeon-flying—Card-playing—Chess—Games—
Wrestling—Pehliwans—Gymnastics.

The “poor prince,” Abu Seif Mirza, called one day and suggested
our going the next morning to hunt antelope, promising to show us
sport. When posting from Teheran we had seen several herds of
antelope, generally five or six animals together; and on one
occasion, as I have noted, a string had suddenly crossed the road
within ten yards of us—a thing very unusual, and which never
occurred to me since. The hunting of the antelope is a favourite
pastime among the grandees of Persia, and is also practised by the
villagers, who will frequently get a pot-shot from behind a stone
when the animals visit their drinking-places. They are either pursued
with relays of dogs, shot from the saddle, or, rarely, hawked with a
specially large kind of falcon, who always succeeds in stopping them
till the dogs pull them down. Our plan was the second one. After
drinking tea, we started one afternoon and marched out some seven
farsakhs into a sandy wilderness; the shah-zadeh (or prince), who
was a well-known shikari, shooting several small birds from the
saddle while at full gallop, to show his skill.
Abu Seif Mirza, after holding small offices at the courts of the
different Governors of Hamadan, such as mirshikar (or chief
huntsman), ser-cashikji-bashi (or chief of the guard), etc., had given
up the life of a courtier, and tried to support himself by agriculture;
this did not answer, for the prince, though a sober man, was a
spendthrift. He told us an anecdote, which we found on inquiry to be
quite correct.
On one occasion the Governor of Hamadan sent for him, and
offered him a present of forty pounds and a dress of honour if he
would rid the environs of the town of a certain highway-robber. The
grandson of a king did not hesitate, and set about the matter in a
business-like way.
“My great object,” said he, “was to obtain the reward intact, and so
the only thing was to do the job myself, as going out in a party in
search of the robber would have been expensive, and he would have
got wind of it and kept out of the way. I consequently put on the
dress of a substantial villager, disguised myself as a man of the pen
by a big turban and huge slippers down at heel, mounted a donkey
provided with a big pair of full saddle-bags, and started for the
neighbourhood where the robber carried on his trade. At the first
stage I purposely started after all other travellers had left, so as to
make myself a conspicuous mark for attack, and as I apparently
carried no weapons, I seemed, doubtless, an easy prey.
“On getting some half-way to the village to which I was
proceeding, I was suddenly pounced upon by two men armed to the
teeth, who rushed out from behind a ruined wall and covered me
with their guns. I placed my donkey whom I was driving between us,
and immediately simulated abject fear. ‘Amān, amān!’ (‘Mercy,
mercy!’) ‘Oh, masters!’ I cried out; ‘I am a poor priest.’
“The men, seeing me apparently unarmed, lowered their guns and
demanded my money; with many protestations I thrust each hand
into the long pockets of my outer garments, and whipping out a
brace of pistols before they had time to raise their weapons, I had
shot one through the heart, and now rushed on the other, ordering
him to drop his gun or I would fire; he was too astonished to resist. I
bound him firmly, and informing him that on the first attempt to
escape I should either hamstring or shoot him, I proceeded to reload
my discharged pistol. I now searched them both, but only found a
few kerans on them. I laid the dead man across my donkey—he it
was on whom the price had been set; I shook the priming out of their
guns and removed the flints, and we got safely back to the
caravanserai from which I had started. The next morning I brought
my prisoner and the dead man into Hamadan. Of course the fellow
was duly executed, but the dog of a Governor never gave me
anything but a colt worth some fifty kerans—a bad business, sahib;
and though the catching the thieves did not cost me much, on other
occasions I didn’t get off so cheaply.” Here he showed us several
scars of sword-wounds.
The prince now changed the subject to that of servants.
Addressing Pierson, he asked him what wages he gave his head-
man (nazir).
Pierson told him he gave two pounds a month.
“And he robs you, I suppose?”
“Of course.”
“Why not engage an intelligent and honest man?”
“You know, Prince, I can’t find such a man in Persia.”
“Don’t call me ‘Prince,’” he said. “A man so poor as I am should do
as I have done and drop the title; I only call myself ‘Khan’”—and here
the tears were in his eyes—“till—till I can find myself in bread and my
horse in food. Let me see; five tomans a month, the usual modakel—
say ten tomans, my commission say twenty tomans; thirty-five
tomans—a noble position! try me.”
Pierson was amused, and treated the matter as a joke.
“No,” said the prince, “it is real earnest. I will come to you the day
after to-morrow.”
Pierson pointed out that it was impossible.
“I can’t see it,” said the prince; “in Persia the servants of the king
may attain the highest offices of the State; there is no degradation in
being a servant. What is the chief vizier but the king’s head-
servant?”
 The matter passed over, and Pierson did not engage a King of
Persia’s grandson as his domestic.
We put up for the night in a village, and were sufficiently
comfortable. At two a.m. we rose, and started at three. Abu Seif
Khan (as I may now call him, for so he desired to be addressed)
directed us to load with slugs, which he declared much more
favourable than a bullet, and gave us his directions, which Pierson
explained to me. They were, first, that it is no use to follow an
antelope unless he is hit; second, to be sure not to fire until near
enough; third, to keep our eyes open, and note the animals ere they
could see us. The antelope, the prince told us, always make straight
for their lairs, avoiding the mountains, and the only way to get a shot
is to attempt to cross their track, and to fire at the point where the
animal is actually nearest. He particularly warned us as to the futility
of following the animal, unless wounded, and definitely instructed us
always to fire on the slightest chance, and to keep the horse at his
greatest speed when doing so, “as unless he is really going ventre à
terre it is impossible to attain accuracy. If you do make a hit, follow
the beast as long as you can see him, then follow his track if you can
find it.”
It was now nearly dawn, and we were going straight for a range of
low hills, and as yet had seen nothing. Our Nimrod now stopped, and
directed our two grooms to continue slowly straight towards the hills,
now three miles off, in order to disturb the animals, while we turned
our horses’ heads to a direction nearly parallel with the range, but
tending towards it, going at an amble.
Every now and then we saw groups of antelope in the distance, on
the plain on our right, but nothing between us and the hills. Abu Seif
Khan explained that to follow these would be hopeless, and that our
chance was that the servants, with whom were the dogs, would put
something up, and that we should attempt to head them, in which we
should certainly fail, but that we should have a chance for a shot. All
the dogs had been sent with the servants except the Persian’s,
which, though of strange appearance, could both, so the prince said,
hunt by sight and scent, and would find an antelope if we had the
luck to wound one.
 The ground was good going, a plain of sand and gravel, a few
loose stones lying about, and a rock or two protruding occasionally;
the whole having a greenish tinge from the tufts of young spring
grass growing here and there, and as yet undried by the fierce sun:
patches of thorn-bushes (bhuta) were frequent, but there was no
cover of any kind. The sun now rose, and the few antelope we had
seen, which before had appeared black, now became white, but they
were all on the open plain and quite out of our reach, of which they
seemed well aware, as they continued grazing.
Our leader adjured us to keep a sharp look-out, and kept himself
carefully watching the space between the hills and us, more
especially in our rear.
At last we saw four rapidly moving spots: to dash for the hills was
the work of a moment. The spots on our left became galloping
antelope. How we thirsted for their blood, and we raced apparently
with them as to who should attain first a point half-way between us
and the hills. On they came, and on we went; our horses needed no
stimulus, our guns were on full cock. Pierson, who had borne too
much to the left, came near them first, or rather, they came near him,
for they seemed to fly. He did not raise his gun.
Now was my turn. I was, I fancy, some hundred or perhaps ninety
yards from the animals, and I should have fired as they crossed me,
bearing to my left, and thus had them broad-side on, but I forgot the
Persian’s caution; my horse was going well, and I thought I must get
nearer. I bore to my right and followed; but, alas! I found my “Senna”
seemed, having made a supreme effort, to die away; the antelope
were doubtless well out of range when I fired my two barrels, without
effect of course.
I did not attempt to reload, but watched the prince, who with loud
cries had kept well to the right, fire first one barrel and then the other;
at the second discharge the third antelope swerved, but kept on his
course, and the animals were soon out of sight, Abu Seif Khan
tearing after them in hot pursuit, loading as he went. Pierson now
galloped up, and we cantered after the prince, although we were
doubtful if his eager pursuit was aught but mere bounce. But, no;
after a smart canter of about two miles, we saw the Persian stop
behind a low sandhill, dismount, look carefully to his gun, ramming
down his charge again for precaution’s sake, and flinging off his
huge, loose riding-boots and his heavy coat, he commenced
climbing the mound, crouching as he went. He had previously by a
gesture warned us to remain where we were.
As soon as he reached the top of the mound he fired and
disappeared on the other side. We cantered up, and found him
cutting the throat of a fine buck ahū (antelope). He now set to in a
sportsman-like manner to disembowel the animal, and it was soon
slung en croupe on his horse.
It appeared that his first shot was unsuccessful, but the second
had injured the fore-leg of one of the herd. As he instantly followed,
he noticed that one lagged a little behind, and that four passed
behind the sandhill but only three reappeared. The sequel we had
seen.
The sun was now high, and it was close on eight; we marched
slowly back to the village and breakfasted on antelope kabobs; that
is to say, small lumps of meat of the size of a half walnut skewered in
the usual manner—of a piece of meat, a shred of onion, a piece of
liver, a shred of onion, a piece of kidney, and so on; they were
impaled on a long skewer and turned rapidly over a fierce fire of
wood-ashes until cooked; and very tender they were.
The Persians always cook an animal before it is yet cold, and thus
ensure tenderness, otherwise antelope-meat must hang ten days to
be eatable, for we do not boil venison as they do in Persia.
We started from the village at midnight, and marched till nine a.m.,
arriving at a large village by a river, called Mahrand, thirty miles from
Hamadan, the owner of which, Mahommed Houssein Khan,
Mahrandi, had invited us to visit him for a few days; we were to hunt
the antelope and have some quail-shooting. Our host, a great friend
of Pierson’s, was an enormous man of great wealth, whose life was
a harmless one, passed generally in his own village, and he was
liked by his acquaintances, and adored by his ryots (villagers).
Simple-minded in the extreme, he had, save a fondness for the