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Water and Climate Change
Water and Climate Change
Sustainable Development, Environmental
and Policy Issues
Edited by
Trevor M. Letcher
School of Chemistry, University of KwaZulu-Natal,
Durban, South Africa
Elsevier
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Contents
List of contributors ..............................................................................................xvii

Preface.................................................................................................................xix
Section A Introduction ..................................................................................... 1

Chapter 1: Introduction: water, the vital chemical .................................................... 3
Trevor M. Letcher
1.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................... 3
1.2 The unique chemical properties of water ............................................................... 4
1.2.1 The polar nature of water ............................................................................4
1.2.2 The high enthalpy of vaporization of water ................................................4
1.2.3 The high heat capacity of water ..................................................................5
1.2.4 The anomalous density of frozen water.......................................................5
1.2.5 Water, the “universal” solvent ....................................................................6
1.2.6 Acid base property ....................................................................................7
1.2.7 High surface tension, low viscosity, and cohesive and adhesive
properties ....................................................................................................7
1.3 Water and climate change ...................................................................................... 8
1.4 The origin of water on Earth.................................................................................. 9
1.4.1 The water cycle...........................................................................................9
1.5 The scarcity of water ........................................................................................... 10
1.6 Conclusions ......................................................................................................... 10
References ................................................................................................................... 10
Chapter 2: The root causes of climate change and the role played by water ............. 13
Trevor M. Letcher
2.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................... 13
v
vi Contents
2.2 Water and CO2 and the greenhouse effect ........................................................... 14

2.3 The main greenhouse gases of anthropogenic origin ............................................ 16
2.4 Feedback mechanisms and tipping points ............................................................ 18
2.5 Where are we in solving the problem of global heating? ..................................... 19
2.6 Solutions .............................................................................................................. 22
2.7 Conclusion ........................................................................................................... 25
References ................................................................................................................... 25
Chapter 3: Water resource planning and climate change ........................................ 27

Rabee Rustum, Adebayo J. Adeloye and Quan Dau
3.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................... 27
3.2 Climate change and water budget components..................................................... 28
3.3 Water reservoirs ................................................................................................... 29
3.3.1 Indices of reservoir performance ...............................................................30
3.3.2 Reservoir operation ...................................................................................31
3.3.3 Climate change effect on reservoir performance in the Indus Basin ..........32
3.4 Conclusions ......................................................................................................... 38
References ................................................................................................................... 38
Chapter 4: Potential impacts of climate change on biogeochemical cycling................ 41

Daniel A. Vallero
4.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................... 41
4.2 Thermodynamics of cycling ................................................................................. 42
4.3 Partitioning .......................................................................................................... 45
4.3.1 Dissolution ................................................................................................45
4.3.2 Sorption ....................................................................................................47
4.4 Biochemodynamics .............................................................................................. 49
4.5 Biogeochemistry of oxygen in water.................................................................... 55
4.6 The carbon cycle and greenhouse effect .............................................................. 57
4.7 Conclusions ......................................................................................................... 59
References ................................................................................................................... 59
Further reading............................................................................................................. 62
Section B Sustainable development and environmental issues .................. 63

Chapter 5: Water quality engineering: physical, chemical, and biological
treatment for a sustainable future ....................................................... 65
Daniel A. Vallero
5.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................... 65
Contents vii
5.2 Water quality ..................................................................................................... 66

5.3 Chemical processes ............................................................................................ 69
5.4 Wastewater treatment......................................................................................... 73
5.5 Water treatment to manage risks ........................................................................ 79
5.6 Disposal of sludge.............................................................................................. 80
5.7 Mixed reactors ................................................................................................... 82
5.8 Aerobic reactors ................................................................................................. 83
5.9 Anaerobic reactors ............................................................................................. 86
5.10 Treating contaminated ground water .................................................................. 89
5.11 Conclusions ....................................................................................................... 92
References ................................................................................................................... 92
Chapter 6: Urban water supplies in developing countries with a focus on

climate change .................................................................................... 95
Josephine Treacy
6.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................... 95
6.2 Urbanization in developing countries ................................................................... 97
6.3 Urban water supplies ........................................................................................... 97
6.3.1 Source waters ............................................................................................99
6.3.2 Other water sources innovative needs .....................................................100
6.3.3 Urban water supplies as a resource .........................................................101
6.3.4 Centralized and noncentralized water supplies ........................................101
6.4 Climate change challenges and urban waters ..................................................... 102
6.4.1 Water Supplies and demand ....................................................................103
6.5 Waste management and climate change and its impact on urban water ............. 104
6.6 Opportunities and global initiatives.................................................................... 104
6.6.1 Adaptation and mitigation .......................................................................105
6.6.2 Understanding the water baseline ............................................................105
6.6.3 Environmental impact modeling risk ......................................................105
6.7 Water security.................................................................................................... 106
6.7.1 Policy makers .........................................................................................106
6.8 Conclusions ....................................................................................................... 107
References ................................................................................................................. 109
Further reading........................................................................................................... 112
Chapter 7: Water purity and sustainable water treatment systems for

developing countries ...........................................................................115
Joanne Mac Mahon
7.1 Introduction: access to clean water in developing countries ............................... 115
viii Contents
7.2 Environmental challenges to water purity in developing countries..................... 118

7.3 WHO guidelines for water purity ....................................................................... 120
7.3.1 Microbial guidelines ...............................................................................120
7.3.2 Chemical guidelines ................................................................................121
7.3.3 Radiological guidelines ...........................................................................122
7.3.4 Acceptability: taste, odor, appearance .....................................................122
7.3.5 Other considerations ...............................................................................122
7.4 Water supply sources used in developing countries ........................................... 123
7.5 Water treatment systems used in developing countries ...................................... 124
7.5.1 Centralized water treatment systems .......................................................124
7.5.2 Decentralized water treatment systems....................................................126
7.5.3 Water Safety Plans ..................................................................................126
7.5.4 Commonly used water treatment methods...............................................128
7.5.5 Water storage ..........................................................................................132
7.6 Sustainable water management systems ............................................................. 133
7.7 Conclusions ....................................................................................................... 135
References ................................................................................................................. 136
Chapter 8: Water purification techniques for the developing world ........................145

Aniruddha B. Pandit and Jyoti Kishen Kumar
8.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................... 145
8.2 Water purification methodologies .................................................................... 147
8.3 Solar treatment and its intensification .............................................................. 147
8.4 Water disinfection by boiling ........................................................................... 150
8.5 Chemical treatment .......................................................................................... 152
8.6 Filtration techniques......................................................................................... 154
8.6.1 Traditional filtration methods ................................................................ 154
8.6.2 Recent advances/modifications in traditional filtration methods ............ 156
8.6.3 Hybrid filtration methods ...................................................................... 158
8.7 Natural treatment methods ............................................................................... 159
8.8 Cavitation-based water hand pumps ................................................................. 160
8.9 Sustainable disinfection of harvested rainwater ................................................ 163
8.10 Recent research on emerging methods ............................................................. 166
8.10.1 Filtration ............................................................................................. 166
8.10.2 Solar disinfection ................................................................................ 166
8.10.3 Hybrid techniques ............................................................................... 167
8.11 Impact of Covid 19 pandemic on the water sector in developing countries...... 168
8.12 Comparison of various purification techniques ................................................ 170
8.13 Conclusions ..................................................................................................... 173
Contents ix
8.14 Recommendations for future work ................................................................... 174

References ................................................................................................................. 174
Chapter 9: Plastic pollution in waterways and in the oceans ..................................179

Lei Mai, Hui He and Eddy Y. Zeng
9.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................... 179
9.2 Global marine plastic pollution .......................................................................... 180
9.2.1 Sources of marine plastic debris..............................................................180
9.2.2 Distribution of microplastics in the marine environment .........................182
9.3 Plastic pollution in rivers ................................................................................... 183
9.3.1 Distribution of plastics in global rivers ...................................................183
9.3.2 Riverine transport of microplastics to coastal oceans/seas.......................187
9.4 Riverine plastic outflows ................................................................................... 188
9.4.1 Field measured riverine microplastic outflows ........................................188
9.4.2 Comparison of riverine plastic outflows between measurements
and model estimates ................................................................................190
References ................................................................................................................. 192
Chapter 10: Desalination and sustainability ........................................................197

Anju Vijayan Nair and Veera Gnaneswar Gude
10.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................... 197
10.2 Description of desalination processes ............................................................... 198
10.2.1 Solar stills ........................................................................................... 198
10.2.2 Multi-stage flash desalination.............................................................. 199
10.2.3 Multi-effect distillation ....................................................................... 199
10.2.4 Vapor compression ............................................................................. 199
10.2.5 Energy efficiency of thermal desalination ........................................... 200
10.2.6 Reverse osmosis .................................................................................. 200
10.2.7 Membrane distillation ......................................................................... 201
10.3 Desalination and sustainability ......................................................................... 203
10.3.1 Environmental footprint ...................................................................... 203
10.3.2 Economics of desalination .................................................................. 205
10.3.3 Social aspects of desalination .............................................................. 206
10.4 Renewable energy integration .......................................................................... 207
10.4.1 Selection process of desalination process ............................................ 209
10.5 Future of sustainable desalination .................................................................... 210
10.5.1 Desalination at household level ........................................................... 210
10.5.2 Desalination at community or municipal scale .................................... 211
References ................................................................................................................. 212
x Contents
Chapter 11: Groundwater sustainability in a digital world....................................215

Ahmed S. Elshall, Ming Ye and Yongshan Wan
11.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................... 215
11.2 Groundwater sustainability............................................................................... 217
11.3 Digital groundwater ......................................................................................... 220
11.4 Internet of Things based data collection ......................................................... 221
11.5 Web-based data sharing ................................................................................... 222
11.6 Workflow for data processing .......................................................................... 225
11.7 Scenarios for data usage .................................................................................. 228
11.8 Perspectives of web-based groundwater platforms ........................................... 230
11.9 Disclaimer........................................................................................................ 233
Acknowledgments ...................................................................................................... 233
References ................................................................................................................. 234
Chapter 12: Economics of water productivity and scarcity in

irrigated agriculture ........................................................................241
James F. Booker
12.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................... 241
12.2 Productivity concepts as indicators .................................................................. 243
12.3 Production and scarcity in economics .............................................................. 248
12.4 Constructing water productivity indicators: physical and economic
considerations .................................................................................................. 249
12.4.1 Physical considerations ....................................................................... 250
12.4.2 Economic considerations ..................................................................... 251
12.4.3 Net water productivity ........................................................................ 252
12.5 Trends in water productivity ............................................................................ 253
12.5.1 Physical and economic water productivity trends ................................ 253
12.5.2 Economic net water productivity trends: value added,
optimization, and hydroeconomic models ........................................... 254
12.5.3 Other economic approaches to water productivity and efficiency........ 256
12.6 Conclusions ..................................................................................................... 257
References ................................................................................................................. 258
Chapter 13: Potential of municipal wastewater for resource recovery and reuse ....263
Manzoor Qadir
13.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................... 263
13.2 Wastewater as a water source .......................................................................... 264
13.3 Wastewater as a nutrient source ....................................................................... 265
Contents xi
13.4 Wastewater as an energy source ...................................................................... 268

13.5 Conclusions and prospects ............................................................................... 269
References ................................................................................................................. 270
Chapter 14: Sustainable freshwater management—the South African approach ....273

Oghenekaro Nelson Odume
14.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................... 273
14.2 The classification system and classification of water resources........................ 275
14.3 The determination of the reserve and resource quality objectives .................... 277
14.4 Reflections on the resource directed measure components using the
Vaal Barrage catchment in South Africa as a case study ................................. 278
14.5 Source directed controls ................................................................................... 287
14.6 Linking resource directed measure and source directed control
instruments for sustainable freshwater resources management ......................... 287
14.7 Conclusions ..................................................................................................... 290
References ................................................................................................................. 290
Chapter 15: Sustainable water management with a focus on climate change..........293

Thomas Shahady
15.1 Introduction and background............................................................................ 294
15.1.1 What is sustainable water management ............................................... 294
15.1.2 The central premise of climate change impacting water resources ...... 294
15.2 Impacts from climate change ........................................................................... 295
15.2.1 Changes to the water cycle ................................................................. 295
15.2.2 Changes in water storage .................................................................... 296
15.2.3 Changes in precipitation patterns ........................................................ 297
15.2.4 Changes to evapotranspiration rates .................................................... 298
15.2.5 Changes in hydraulic retention time .................................................... 298
15.2.6 Changes in pollutant loading and processing....................................... 298
15.3 Managing worsening concerns ......................................................................... 299
15.3.1 Eutrophication ..................................................................................... 300
15.3.2 Dead zones.......................................................................................... 300
15.3.3 Red tides ............................................................................................. 300
15.3.4 Flooding .............................................................................................. 301
15.3.5 Drought ............................................................................................... 302
15.3.6 Pollutants of emerging concern ........................................................... 302
15.4 Sustainable water management: a need for change .......................................... 304
15.4.1 Challenges to effective management ................................................... 304
xii Contents
15.4.2 Stream restoration ............................................................................... 305

15.4.3 Green infrastructure ............................................................................ 306
15.4.4 Dam removal and wetland creation ..................................................... 307
15.4.5 Stormwater management ..................................................................... 308
15.4.6 Sanitation ............................................................................................ 308
15.4.7 Sociopolitics and economics ............................................................... 309
15.4.8 Mitigation, protection, and ecological services.................................... 310
15.5 A sustainable water future ............................................................................... 310
References ................................................................................................................. 311
Chapter 16: Food-energy-water nexus and assessment models ..............................317

Anju Vijayan Nair and Veera Gnaneswar Gude
16.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................... 317
16.2 Assessment of food-energy-water nexus .......................................................... 318
16.3 Food-energy-water nexus model development ................................................. 319
16.3.1 WEF Nexus Tool 2.0 .......................................................................... 319
16.3.2 CLEWS............................................................................................... 320
16.3.3 WEF Nexus Rapid Appraisal Tool ...................................................... 320
16.3.4 MuSIASEM ........................................................................................ 320
16.3.5 Foreseer .............................................................................................. 320
16.3.6 WEAP-LEAP ...................................................................................... 321
16.4 Comparison of different models ....................................................................... 322
16.5 Applications of F-E-W nexus models .............................................................. 322
16.6 Future considerations ....................................................................................... 328
References ................................................................................................................. 329
Chapter 17: Emerging water pollutants ...............................................................331

Daniel A. Vallero
17.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................... 331
17.2 Dose-response relationships ............................................................................. 332
17.3 Uncertainty ...................................................................................................... 337
17.4 Conclusions ..................................................................................................... 339
References ................................................................................................................. 340
Chapter 18: Local representations of a changing climate ......................................343

Juan Baztan, Scott Bremer, Charlotte da Cunha, Anne De Rudder, Lionel Jaffre`s,
Bethany Jorgensen, Werner Krauß, Benedikt Marschütz, Didier Peeters,
Elisabeth Schøyen Jensen, Jean-Paul Vanderlinden, Arjan Wardekker and Zhiwei Zhu
18.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................... 344
Contents xiii
18.2 Local conditions of a changing climate ............................................................ 344

18.2.1 Bergen, Norway .................................................................................. 344
18.2.2 Brest, Kerourien, France ..................................................................... 345
18.2.3 Dordrecht, the Netherlands.................................................................. 346
18.2.4 Gulf of Morbihan, France ................................................................... 347
18.2.5 Jade Bay, Germany ............................................................................. 348
18.3 Art and science local representation processes by site and related challenges ........349
18.3.1 Bergen, Norway .................................................................................. 349
18.3.2 Brest, Kerourien, France ..................................................................... 349
18.3.3 Dordrecht, the Netherlands.................................................................. 351
18.3.4 Gulf of Morbihan, France ................................................................... 352
18.3.5 Jade Bay, Germany ............................................................................. 354
18.4 Metadata and dynamic mapping perspectives for local representations ............ 356
18.5 Lessons learned and final conclusions.............................................................. 358
18.5.1 Conclusions on local representations for codeveloping climate
services ............................................................................................... 359
18.5.2 Final conclusions ................................................................................ 360
References ................................................................................................................. 361
Chapter 19: Agricultural water pollution .............................................................365

Thomas Shahady
19.1 Introduction and background............................................................................ 365
19.1.1 Water consumption and contamination tied to agriculture................... 365
19.1.2 Pollutants ............................................................................................ 366
19.1.3 Land Use............................................................................................. 367
19.2 Pollution problems generated from agricultural practices ................................. 368
19.2.1 Biosolids and contamination ............................................................... 368
19.2.2 Fertilizers and eutrophication .............................................................. 369
19.2.3 Toxic contamination from pesticides................................................... 370
19.2.4 Bacterial contamination ...................................................................... 370
19.3 Shifting practices and climate change .............................................................. 372
19.3.1 Globalization and trade ....................................................................... 372
19.3.2 Climate change ................................................................................... 372
19.3.3 Land management (best management practices) ................................. 373
19.3.4 Emerging concerns .............................................................................. 373
19.4 Water pollution control .................................................................................... 374
19.4.1 Water quality ...................................................................................... 374
19.4.2 Best management practices ................................................................. 375
xiv Contents
19.4.3 Land management practices ................................................................ 375

19.4.4 Intensive management practices .......................................................... 376
19.5 Agriculture and a sustainable future ................................................................. 377
References ................................................................................................................. 377
Chapter 20: Environmental impacts on global water resources and poverty,

with a focus on climate change .........................................................383
Claudia Yazmı´n Ortega Montoya and Juan Carlos Tejeda González
20.1 Environmental impacts on national/regional water resources ........................... 384
20.2 Impacts of climate change on poverty.............................................................. 385
20.3 Exposure and vulnerability impacts ................................................................. 387
20.4 Slow-onset events ............................................................................................ 389
20.5 Future trends .................................................................................................... 393
References ................................................................................................................. 394
Section C Policy issues ..................................................................................397

Chapter 21: Climate change and water justice .....................................................399
M. Mills-Novoa, R. Boelens and J. Hoogesteger
21.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................... 399
21.2 What is justice and for whom? Examples from the water sector ...................... 401
21.3 Defining water justice ...................................................................................... 403
21.4 Water justice and climate change vulnerability ................................................ 404
21.5 Water justice and climate change’s proposed solutions .................................... 406
21.5.1 Mitigation ........................................................................................... 407
21.5.2 Adaptation .......................................................................................... 408
21.6 Naturalizing climate change ............................................................................. 410
21.7 Struggle(s) for water and climate justice .......................................................... 411
21.8 Conclusions ..................................................................................................... 412
References ................................................................................................................. 412
Chapter 22: Environmental ethics and sustainable freshwater resource

management ...................................................................................419
Oghenekaro Nelson Odume and Chris de Wet
22.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................... 419
22.2 Key issues and the need for environmental ethical considerations in water
resource management ....................................................................................... 421
22.3 Approaches to environmental ethics from a western perspective ..................... 423
Contents xv
22.3.1 Value-oriented environmental ethics ................................................... 423

22.3.2 Relationship-based environmental ethics ............................................. 427
22.3.3 African environmental ethics .............................................................. 430
22.4 Relating environmental ethics to water resource management in the
context of complex socio-ecological systems ................................................... 432
22.5 Conclusions ..................................................................................................... 433
References ................................................................................................................. 434
Index ..................................................................................................................439
List of contributors
Adebayo J. Adeloye Heriot-Watt University, Edinburgh, United Kingdom

Juan Baztan University of Versailles Saint-Quentin-en-Yvelines, UPS-CEARC, Guyancourt,
France
R. Boelens Water Resources Management Group, Department of Environmental Sciences,
Wageningen University, Wageningen, The Netherlands; Centre for Latin American Research and
Documentation (CEDLA), University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands; Faculty of
Agronomy, Central University of Ecuador, Quito, Ecuador
James F. Booker Siena College, Loudonville, NY, United States
Scott Bremer Centre for the Study of the Sciences and the Humanities, University of Bergen,
Bergen Norway
Charlotte da Cunha University of Versailles Saint-Quentin-en-Yvelines, UPS-CEARC,
Guyancourt, France
Quan Dau School of Climate Change and Adaptation, University of Prince Edward Island,
Charlottetown, Prince Edward Island, Canada
Anne De Rudder Institut Royal d’Aéronomie Spatiale de Belgique, Bruxelles, Belgium
Chris de Wet Unilever Centre for Environmental Water Quality, Institute for Water Research,
Rhodes University, Makhanda, South Africa
Ahmed S. Elshall Department of Earth, Ocean, and Atmospheric Science, Florida State
University, Tallahassee, FL, United States
Veera Gnaneswar Gude Richard A Rula School of Civil and Environmental Engineering,
Mississippi State University, Starkville, MS, United States
Hui He Guangdong Key Laboratory of Environmental Pollution and Health, Center for Environmental
Microplastics Studies, School of Environment, Jinan University, Guangzhou, P.R. China
J. Hoogesteger Water Resources Management Group, Department of Environmental Sciences,
Wageningen University, Wageningen, The Netherlands
Lionel Jaffrès Theatre du Grain, Brest, France
Elisabeth Schøyen Jensen Centre for the Study of the Sciences and the Humanities, University of
Bergen, Bergen Norway
Bethany Jorgensen Civic Ecology Lab, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, United States
Werner Krauß University of Bremen, Bremen, Germany
Jyoti Kishen Kumar Formerly Institute of Chemical Technology, Matunga, Mumbai, India
Trevor M. Letcher School of Chemistry, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, South Africa
xvii
xviii List of contributors
Joanne Mac Mahon Trinity College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland

Lei Mai Guangdong Key Laboratory of Environmental Pollution and Health, Center for
Environmental Microplastics Studies, School of Environment, Jinan University, Guangzhou, P.R. China
Benedikt Marschütz Klima und Energiefonds, Vienna, Austria
M. Mills-Novoa Department of Environmental Science, Policy and Management, University of
California: Berkeley, Berkeley, CA, United States; Energy and Resources Group, University of
California: Berkeley, Berkeley, CA, United States
Anju Vijayan Nair Richard A Rula School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Mississippi
State University, Starkville, MS, United States
Oghenekaro Nelson Odume Unilever Centre for Environmental Water Quality, Institute for Water
Research, Rhodes University, Makhanda, South Africa
Claudia Yazmı́n Ortega Montoya Escuela de Humanidades y Educación, Tecnologico de
Monterrey, Torreón, Mexico
Aniruddha B. Pandit Institute of Chemical Technology, Matunga, Mumbai, India
Didier Peeters Université Libre de Bruxelles, Bruxelles, Belgium
Manzoor Qadir United Nations University Institute for Water, Environment and Health
(UNU-INWEH), Hamilton, ON, Canada
Rabee Rustum Heriot-Watt University, Dubai Campus, Dubai Knowledge Park, Dubai
Thomas Shahady University of Lynchburg, Lynchburg, VA, United States
Juan Carlos Tejeda González Facultad de Ingenierı́a Civil, Universidad de Colima, Colima,
Mexico
Josephine Treacy Technological University of the Shannon Midlands Midwest, TUS, Limerick
City, Ireland
Daniel A. Vallero Pratt School of Engineering, Duke University, Durham, NC, United States
Jean-Paul Vanderlinden University of Versailles Saint-Quentin-en-Yvelines, UPS-CEARC,
Guyancourt, France
Yongshan Wan Center for Environmental Measurement and Modeling, United States
Environmental Protection Agency, Gulf Breeze, FL, United States
Arjan Wardekker Centre for the Study of the Sciences and the Humanities, University of Bergen,
Bergen Norway
Ming Ye Department of Earth, Ocean, and Atmospheric Science, Florida State University,
Tallahassee, FL, United States; Department of Scientific Computing, Florida State University,
Tallahassee, FL, United States
Eddy Y. Zeng Guangdong Key Laboratory of Environmental Pollution and Health, Center for
Environmental Microplastics Studies, School of Environment, Jinan University, Guangzhou, P.R. China
Zhiwei Zhu University of Versailles Saint-Quentin-en-Yvelines, UPS-CEARC, Guyancourt,
France
Preface
The most essential substance to life on Earth is water. Yet, in many parts of the world
people are struggling to access the quantity and quality of water needed for growing food,
cooking, washing, and even drinking. In spite of the amazing progress that has been made
over the past few decades in making drinking water accessible to millions of people in
developing countries, globally, billions of people still lack clean water, thus locking them in
poverty for generations (https://www.unicef.org/press-releases/billions-people-will-lack-
access-safe-water-sanitation-and-hygiene-2030-unless). The importance of addressing the
global water crisis has been recognized by the United Nations by naming March 22 as
World Water Day (https://www.un.org/en/observances/water-day).
Writing and editing books on global warming (Letcher, 2019, 2021a, 2021b) and also on
waste (Letcher, 2020; Letcher and Vallero, 2019) has highlighted the problems of water
availability due to our changing climate and also of water pollution due to human activity.
This has prompted my desire to compile this book, Water and Climate Change.
The book contains 22 chapters and is divided into three sections:
• Introduction
• Sustainable Development and Environmental Issues
• Policy Issues
Global warming and climate change are upon us, and water resources are being
compromised. An understanding of all the parameters involved in climate change is going
to be necessary if we are to protect ourselves from future extremes. Water will play a major
role in how we adapt to these changes.
Water quality is paramount and a conservative estimate links water pollution to 1.8 million
deaths per year—many of them children (Mayor, 2017). Water is in crisis on a number of
fronts:
• Global warming is changing the way rain falls or does not fall, bringing flooding and
droughts;
• Ground water is being depleted as a result of population needs and creating an
unsustainable situation;
xix
xx Preface
• With global population increasing and more and more people demanding water, water
availability is decreasing, resulting in water security and political issues which have and
will certainly lead to water-wars. Another unsustainable situation in development;
• Water infrastructure is in disrepair worldwide and treatment plants are being
compromised;
• Natural infrastructure is being ignored - building on flood plains, deforestation,
overgrazing, all resulting in an unsustainable situation;
• Water is being wasted—it is cheaper to use clean fresh water than to use treated water;
and
• The quality of water is becoming poorer due to the runoff from farms resulting in a
build-up of concentrations of hormones, nitrates, and ammonia in rivers.
The audience we hope to reach with this new volume are: policy makers in local and
central governments; students, teachers, researchers, professors, scientists, engineers, and
managers working in fields related to climate change and water; editors and newspaper
reporters responsible for informing the public; and the general public who need to be aware
of the impending disasters that a warmer Earth will bring. An introduction is provided at
the beginning of each chapter for those interested in a brief synopsis, and copious
references are provided for those wishing to study each chapter topic in greater detail.
Many of the authors were not involved in recent assessments of the IPCC, and here they
present fresh evaluations of the evidence testifying to a problem that was described as long
ago as in 2008 by Sir David King as the most severe calamity our civilization is yet to face
(David, 2008).
IPCC assessments have produced two basic conclusions: first, current climate changes are
unequivocal, and second, this is largely due to the emission of greenhouse gases resulting
from human activity. This book reinforces these two conclusions.
The International System of Quantities (SI units) has been used throughout the book, and
where necessary, other units are given in parentheses. Furthermore, the authors have
rigorously adhered to the IUPAC notation and spelling of physical quantities.
This book has an advantage that each chapter has been written by world-class experts
working in their respective fields. As a result, this volume presents a balanced picture
across the whole spectrum of climate change. Furthermore, the authors are from both the
developing and developed countries thus giving a worldwide perspective of looming
climatic problems. The 12 countries represented are Canada, China, Costa Rica, France,
Ireland, India, Mexico, The Netherlands, South Africa, Sweden, the United Kingdom, and
the United States of America.
The success of the book ultimately rests with the 39 authors and coauthors. As an editor, I
would like to thank all of them for their cooperation and their highly valued, willing, and
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Napoleon. His soldiers in drinking at pools sucked up the small leeches not thicker
than a horse's hair, whose presence in the hinder part of the mouth cavity produced
divers objectionable results, such as spitting of blood and hindered respiration.
Fam. 2. Herpobdellidae.—Pharynx without denticulate jaws, with three unarmed

chitinous plates.
A characteristic genus of this family is Trocheta, which is so common at the

Zoological Society's Gardens and in the Regent's Park, and which has been met
with in other places near London; it is in this country an introduced species, but is
found in many parts of the continent. It is a land-leech, and lives upon earthworms.
The genus Haemadipsa, which M. Blanchard places in a special sub-family,

contains a number of species which are for the most part land-leeches. Land-
leeches occur in many parts of the world, but chiefly in the tropics—in India, Ceylon,
Java, South America, etc. They lie in wait for their prey, upon the ground as a rule;
but they may ascend herbs and shrubs to gain a better outlook when they are aware
of an approaching footstep. A vivid account of the ferocity of these tiny Annelids in
Ceylon can be read in Sir J. E. Tennent's Natural History of Ceylon. They have been
said to be so pugnacious and so poisonous that persons surprised in their sleep by
the pests have succumbed to their united efforts. A whole battalion of English
soldiers decamped on one occasion from a wood which was overflowing with land-
leeches. The familiar misquotation "lethalis hirudo" might well be applied to this
species. Professor Whitman has written much upon the habits of the land-leech of
Japan (Haemadipsa japonica), which bites so softly that its presence cannot be
detected except for the stream of blood which trickles from the wound. While it is
feeding it emits from the pores of the nephridia a clear fluid, which, as it appears, is
used to keep the skin moist; when unduly dried the same phenomenon occurs. It is
curious that in this and other leeches the nephridia should play a part which in the
earthworm is played by the dorsal pores; in both animals the glands of the skin are
also concerned with the same duty.
The purely aquatic leeches swim by undulations, and also crawl by the help of the
two suckers, like a "Geometer" caterpillar. But when a land-leech is dropped into the
water it at once sinks to the bottom and crawls out; it does not swim, but can survive
immersion for a long period. In this it resembles the earthworms, which can also
survive a prolonged immersion, and even in the case of some are indifferent to the
medium, land or water, in which they live; the land-leech, however, is entirely
dependent upon damp surroundings; a dry air is fatal to it. The land-leech of Japan
leaves a slimy trail behind it as it crawls, in this respect recalling the land Planarian
Bipalium kewense.
GEPHYREA AND PHORONIS
BY
ARTHUR E. SHIPLEY, M.A.

Fellow and Tutor of Christ's College, Cambridge
CHAPTER XV
GEPHYREA
INTRODUCTION—ANATOMY—DEVELOPMENT—SIPUNCULOIDEA—PRIAPULOIDEA—
ECHIUROIDEA—EPITHETOSOMATOIDEA—AFFINITIES OF THE GROUP.
The animals included in the above-named group were formerly associated with the
Echinodermata. Delle Chiaje[468] states that Bohadsch of Prague in 1757 was the
first to give an accurate description of Sipunculus under the name of Syrinx, but
Linnaeus, who noted that in captivity the animal always kept its anus directed
upwards, re-named it Sipunculus. Lamarck[469] placed the Gephyrea near the
Holothurians; and Cuvier[470] also assigned them a position amongst the
Echinoderms. He mentions Bonellia, Thalassema, Echiurus, Sternaspis, and three
species of Sipunculus, one of which, S. edulis, "sert de nourriture aux Chinois qui
habitent Java, et qui vont la chercher dans le sable au moyen de petits bambous
préparés."
The name Gephyrea[471] was first used by Quatrefages, who regarded these
animals as bridging the gulf between the Worms and the Echinoderms. He included
in this group the genus Sternaspis (vide p. 335), now more usually classed with the
Chaetopoda.
The Gephyrea are exclusively marine. They are subcylindrical animals, which can
either retract the anterior end of their body—the introvert—carrying the mouth into
the interior; or are provided with a long flexible but non-retractile proboscis. The
latter is easily cast off. They usually bear spines or hooks of a hard chitinous
character, secreted by the epidermis or outermost layer of cells. The mouth is at the
base of the proboscis or at the end of the protractile part, the anus is at the other
end of the body or on the dorsal surface. The nervous system consists of a ring
round the mouth and of a ventral nerve-cord. A vascular system is present as a rule.
Nephridia are found which act as excretory organs, and in most cases also as ducts
for the generative cells. The Gephyrea are bisexual, and the male is sometimes
degenerate.
The group may be divided into four Orders:—(i.) Sipunculoidea; (ii.) Priapuloidea;
(iii.) Echiuroidea; (iv.) Epithetosomatoidea; of these the first is by far the largest,
both in number of genera and of species.
The Anatomy of Sipunculus nudus.
External Characters.—The body of S. nudus when fully extended may attain a

length of a foot, or even a little more; in this condition it is seen to consist of two
portions, the anterior of which is, however, retracted into the other when the animal
is disturbed. The retractile portion is sometimes termed the proboscis, but as its
nature is entirely different from that of the proboscis of the Echiuroidea, it is better to
refer to it as the introvert. Special retractor muscles are attached on the one hand to
the body-wall about half-way down the body, and on the other hand are fused into a
muscular sheath which surrounds the gullet, just behind the mouth. When these
muscles contract, they withdraw the introvert into the rest of the body or trunk in
much the same way as the finger of a glove may be drawn into the hand, by a
thread fastened to the inside of its apex. The introvert is protruded by the
contraction of the circular muscles of the body-wall. These exert a pressure on the
fluid which fills the body-cavity, and by this means the sides of the introvert are
forced forward until finally the head is exposed.
The introvert occupies about one-sixth or one-fifth of the total body length. It is
somewhat narrower than the trunk, and is covered by a number of small flattened
papillae, some of which lie with their free ends directed backward, overlapping one
another like tiles on a roof. In some other genera, as Phymosoma, the introvert
bears rows of horny hooks, which are apt to fall off as the animal grows old.
The trunk has from thirty to thirty-two longitudinal furrows, the elevations between
which correspond with a similar number of muscles lying in the skin. This
longitudinal marking is crossed at right angles by a circular marking of similar origin,
the elevations of which correspond with the circular muscles in the skin. These two
sets of markings thus divide the skin of the trunk into a number of small square
areas, very regularly arranged (Fig. 212).
The outline of the trunk is more or less uniform, but it is capable of considerable
change according to the state of contraction of its muscles. The circular muscles, for
instance, may be contracted at one level, thus causing a constriction at this spot.
The colour of S. nudus is a somewhat glistening greyish-white.
Fig. 211.—Right half of the anterior end of Sipunculus nudus L., seen from the inner
side and magnified. a, Funnel-shaped grooved tentacular crown leading to the
mouth; b, oesophagus; c, strands breaking up the cavity of the tentacular crown
into vascular spaces; c', heart; d, brain; e, ventral, and e', dorsal retractor
muscles; f, ventral nerve-cord; G, vascular spaces in tentacular crown.
The anterior end of the fully-expanded Sipunculus may be termed the head; here
the skin is produced into a frayed fringe which stands up in the shape of a funnel
round the mouth. This fringe is grooved on its internal surface with numerous little
gutters, all of them lined with cilia, which by their constant motion keep up a current
which sweeps food into the mouth. The fringe may be in the form of a simple ring
round the mouth, or the ring may be folded in at the dorsal side so as to take the
form of a double horse-shoe (Figs. 211 and 212).
Body-wall.—The glistening appearance of Sipunculus is due to the cuticle, a

chitinoid layer which is secreted by the external layer of cells, the epidermis.
Beneath this lies a layer of connective tissue, which is not always present in other
Gephyrea; within this lies a layer of circular muscles arranged in bundles, then
comes a very thin sheath of oblique muscular fibres, then a thicker layer of
longitudinal muscles, and finally a layer of peritoneal epithelial cells, which in
Sipunculus are for the most part ciliated.
Scattered over the surface of the body, and opening by narrow tubes which pierce
the cuticle, are a number of glandular bodies which may be either bi- or multi-
cellular. The glandular cells are apparently enlarged and modified epidermal cells;
they are arranged in a cup-shaped manner, with their apices directed towards the
orifice. They are crowded with granules, which are presumably poured out over the
cuticle, but the exact function of the secretion is entirely unknown. They have a well-
developed nerve supply.
Digestive System.—The mouth lies in the centre of the fringe, and is not provided
with any kind of jaw or biting armature; it leads directly into the thin-walled
alimentary canal, the first part of which is ciliated. The alimentary canal is not
marked out into definite regions, but passes as a thin-walled semi-transparent tube
to the posterior end of the body, and then turns forward again and opens to the
exterior by an anus situated about an inch below the junction of the introvert with the
trunk, on the median dorsal line. The descending and ascending limbs of the
alimentary canal are coiled together in a spiral, which may be more or less close in
different individuals. The whole is supported by numerous fine muscular strands,
which pass from the walls of the intestine to the skin, and by a spindle-muscle,
which runs from the extreme posterior end of the trunk up the axis of the spiral and
terminates in the skin close to the anus.
No glands open into the alimentary canal at any point of its course, but near the
anus a simple diverticulum, or pocket, of unknown function arises. The size of this
outgrowth differs enormously in different individuals. The alimentary canal near the
anus also bears two tuft-like organs, which, however, do not open into the intestine,
but probably have some function in connexion with the fluid in the body-cavity.
Along the whole course of the alimentary canal there runs a ciliated groove, into
which the food does not pass, but the cilia of which probably keep in motion a
current of water whose function may be respiratory.
Fig. 212.—Sipunculus nudus L., with introvert and head fully extended, laid open by
an incision along the right side to show the internal organs. × 2. a, Mouth; b,
ventral nerve-cord; c, heart; d, oesophagus; e, intestine; f, position of anus; g,
tuft-like organs; h, right nephridium; i, retractor muscles; j, diverticulum on
rectum. The spindle-muscle is seen overlying the rectum.
Vascular System.—On the dorsal surface of the anterior end of the alimentary
canal lies a contractile vessel, usually termed the heart. It is a tube about an inch
long, ending blindly behind, but opening in front into a ring-shaped space
surrounding the mouth and partially enveloping the brain. From this ring-like vessel
numerous branches are given off which pass into the fringe round the mouth, and
probably the chief function of the heart is by its contraction to force fluid into this
fringe, and so to extend it. The heart contains a corpusculated fluid. A similar but
shorter tube is found on the ventral surface of the anterior end of the alimentary
canal in the species in question; it also opens into the ring which surrounds the
mouth.
Respiratory System.—There are no special respiratory organs, and it has long

been a matter of dispute where the respiration of Gephyrea is carried on. The
oxygenation of the blood probably takes place to some extent through the walls of
the oral fringe, but the blood which receives its oxygen at this spot is limited in its
distribution, and could only supply the brain and head. It seems probable that the
remaining organs are supplied with oxygen by the fluid of the body-cavity, which
bathes them on all sides. This might obtain its oxygen from the blood in the heart, or
more probably, through the thin walls of the intestine, from the stream of water
which is maintained by the ciliated groove described above. Quite recently a form—
S. mundanus, var. branchiata—has been described[472] with thin-walled papillae
covering parts of the skin. These papillae are full of corpuscles, and are regarded by
their discoverer as branchiae.
Body-Cavity.—The pinkish fluid of the body-cavity contains numerous corpuscles,

the products of the reproductive organs (either ova or spermatozoa), and some
curious unicellular bodies known as "urns." The latter are shaped like a bowl with a
ciliated rim, and are formed from the budding of certain cells on the walls of the
dorsal blood-vessel.[473] Their function is unknown, but they resemble certain
multicellular bodies found in the body-cavity of Phascolosoma. The generative cells
found in the body-cavity are further considered below. The true corpuscles are
either biconcave round corpuscles coloured with a chemical substance, the
haemerythrin of Krukenberg, which apparently plays the same rôle as haemoglobin
in other animals; or amoeboid corpuscles, which, though rare in Sipunculus, are
very numerous in Phascolosoma.
Nervous System.—The nervous system of Sipunculus consists of a brain or

cerebral ganglion, a circumoesophageal ring surrounding the gullet, and a ventral
nerve-cord. The brain is a small bi-lobed nervous mass situated on the dorsal
surface of the oesophagus, in the angle between the right and left dorsal retractor
muscles close to their point of insertion. Numerous nerves arise from it, and pass to
the fringe surrounding the mouth and to neighbouring parts. At the sides, the brain
is continued into two stout nerve-cords which encircle the oesophagus, and
meeting, fuse together in the median ventral line to form the ventral nerve-cord (Fig.
211). The latter is of the same diameter throughout, and shows no signs of
segmentation; it is oval in section, and consists of small ganglion cells heaped up on
the ventral surface, i.e. next the skin, and of numerous fibres situated dorsally. The
cord gives off many nerves, which usually arise in pairs. These pass into the skin,
and forming rings, run round the body, and give off finer nerves as they go.
The nerve-cord is supported by numerous strands of muscle which pass to it from

the skin. These are especially long in the region where the introvert joins the trunk,
and thus allow free play to the nerve-cord when the former is being protruded or
retracted.
Sipunculus is not well provided with sense-organs, but in an animal which lives
buried in sand we should not expect to find these very highly developed. On the
introvert there are certain patches of epithelium bearing long stout cilia, which have
been regarded as tactile in function, and there is a tubular infolding reaching the
brain, which almost certainly has some sensory function. Ward[474] has termed this
"the cerebral organ." It consists of a duct lined with ciliated cells, which opens to the
exterior in the middle dorsal line outside the tentacular fringe. The duct leads down
to the brain, and expands at its lower end into a saucer-shaped space, covering that
portion of the brain where its substance is continuous with the external epithelium.
In Phymosoma this cavity is produced into two finger-shaped processes, which are
sunk into the brain and are lined by cells crowded with a dense black pigment.[475]
They are probably rudimentary eyes, perhaps distinguishing only between darkness
and light. The pits appear to be absent in Sipunculus nudus, but Andrews states
they are found, although without pigment, in S. gouldii.[476]
Excretory System.—The excretory organs or "brown tubes" are typical nephridia,

that is to say, they consist of tubes with glandular walls which open on the one side
to the exterior, and on the other by means of a ciliated funnel-shaped opening into
the body-cavity. In Gephyrea one wall of the tube is produced into a long
diverticulum or sac which hangs down into the body-cavity, and is usually supported
by muscle-fibres running to the body-wall. The lower end of the sac is broken up
into a number of crypts or pits, lined by large glandular cells crowded with brown
pigment. The pigment-granules are secreted into the cavity of the sac, and leave the
body through the external opening; they probably consist of the nitrogenous excreta
of the animal. The upper end of the sac, into which both the external and internal
orifices open, is usually enlarged, and its walls are very muscular. As in so many
other animals, the nephridia serve as ducts through which the reproductive cells
leave the body of the parent.
Reproductive System.—The Gephyrea are bisexual. In Sipunculus the testes and
ovaries are found in the same position in the two sexes, and are indistinguishable
without microscopic investigation. They each consist of small ridges situated at the
lower end of the ventral retractor muscles, just where the latter take their origin from
the longitudinal muscles of the skin. At this level the cells which line the body-cavity
on the inside of the skin are heaped up, and become modified in the one case into
ova or eggs, and in the other into the mother-cells of the spermatozoa. This method
of forming the reproductive organs from modified cells lining the body-cavity is very
common in the higher animals; but it is seen in its simplest and least modified form
in the Sipunculidae.
The eggs break away from the ovary in a very undeveloped condition, but whilst
floating about in the body-cavity they increase in size and secrete a thick membrane
around them. They have a well-marked nucleus, and are oval in outline.
The mother-cells of the spermatozoa also break away in an immature condition, and
complete their development in the nutritive fluid of the body-cavity. They divide into
a number of spermatozoa, usually eight or sixteen, which remain in contact. They
each develop a tail, which projects outwards, and aids the cluster in swimming
along. These clusters of spermatozoa are about the same size as the ova of the
female, and, like them, make their way into the "brown tubes." The exact way in
which this is accomplished is not very clear, but the cilia on the funnel-shaped
internal opening of the tube seem to have some power of selecting the generative
cells when they come within their reach, and of passing them on, whilst they reject
the much smaller corpuscles of the perivisceral fluid, which are never found in the
nephridia.[477] Once inside the internal opening, the clusters break up and the
spermatozoa escape singly into the sea. Here they meet with and fertilise the eggs
which have escaped from the body of the female.
Fig. 213.—Larva of Sipunculus nudus L. × 150. (After Hatschek.) a, Mouth; b, anus; c,

excretory organ; d, glandular appendage of oesophagus; e, wall of stomach over
which the retractor muscle runs; f, invaginated sense-organ at aboral pole.
Development.—Hatschek,[478] who investigated the development of Sipunculus
nudus at Pantano, an inlet of the sea near Messina, states that the spawning takes
place during the night, and ceases about July 10. The rate of development depends
upon the temperature, but the larvae usually free themselves from the egg-
membrane during the third day. When hatched the embryos lengthen out a good
deal, and take the form represented in Fig. 213. The larva swims actively by means
of a ring of stout cilia, which encircle the body just behind the mouth. Other shorter
cilia are found on the head, continuing into the lining of the mouth, and a little bunch
of them is situated at the extreme posterior end. The alimentary canal is already
formed, and is twisted, so that the anus lies dorsally, but not so far forward as it
does in the adult. A glandular structure opens into the mouth, and another body of
unknown function is connected with the oesophagus; both these disappear during
larval life. A pair of excretory tubules, the forerunners of the brown tubes, are found,
and the chief muscle tracts are already established. The nervous system is still in
close connexion with the skin, from the outer part of which it is derived; the cerebral
thickening bears two eye-spots.
The fluid of the body-cavity contains corpuscles, which are kept in active circulation
by the constant contractions of the body-wall, and by numerous tufts of cilia which
are borne on the inner surface of the skin. The dorsal blood-vessel is one of the
latest organs to arise.
The larva swims actively about for a month, during which time it increases greatly in
size; it then undergoes a somewhat sudden metamorphosis. The ciliated ring and
the structures related to the oesophagus begin to disappear, the distinction between
the head and the rest of the body is obliterated, and the head becomes relatively
small. The mouth changes its position, and becomes terminal instead of being
somewhat ventral, and the tentacular membrane begins to appear. At the same time
the larva relinquishes its free-swimming life, and sinks to the bottom; it begins
creeping amongst the sand by protruding and retracting the anterior part of its body,
and takes on all the characters and habits of the adult.
I. Order Sipunculoidea.
Besides the genus Sipunculus, the Order Sipunculoidea includes ten other genera.
A key to these, taken for the most part from Selenka's admirable monograph, is
given on page 424.
Phascolosoma contains, in comparison with Sipunculus, only small species, and it is

easily distinguished by the fact that the longitudinal muscles are fused into a
continuous sheath. As a rule the skin is smooth. A few species bear hooks, which
are generally scattered irregularly and not arranged in transverse rows, as in
Phymosoma (Fig. 214) and most of the other genera.
The fold which in S. nudus surrounds the mouth may be in the same species bent in
so as to take the form of a double horse-shoe, the opening of which is always
dorsal, just above the brain; in this case the mouth is crescentiform. In other genera
the fold is broken up into discrete tentacles, and these are variously arranged; in
Dendrostoma they are grouped together in four or six bundles round the mouth, but
the more usual arrangement is the horse-shoe-like row of tentacles which overhang
the crescentiform mouth, as in Phymosoma and some species of Aspidosiphon.
The ventral side of each tentacle is grooved and ciliated, and the grooves are
continued into the ciliated mouth. Their dorsal surface is pigmented, and in the
hollow of the horse-shoe lies a deeply pigmented epithelium covering the brain.
A blood-vessel courses up each tentacle, and usually two channels return the blood
to the vascular ring which surrounds the mouth. In those forms which possess
tentacles on the dorsal side of the mouth only, the ventral part of the vascular ring
lies in the lower lip, which is tumid and swollen. The brain supplies a nerve to each
tentacle.
When the introvert is retracted the tentacular ring is withdrawn and to some extent
collapsed; in this condition it would be almost touching the rough external surface of
the introvert. In some species of Phymosoma the delicate appendages of the head
are guarded from the hooks on the introvert by a thin membrane or collar,[479] which
completely ensheaths the retracted head.
Fig. 214.—A, Phymosoma granulatum F. S. Leuck. × 2. B, Head of the same. × 4. a,

Pigmented pit leading to brain. The crescentiform mouth on the lower side of the
figure is overhung by the tentacles.
When the introvert is fully extended the dorsal blood-vessel contracts and sends its
blood forward into the vascular ring, and thence into the tentacles or tentacular fold,
which are thus erected. In several species of Sipunculus, as S. nudus, S.
norvegicus, S. robustus, S. tesselatus, there is a ventral blind tube as well as a
dorsal, into which the blood is withdrawn when the head is retracted. In many other
species in various genera, such as Phymosoma weldonii and Ph. asser,
Dendrostoma signifer, S. vastus, the lumen of the dorsal vessel is increased by
numerous hollow blind processes which it bears, hanging freely into the body-cavity.
Three very small genera of Sipunculids—Onchnesoma, Petalostoma, and Tylosoma
—are devoid of all trace of vascular system and of tentacles; the mouth opens in the
centre of the anterior end of the introvert. In Onchnesoma the dorsal part of the lip is
somewhat produced, so that the head has somewhat the shape of a Doge's cap,
and in Petalostoma there are two leaf-like processes of the body-wall which guard
the mouth.
The extent to which the intestine is coiled varies very much even in the same
species; the axis of the coil is often supported by a spindle-muscle, but this is
sometimes absent. The caecum, which opens into the rectum of S. nudus, is again
a very variable structure, and when it is present varies remarkably in size.
The food of Sipunculids seems to consist almost entirely of sand, and their only
nourishment must be such small microscopic organisms or particles of animal and
vegetable débris as are to be found mixed with the sand. The alimentary canal is, as
a rule, quite full of sand, and yet in spite of the tenuity of its walls they never seem
to be ruptured. If the contents of the digestive tube be washed out with a pipette, it
will be found that it requires considerable force to dislodge many of the sand-
particles lying next the wall. These are more or less embedded in crypts or pockets
of the wall, and as the sand passes along the intestine they probably serve as more
or less fixed hard points, against which the sharp edges of the sand particles are
worn off. Amongst the sand are usually to be found pieces of shell, sometimes with
a diameter equal to that of the alimentary canal; these are usually rounded, but their
angles may have been removed by attrition before they entered the mouth of the
Sipunculid.
In S. tesselatus the sand is to some extent held together by a mucous deposit; in

those cases where there is no sand in the intestine, there is always a coagulum of
mucus, and the walls are contracted and thick; when full of sand the walls are
tensely stretched and very thin. This thinness of the wall of the alimentary canal
seems ill-adapted to a diet of sand, nevertheless it is also met with in other great
sand-eating groups of animals, such as the Echinids and the Holothurians.
The enormous amount of sand and mud which passes through the bodies of the
Sipunculids shows that they must take a considerable part in modifying the mineral
substances which form the bottom of the sea. Just as earthworms, as shown by
Darwin, play a considerable rôle in the formation of soil, so must these animals, in
conjunction with Echinids and Holothurians, effect considerable modifications in the
sand and mud which pass through their bodies. Mr. J. Y. Buchanan[480] is "led to
believe that the principal agent in the comminution of the mineral matter found at the
bottom of both deep and shallow seas and oceans, is the ground fauna of the sea,
which depends for its subsistence on the organic matter which it can extract from
the mud." The minerals at the bottom of the sea are exposed to a reducing process
in passing through the bodies of the animals which eat them, and subsequently to
an oxidising process due to the oxygen dissolved in the sea-water acting on the
minerals extruded from the animals' bodies.
The rate at which the sand passes through the body of Sipunculus is unfortunately
unknown, but that at any one moment a considerable quantity is contained in the
intestine is shown by the fact that the average weight of five specimens of S. nudus
from Naples, taken at random, was 19.08 grms., whilst the average weight of sand
washed out of their alimentary canal was 10.03 grms. The sand contained in five
other specimens of the same species measured respectively 6 c.c., 7 c.c., 6.5 c.c.,
7.5 c.c., and 7.5 c.c., giving an average of 6.9 c.c. for each individual.
Onchnesoma and Tylosoma have only one retractor muscle; Aspidosiphon and
Phascolion have, as a rule, two; Phymosoma and Sipunculus have four, and
perhaps this is the more usual number.
Phascolion, Tylosoma, and Onchnesoma have but one "brown tube"; in Phascolion
this is the right, in Onchnesoma it is sometimes the right and sometimes the left that
persists. Most other genera retain two, but there are many exceptions; for instance,
Phascolosoma squamatum has but one, and so has Aspidosiphon tortus, and in
both cases it is that of the left side. No Sipunculid has more than two. It has been
pointed out by Selenka that those species which have but one brown tube are, as a
rule, inhabitants of tubes or shells, and do not move actively about in the sand.
The eggs of all members of the family, with the exception of the genus Phymosoma,
are spherical, but those of the last-named genus are elliptical. They are always
surrounded by a thick membrane, the "zona radiata," pierced by numerous pores.
Aspidosiphon (Fig. 215) is easily recognised by the presence of two symmetrically-

arranged cuticular shields, one at each end of the trunk. These are formed by the
fusion of minute cuticular plates, such as exist in the skin of most Sipunculids. The
posterior shield is radially symmetrical, but the anterior is somewhat like the shell of
a Pecten, and symmetrical only about one plane. The introvert is protruded from the
acute angle of the anterior shield, and when extended lies almost at right angles to
the trunk, instead of being, as is usually the case, in the same straight line with it. In
many specimens, and these seem as a rule to be the older ones, a deposit of
calcium carbonate takes place over these shields, covering over and concealing
their external markings.
Cloeosiphon (Echinosiphon) has a calcareous ring, consisting of four or five rows of
lozenge-shaped calcareous bodies forming a close mosaic, arranged round the
base of the introvert, which when extended is in the same straight line as the trunk.
Each piece bears a brown spot, which is said to be the pore of a gland (Fig. 217).
Golfingia Lankester, has a cylindrical horny thickening at the anterior end of the
trunk and another at the posterior.
Fig. 215.—Aspidosiphon truncatus Kef. × 2. a, Introvert partially extended, but not

sufficiently to show the head.
Key to the Genera of Sipunculoidea.[481]
I. The longitudinal muscles in the body-wall divided into 17-41 distinct bundles.
Four retractor muscles.
A. Body covered with papillae. Numerous filiform tentacles which seldom (or
never?) surround the mouth, but stand above and dorsal to it in a horse-
shoe, with the opening dorsal. No rectal caecum. Hooks usually present.
Four retractors (in Ph. Rupellii only two?). Heart almost always without
caeca. Eye-spots always present. Eggs oval, flat, reddish. Almost entirely
small tropical species
1. Phymosoma
B. Body devoid of papillae. Tentacular membrane surrounds the mouth in a

circlet. Rectum with one or more caeca (except S. edulis?). Hooks absent
except in S. australis. Eggs spherical. The tentacular membrane contains a
vascular network. A ventral contractile vessel usually present in addition to
the heart. Mostly large forms. Found in all seas
2. Sipunculus
II. The longitudinal muscles in the body-wall form a continuous sheath, and are
not split up into bundles.
A. Two brown tubes. Numerous tentacles form a wreath round the mouth.
Alimentary canal forms a complete spiral, free behind except in Ph. Hanseni.
Spindle-muscle usually present. One or more ligaments present, but only on
the anterior convolutions of the intestine. Adhesive papillae always absent.
Hooks very frequently absent. Eggs spherical. Found in all seas.
3. Phascolosoma
B. Two free brown tubes. Only four or six plumed tentacles. A complete
intestinal spiral, not attached behind. Spindle-muscle always present. One or
more ligaments present, but only on the anterior convolutions of the
intestine. Hooks are present, but sometimes fall off early in life. Heart usually
bears caeca. Found only in the tropics.
4. Dendrostoma
C. Only one brown tube, that of the right side, present; it is attached to the
body-wall throughout its entire length. Numerous tentacles form a circle
round the mouth. The alimentary canal forms no spiral, or an incomplete
one. No spindle-muscle, but the intestine is attached to the body-wall
throughout its length by numerous ligaments. Adhesive papillae often
present. Not more than two retractors. Spherical eggs. Inhabits Mollusc
shells or tubes. Found in all seas
5. Phascolion
III. At both ends of the trunk a distinct horny shield, or tube-like cornification, or
a calcareous ring at the anterior end of the trunk. Hooks sometimes present.
Longitudinal muscles continuous or split up into bundles.
A. A shield at both ends of the trunk. Introvert excentric, arising from the
ventral side of the anterior shield. Tentacles small and few in number,
arranged in a horse-shoe above the mouth. A spindle-muscle, which arises
from the posterior end of the body, traverses the intestinal coil. Two
retractors only, these are the ventral; they are frequently fused together from
their point of origin.
6. Aspidosiphon
B. A calcareous ring surrounds the anterior end of the trunk, from the middle
of which the introvert is extruded. Longitudinal muscles continuous. Hooks
bifid. Tropical.
7. Cloeosiphon
C. A corneous ring, from which the introvert issues, surrounds the anterior
end of the trunk, and the posterior end of the trunk is produced into a
corneous spike. Six pinnate tentacles encircle the mouth. Four retractors.
Hooks present on the introvert. Longitudinal muscles continuous. Intestine
not coiled throughout in a spiral nor fastened posteriorly. Spindle muscle
present.
8. Golfingia
IV. No tentacles, but two leaf-like extensions of the body-wall guard the mouth.
Four retractors. Few intestinal loops, quite free. No vascular system.
9. Petalostoma
V. No tentacles, no vascular system. One retractor, and one segmental organ.
A. Introvert long. Body small, pear-shaped.

10. Onchnesoma
B. No introvert (?). Body cylindrical, thickly covered with papillae, which are
larger and more crowded at both ends of the trunk.
11. Tylosoma
Species of Sipunculoidea.—The genus Phymosoma (Fig. 214) contains more

species than any other genus of Sipunculoidea, and they are all of fair size. Twenty-
seven species are known, of which seventeen occur in the Malay Archipelago,
thirteen being found there alone. Phymosoma affects shallow water, the deepest
specimens being taken at a depth of about 50 fathoms; this may be due to the fact
that they flourish only in comparatively warm water. With very few exceptions, they
are found only in tropical seas, very often living in tubular excavations made in soft
coral rock.
The genus Sipunculus contains sixteen species. They are the largest and the most
conspicuous members of the group. They have a very wide distribution, some
species, as S. nudus (Fig. 212) and S. australis, being almost cosmopolitan. They
are most common in temperate and tropical seas, but S. norvegicus and S.
priapuloides are found far north, but always at considerable depths, 100 to 200
fathoms.
The following account of the habits of Sipunculus gouldii is taken from Mr.
Andrews'[482] paper on that species:—
"This Sipunculus is very abundant in certain small areas of compact, fine sand
darkened by organic matter and not laid bare at ordinary low tide. In such places,
only a few square metres in extent, they pierce the sand in all directions to a depth
of more than half a metre, making burrows with persistent lumen running from the
surface downward and then laterally, but with no regularity in direction.
"Kept in aquaria, the dependence of the animal upon the nature of the sand and its
method of locomotion may be readily observed. A vigorous individual buries itself in
a few moments in the following manner: Running out the introvert to nearly its full
extent, and applying it to the surface of the sand till some spot of less resistance is
found, the animal still further expands the introvert so that it penetrates the sand,
provided this is not too dense and firm, for then the body is merely shoved
backward. When the introvert is inserted, the contraction of the longitudinal muscles
of the body-wall brings the whole body forward somewhat, in case the introvert is
fixed in the sand. In case soft ooze was present, this fixation did not take place, and
the introvert was merely pulled out again, but when the sand was of the right
consistency the introvert was fixed by becoming much swollen at the tip, and then
constricted just posterior to this swollen area. This bulb-like area exerts lateral
pressure on the sand, as could be seen by movements of the grains. The swelling
of the anterior end of the introvert is brought about by the body-wall contracting
elsewhere, and forcing in liquid to distend that end. Owing to the curved form
assumed by the body in the normal contracted state when first removed from its
burrow, the entrance of the introvert may often be nearly vertical, and hence the
entire body is soon raised nearly upright in the water above the sand. If the body
has thus been warped forward sufficiently to become somewhat fixed in the sand,
the introvert is rolled in and again thrust forward from this new point of resistance,
and so on till the animal is entirely buried. This locomotion increases in speed as the
creature becomes more completely surrounded by sand, and is the only means of
moving from place to place.
"On a smooth surface, or on one not presenting the right degree of resistance, the
Sipunculus does not change its position, but remains till death finally occurs, rolling
its introvert in and out and contracting its body-wall to no purpose.
"The essential factors in the mechanism bringing about this hydrostatic locomotion
are an elongated contractile sac filled with liquid, and some means of definitely co-
ordinating the contractions of the sac.
"In natural environment the animals are found with sometimes one, sometimes the
other end nearer the surface of the sand: in the aquaria the same was observed, but
when the water became stagnant and impure the anterior end with expanded
branchiae was often protruded somewhat above the surface of the sand."
The genus Phascolosoma contains at least twenty-five species, for the most part
small. Ph. margaritaceum, however, measures[483] 10 cm. in length, and Ph.
flagriferum, 13 cm. The latter is produced at the hinder end of its trunk into a long
whip-like process, which recalls the horny spike of Golfingia. Most species live free,
but a few inhabit the shells of dead Gasteropods or of Dentalium, or the abandoned
tubes of worms. They occur in practically all seas.
Fig. 216.—Specimens of the Coral Heteropsammia cochlea, with Aspidosiphon
heteropsammiarum or A. michelini living in a state of commensalism with them.
(From Bouvier.)
Dendrostoma contains but five species, which are all found within the tropics in the
Pacific or in the West Atlantic. They are shallow-water forms, and some are found
between tide-marks.
Phascolion is a smaller genus, containing but ten species, which may have been
derived independently from different species of Phascolosoma, and in this case the
genus should be broken up. The members of this genus live in Mollusc shells, such
as Dentalium, Turritella, Buccinum, Chenopus (Aporrhais), Nassa, Strombus, and
generally acquire the coiled shape of their host. They are usually attached to the
shell by means of certain adhesive papillae found on their posterior end. Ph. strombi
fills its shell with mud, which must be kept together by some secretion of the animal.
The body lies in a tube in this mud, and the introvert projects from the small round
opening at the end of the tube, and explores the ground in every direction. They are
found in all seas, but more especially in the colder waters.
Fig. 217.—Cloeosiphon aspergillum Quatr. × ½. a, Introvert covered with spines and

partially extended, but not sufficiently to show the head; b, calcareous plates
surrounding the point of origin of the introvert.
The genus Aspidosiphon includes nineteen species, which are, with few exceptions,
exclusively confined to the Indian Ocean and neighbouring seas, including the Red
Sea. The exceptions are A. armatus from the Norwegian coast, and A. mülleri from
the Mediterranean and Adriatic. A. truncatus is also stated to occur at Panama, the
Bahamas, and at Mauritius. The remaining species almost all occur in the Malay
Archipelago and neighbouring islands, and as was the case with Phymosoma, this
part of the world seems to be the headquarters of the genus. A. mülleri lives in the
interstices of rocks and stones, and occasionally in disused Mollusc shells.
Two species of Aspidosiphon have been described by Bouvier[484] living in a state

of commensalism with two species of Madreporarian corals, Stephanoceris
rousseaui and Heteropsammia cochlea, which live on and surrounding the shells of
certain Molluscs at Aden (Fig. 216). Apparently the Gephyrean takes up its abode
within its house at a tender age, and according to Bouvier, it provides for its
increasing bulk by secreting a coiled calcareous tube, the outer surface of which
affords space for the growth of the coral.
The genus Cloeosiphon, the Echinosiphon of Sluiter, includes three species: C.

aspergillum (Fig. 217), C. molle, and C. javanicum. The first named occurs at
Mauritius, the Malay Archipelago, and neighbouring islands; the others are confined
to the last-named area, which thus again forms the headquarters of a genus.
Golfingia, described by Lankester from a single specimen, was dredged in St.

Andrews Bay, at the depth of 10 fathoms.
Petalostoma comprises but one species, P. minutum, which is found in the English
Channel.
Onchnesoma comprises two species, O. steenstrupii and O. sarsii, both found off
the coast of Norway at considerable depths between 200 and 300 fathoms.
Tylosoma comprises one species, T. lütkenii, also from the Norwegian coast. It is
dredged from stony ground in 50 to 80 fathoms.
II. Order Priapuloidea.
Anatomy.—This Order consists of the two genera Priapulus and Halicryptus. Both
are cylindrical animals with the mouth at one end and the anus at the other. The
introvert is short, and is covered with rows of chitinous spines, which are continued
to some extent over the body.
The skin is folded in a series of rings, and the body is usually somewhat swollen
posteriorly. P. caudatus bears a curious caudal appendage, beset with a number of
hollow lobes somewhat grape-like in appearance. This is situated ventral to the
anus; its lumen is continuous with that of the body-cavity, but it can be separated
from it by the action of a sphincter muscle. Two such appendages exist in P.
bicaudatus.
There cannot be said to be any head in the Priapuloidea; they have no tentacles or
tentacular fringe, no proboscis, and no distinct brain; simply a round aperture, the
mouth, which is surrounded by a groove in the skin, at the bottom of which the
circumoesophageal nerve-cord lies. The mouth leads into a very muscular pharynx
lined with stout chitinous teeth; this passes into an intestine, which is as a rule
straight, but in P. glandifer it has a single loop.
The Priapuloidea possess no vascular system and no brown tubes. Their skin has in
the main the same structure as that of the Sipunculids, with spines, glandular
bodies, and papillae with sensory hairs which resemble similar structures on
Phymosoma varians. Retractor muscles arise from the longitudinal muscles of the
skin, and are inserted into the pharynx; they are short and not constant in number.
The nervous system has retained throughout its primitive connexion with the
epidermis. In almost all animals the nervous system is formed from the epiblast or
outermost cellular layer of the embryo; it usually, however, breaks away from this
and sinks into the body. Thus in Sipunculus it lies within the body-cavity, and has
retained its primitive connexion with the outer layers of the skin only in the region of
the brain; but in the Priapulids the nervous system, which consists of a ring round
the mouth and of a ventral cord, lies embedded in the skin, and the nerve cells are
directly continuous with the cells of the epidermis. The nerve-ring lies at the base of
a groove in the skin, which forms a kind of gutter round the mouth; the ventral
nerve-cord is visible exteriorly as a light line which marks the ventral surface of the
animal. In no place is the ring or cord differentiated in any way, and there cannot be
said to be any brain or special sense-organs. Numerous nerves are given off from
the ring to the pharynx and intestine, and from the cord to the body-wall.
Fig. 218.—Priapulus caudatus Lam. Nat. size. a, Mouth surrounded by spines.
The sexes are distinct, but they differ from the other Gephyrea in the nature of their
reproductive organs. In mature specimens the ovaries or testes are easily
recognisable, lying to the right and left of the alimentary canal. The reproductive
glands are continuous with ducts, which act as oviducts and vasa deferentia
respectively. Both glands and ducts are attached to the body-wall by a mesentery.
The excretory function is performed in the Priapuloidea by the ducts of the

generative organs. These are primarily connected with a number of branching
canals of small size which project into the body-cavity. According to Schauinsland,
[485] one or more pear-shaped cells are found at the end of each branch, and each
is continued into a long cilium which hangs down into the lumen of the canal, and by
its movement produces a flickering motion. Beyond the free end of the large cilium
the canal is lined with ciliated cells. The remarkable resemblance this form of
excretory organ presents to that of the Platyhelminthes (vide p. 25) and of certain
Chaetopods is worthy of attention. In the young Priapuloidea the duct with its
branching canals is not masked by the generative organs, but as the animals
become mature, diverticula from the duct arise, and the cells covering these
become modified into ova in the female, and into spermatozoa in the male. The
presence of these follicles masks the excretory part of the gland. The ova and
spermatozoa escape through the ciliated ducts which open to the exterior one on
each side of the anus, and, contrary to what is the case with other Gephyrea, leave
the body without having ever been in the body-cavity.
Nothing is known of the embryology of either member of this family, but both genera
appear to be sexually mature from the end of May until October.
Classification.—The two genera which make up the Order Priapuloidea are

characterised as follows:—
Priapulus.—The body is continued into one or two caudal appendages, beset with
hollow papillae; these are ventral to the anus. The introvert forms ¼ to ⅓ of the total
body-length; it is covered with spines in conspicuous longitudinal rows, the rest of
the body being ringed. The retractor muscles are numerous, and are attached to the
body-wall, some anteriorly and some posteriorly.
The genus includes the following five species:—
P. caudatus Lam. (Fig. 218). Hab. Coasts of Greenland, Norway, Great Britain,
the North Sea, and the Baltic.
P. bicaudatus Dan. Hab. North Sea and Arctic Ocean.
P. glandifer Ehlers. Hab. Coast of Greenland, North Sea.

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Water and Climate Change: Sustainable

Development, Environmental and

For Information on all Elsevier publications

Publisher: Candice Janco

List of contributors ..............................................................................................xvii

Section A Introduction ..................................................................................... 1

2.2 Water and CO2 and the greenhouse effect ........................................................... 14

Chapter 3: Water resource planning and climate change ........................................ 27

Chapter 4: Potential impacts of climate change on biogeochemical cycling................ 41

Section B Sustainable development and environmental issues .................. 63

5.2 Water quality ..................................................................................................... 66

Chapter 6: Urban water supplies in developing countries with a focus on

Chapter 7: Water purity and sustainable water treatment systems for

7.2 Environmental challenges to water purity in developing countries..................... 118

Chapter 8: Water purification techniques for the developing world ........................145

8.14 Recommendations for future work ................................................................... 174

Chapter 9: Plastic pollution in waterways and in the oceans ..................................179

Chapter 10: Desalination and sustainability ........................................................197

Chapter 11: Groundwater sustainability in a digital world....................................215

Chapter 12: Economics of water productivity and scarcity in

13.4 Wastewater as an energy source ...................................................................... 268

Chapter 14: Sustainable freshwater management—the South African approach ....273

Chapter 15: Sustainable water management with a focus on climate change..........293

15.4.2 Stream restoration ............................................................................... 305

Chapter 16: Food-energy-water nexus and assessment models ..............................317

Chapter 17: Emerging water pollutants ...............................................................331

Chapter 18: Local representations of a changing climate ......................................343

18.2 Local conditions of a changing climate ............................................................ 344

Chapter 19: Agricultural water pollution .............................................................365

19.4.3 Land management practices ................................................................ 375

Chapter 20: Environmental impacts on global water resources and poverty,

Section C Policy issues ..................................................................................397

Chapter 22: Environmental ethics and sustainable freshwater resource

22.3.1 Value-oriented environmental ethics ................................................... 423

Adebayo J. Adeloye Heriot-Watt University, Edinburgh, United Kingdom

Joanne Mac Mahon Trinity College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland

Fam. 2. Herpobdellidae.—Pharynx without denticulate jaws, with three unarmed

A characteristic genus of this family is Trocheta, which is so common at the

The genus Haemadipsa, which M. Blanchard places in a special sub-family,

ARTHUR E. SHIPLEY, M.A.

The Anatomy of Sipunculus nudus.

External Characters.—The body of S. nudus when fully extended may attain a

Body-wall.—The glistening appearance of Sipunculus is due to the cuticle, a

Respiratory System.—There are no special respiratory organs, and it has long

Body-Cavity.—The pinkish fluid of the body-cavity contains numerous corpuscles,

Nervous System.—The nervous system of Sipunculus consists of a brain or

The nerve-cord is supported by numerous strands of muscle which pass to it from

Excretory System.—The excretory organs or "brown tubes" are typical nephridia,

Fig. 213.—Larva of Sipunculus nudus L. × 150. (After Hatschek.) a, Mouth; b, anus; c,

Phascolosoma contains, in comparison with Sipunculus, only small species, and it is

Fig. 214.—A, Phymosoma granulatum F. S. Leuck. × 2. B, Head of the same. × 4. a,

In S. tesselatus the sand is to some extent held together by a mucous deposit; in

Aspidosiphon (Fig. 215) is easily recognised by the presence of two symmetrically-

Fig. 215.—Aspidosiphon truncatus Kef. × 2. a, Introvert partially extended, but not

Key to the Genera of Sipunculoidea.[481]

B. Body devoid of papillae. Tentacular membrane surrounds the mouth in a

V. No tentacles, no vascular system. One retractor, and one segmental organ.

A. Introvert long. Body small, pear-shaped.

Species of Sipunculoidea.—The genus Phymosoma (Fig. 214) contains more

Fig. 217.—Cloeosiphon aspergillum Quatr. × ½. a, Introvert covered with spines and

Two species of Aspidosiphon have been described by Bouvier[484] living in a state

The genus Cloeosiphon, the Echinosiphon of Sluiter, includes three species: C.

Golfingia, described by Lankester from a single specimen, was dredged in St.