Communication Engineering

-I -

Communication.
-

Process of transfer of information blu transmitter a reciever.

Signal:Phy. Quantity thatvaries over time.

reiter
-

W Transmitter ->

system noise

2
interference

Modulation:Varying parameters of carrier signal in accordance with message signal

I
↳ To signals from transmitters
separate user
modulation
Need for
↳ reduces size of antenna -> (P 1/x
=

↳ Effective transmission
power

yes of Motion:

Amplitude Frequency Phase

changing 0
amplitude of
high free. Changing C
frequency of
high free. Changing
carrier
0
phase of
high freq
instantaneous carrier instantaneous signal instantaneous
carrier
signal wirt
signal wirt wirt

of
value of
signal. value of
message signal. Va Ive message signal.
message

Mathematical Analysis:

I 0
em EmcOS2ifmt
=

CAM=FAMCOS2Gt=(EitEmcossitmt) COSC,t

Ec(1+
cosurfst,
=

ec EccosafC
↓
t
=

modulation Em
--

Ec(1+moszfnt)
indec
Ec
modulated signal
=

cosfct

EcCOS2IG,t MECCOS2NEmtcOS2ifct
->
+
 0
using COSACOSB
I
=

[cos(A + B) + cos(A -

B)] Ifm, me, my present,

enm Eos2πf,t
=>
=

m(s(f+
+
f)( cos2(f
+
-

fn)t] m
xt
=

m2 m, +

Ec

0
Hence, has 3 ↑
a
signal components: I
-

requency
domain
mEc/2 mEc/2
of
representation a N
·
Carrier signal atEc
AM

Upper side freq. atfit m

< X
fz fctfm
·
Lower side
free atfc-fr - Em
a

I I ↑
Lower side-band carrier upper side-band
Signal
* AM wave is the
algebraic sum of carrier, upper and lower sideband frequencies.

Bandwidth 2 X
=

fr (mar)
↳ man freg. ofmodulating signal

Modulation index ratio of of

amplitude signal
E
message carrier
to

Depth ofmodulation
/ modulation = mx100
-

Two types of modulation,

↳ Linear modulation:when m = ↳ Over modulation:when my

Upper & lower envelopes combine, may lead to

· Prettered for proper signal
·

phase reversal
reception

Perfectreconstruction hence.
possible
not
·

Calculation ofAM Power:

Pr P, Prs+ PrsB
Ea +E-++
= =
+ +

E mE mte
=

P(1+
+

)
=

P m
+

P(1 2
=
+

Types ofA.M.

(i) Double sideband-suppressed carrier modulation (DSB-SC):Only carrier

suppressed as mostinfo. carried in sidebands

(ii) Single sideband -

suppressed carrier modulation (SSB-sc):carrier and one sideband suppressed as both sidebands
carry
same info.

(iii) Vestigial sideband modulation (VSB):mostly used in TV

broadcasting
· TV signal has audio & video
signals, both
occupying different frequencies. Audio -

free modulation
Video -

Amp. modulation
Generation of
ABFC

trul
a) Square Law modulator: I
O
Non-linear
mix)
(
·
device
O
·
Band-pass filter
A, COS 2If, t ↑
·
Message and carrier signal fa
tuned to

LC allowed pass through.

only W,twn and
-> circuitacts as BPF. Tuned be,
to so
wow are to

2,(t) EmloSWmt+ E,loswit

=

e(t) ae,(t)
=

beit)
+ -
egn. For non-linear device

e
wattst+b
watut+
ez(H los(war
amwat +
=>
=
wet

I
(i) ->
Message signal After BPF,
(ii) -> carrier
signal ((t) aE,cosrct
=

+bEmEccos[(w, walt +(w, wm)t]

+ -

(iii) Square
->

of
message
(iv) ->
Square ofcarrier

(v) -> Am wave

debands
a

Gration SC: of

(b) Balanced Law modulator

Consists oftwo has

·
identical AM. Same carrier
signal input, but one AM the modulating signal as inputa n dother has
mod.
ve
Signal.
AM s,(t)
m(t) > modulator

I
Ac[1 kam(H]
+

5,(t) = +

cos2xfct

S2(t) Ac[1 =
-

kam(t]ws2πf,t
Local ↑ 2, AclOS2πfct ②-> S(t) S,(t) S(t)
=
+

↓
=

Oscillator

I
... S(t) S,(t) Sc(t) 2Ackqm(t)coszifct
= + =

AM Si(t)
-
mit) -

> modulator -
modulator
A -

Envelope Detector:

process recovering the message signal

of from the modulated
signal
·

half
signal detector diode
·

During the
cycle of inputsignal, diode conducts and
capacitor

- D1 charges upto peak value.

15is
-

I ·
During he halfcycle, diode becomes reverse biased and capacitor

avair output discharges through load resistor R.

·
Process repeated for next
cycle.

R
Optimum value oftime constantRC:
Envelope

ATTI
................. 1I
carrier
x t
- fr
----------------- L

>
t

Angle modulation theency

-

n2H
Acos[wit +PCH]
=

L I
Carrier swing:fman Emin
Phase Xpm2)
-
A
=

cos[wit +
kpmi) ->b(t) kpm(t) =

Frau fc =
+
f

Feency (F M(H) Acs

[wit kf(m(x] -> P(t) kr/mit) of fc f
=
-

min
= =
+

Acs[act + kx
/ Amcoswntat]

Acs[wit +sinwmt]
C
=

I
67
mod. Inden= freg.deviation
B
= =

7 Im
↓ freq. of mod.
Signal

Acs[wiz sinwent]
mak

=
+

Carson's re:Bandwidth is equal twice the

to sum of
freq.deviation and man freq of mod signal.

B.W =
2
[w+ fm] +

2 =
=

m[B +)

Devation Ratio (D): · When

i <1

=>
narrow band FM

D
I
=

· when B>> I

=>
wideband FM
Super HDyne Rever:

thatcan
special
·
type ofreciever recieve Am, PM, FM signals.

Functions:

↳ Carrier frequency tuning:To selectthe desired signal

↳ Filtering:To separate desired signal from other modulated signals

↳ Amplification:To accountfor loss

signal
of
power during transmission

fIF fo =
-

FRE

↓ ↓ ↳ carrier freg. Of
incoming RFsignal
Intermediate
Local
frequency
Oscillator

Antenna

"Theretowininner
!
I

------------
common
⑭Local oscillator ↳B8irmer
tuning

RF Preselector: AM Demodulator:
· used preventout-of-band signals
to from
entering.
Envelope
·
unwanted detector is used to demodulate the
· front-end filtering is done as
signals can

recieved Al wave.
the
degrade the performance of reciever.

Audio Amplifier:
RF
Tuner section:

· selects the
frequency desired by AM ·
Processed signal is strengthened be effective
to

· tunes the LO and RF filter at same time ·

Signal is
passed loud speaker
to
reproduce
to

the original audio

RF
Miner:

the recieved
· Has two inputs;LO freg, and
signal

· Produces IF (Intermediate frequency)

IF filter:

·
Filters out unwanted frequency components

·
Only allows IF pass
to
 Unit -
I

Pulse Modulation

Sampling &
Aliasing:
-

A reconstructed exactly sampled ata rate of atleasttwice the

signal be it
·
can

manimum freg. -> fx

28m =over
sampling
i.e,
om -> f(2fm=) under sampling
↳ This is called NyquistRate
Phenomena where high sampled signal interfere with
frequency components ofa
·

Aasingleadstodistortion inrecovered
each other due
undersampling
to ->
an
e
-

Quantization:
- -

· Process of
transforming sample amplitude (m) of
message signal into discrete

amplitude (v) taken from a

possible setof finite amplitudes.
· Two types: (a) midtread and (b) midrise
- -

I 4
Graphs
Pulse ration:
· Process of changing characteristics of pulse carrier in accordance with

modulating signal.
: Main diff. blu analog and pulse modulation is in
analog mod. We
-

sinusoidal modulation
use carrier signals, butin pulse we use a
rectangular
train ofpulse signals.
Types of Pulse modulation:

·
Analog pulse modulation

↳ Pulse amplitude (PAM):Amplitudes ofregularly spaced pulses are varied in

accordance with the message signal.

↳ Pulse width (PwM):Duration of the individual pulses are varied in

accordance with the message signal.

Position varied in accordance with

position (PPM):
↳ Pulse of a pulse is

the message
signal.

↑
·
Digital pulse modulation

↳ Pulse code (PCM)

I
↳ Delta (DM)

↳ Adaptive delta (ADM)

De ce mtion(PCM):

· After
sampling an
analog signal, we need to convertitinto digital form.
This is where PCM comes in.

In PCM, the is sampled and the amplitudes rounded

·
message signal are

off to the nearestdiscrete level and transmitted through a

digital waveform.

Rats of PM Sytem: ①transmitter distorted

therealterher
PCM signal

fore-it" to
-
-

anit
②2 transmission path

on
It
distorted regenerated
PCM signal
(to reciever)
③ Reciever
 · Process of
translating a discrete set of
sample values into a more
appropriate form

-
Encoding.
· There are Unipolar and Bipolar Polar coding.

· Also, there are R2 and NRZ

coding.
·
Finally, there is split-phase coding.
->
line codes.
Totally types of

Antages RM:

I
of

(DPCM)
·
efficientregeneration of coded
signal Differential PCM

· durable againstinterference and noise ???

potential for communication and security.
privacy
·

Delta tion (PM):

L -
DPCM increases and trades offbandwidth. But, the need
·
complexity
may for decreased
arise
system complexity.
Hence we with Delta modulation (DM) transmits coded representation
·
go a
=

or sample. (only single bit)

-

* uses
single bit PCM code to
achieve digital transmission

↳ If current sample is smaller than previous sample 2) 0

bigger than previous sample -> I

Fees
ofDM:

·
simplicity ofDesign a use of single bitPCM code

Adaptive
-
Delta
- -
Motion (ADM):
· There is a need for a
larger step size to

accommodate a wide
dynamic range. H 2

·
Also, a smaller step size is required accurately
to

representrelatively low-level signals.

L H

·
Hence, we need make
to the delta modulator

adaptive.
-
 ↑
Time Dion lining (TDM) I
requency Division Mening (FDM)
It shares the timescale for all shares the
· overall ⑳ It overall
frequency
available signals for all available signals

with both digital with only analog signals

works 2
analog · works
·

signals
⑧
Simple circuitry ⑧
complex circuitry
· Low interference ·
High interference

· More efficient · Less efficient

Kocoders/ders:
· To transmit speech, precise waveform from speaker need notbe transmitted.

Instead, a close
approximation of the waveform can be used.

Vocoders trade speech quality

· for lower bitrate (1.2 to 2.4 kbls)

e.g. military applications

voiced impulsegenerators vibrationsof the

vocal

·
speech
as
Channel Vorders:
·
Spectrum is divided into 15 free ranges -
each 200 Hz B.W.
for
·
Rectifier and 2012 filter
provides trage portional toamplitudethe sinusoidalwavethe
and decoder
demultiplexed
=>

PAC ->

A
Frequency discriminator followed
by
·
a 2012

filter DC voltage thatis

provides a
proportional to

freg. Of speech signal.

N
↳This is called "ch' the voice
of
 -3

· To convert binary info into

analog signals prior transmission,
to we use
Digital motion.

Passband
· Two types of Digital modulation, Baseband and technique.

Binary modulation is a type of Passband technique. Ithas 3 types, A,

PSK. Transmits bitof for every
symbol.

·
M-ary modulation is where more than one bit
can be transmitted for
every period. (e.g. QPSK, MPSK, M-FSk,aAM)

(i) Amplitude shift

keying (on-ofeneying (ASK) => Eudidean distance -

b
·
Amplitude ofcarrier
signal is changed wort digital modulating signal

E I Eblos2f.t
Ex-signal energy/bit S, (t) =

-> for bitl

Tp -
bitduration
S,(t) 0
=

for
=> bit o

Dacks:
-

can suffer due noise

to
Ne.Error probability depends on Euclidean distanceblu z
signal points

(ii) Frequency shift

keying (FSK) Euclidean
=> distance
Eb
=

·
Here, symbol 1 and o have dire. carrier frequencies, bit''=> freg.
i.e: 7,
bit"-> freq. 82
· Hence
using these frequencies, we diffrentiate bit120.

S,(t) Acoszifa,t=>
=

for bit,

S2(t) Acoszifict->
=

for bit o

Hence,
5,(t)
cos2f,t
=

bit
-

basis function
Ne: Orthogonal
S(H)=
s cosstifet -> bito

Pct
loszif,t
=

FSK Generation:

·
outputofencoder is thx for bit' and 0 for bit 's'

· When bit" is transmitted, upper channel is on with oscillator freg. 7. For bit ', lower channel is on, osc.

freq. is fa
Reception
-

8 x threshold
=
-

the bit
for deciding
Generation
-
(ii) Phase shift
keying (PSK) Euclidean distance -> 2Eb

·
phase of carrier
signal is changed w.r.t
digital modulating signal

Phase shifted
is 0 180 deg. depending which
symbol transmitted
·
or on is

5,(t)
bCOS2f,t=EbPlt) => for bit
=

S(H) =
-

cos2ft=- EPH) - for bit o

↳ orthonormal basis function

PSK Generation:

·
Outputofencoder is + Ex for bit's and p for bit o

r
8-> X
(threshold)

-
Generation
-
Reception
-

te.For Ask Generation, replace this with lear

Enwoder. Acception is the same.

Eudidean
* when ED
gets larger, probability of error is
lower. diese

Differential Phase shift

keying (DPSK)

↳ Coherent detection is where reciever has exact knowledge of carrier's wave reference

↳ Non-coherentdetection is where knowledge of carrier wave's phase not required

·
helps reduce
complexity, butatcost of performance

· DPSS is 'non-coherentversion Binary

of PSK

Witte
-
feature ofDPSK: eliminates need for synchronizing reciever transmitter by combining two fractions at

transmitter itself.

(i) Differential encoding ofbinary inputsequence.

⑳?
(ii) PsK ofencoded
sequence
 Generation
- Reception
-

Quadrature Phase shift

keying (QPSK)

· In
binary PSK, symbols O and I are diff. by 0 and 180

In QPSU, four differentinfo. be transmitted time

symbol
·
can ata since size =
2.

SCH
Ecs[2xx
=

+ (zi
+ -

1)i 1,2,3,4
=

cos(arcs[i-Din] sin(ant,Hsin[(2i -) in]

=>

Hence,

CoS2If,t
3
d,(H) =

function
orthogonal basis

da(t) =

sinzuf,t

-EcossifiI
...
Signal vectors

->
-

Esin(zi-1) in

Signal Space diagram

-> ofQRSK

Generation Reception
-
binary ending:

· ISI -

intersymbol interference => undesirable phenomenon;degrades the system.

·
For a channel of B.W."W'nz, by controlling ISI in a controlled manner we can

achieve a
signalling rate equal to Nyquistrate ofzw. => Correlative coding
· Duo
binary -> 'doubling' oftransmission
capacity ofa straightbinary sys.

R M

12
.............
↑

I
2
L
i 2TD
>f

i
-
I 0
-

25b

12 ........

L >I
0 2

(a) Magnitude response (b) Phase response

Same 0;different 1
=
=

- M
-
-

↓
-

↓
->
add+1 for I

-
1 for O

↳ If 21
+
- 2 0
=

0 =>
I

esymbol erence (ISI):

outsuch thatit with adjacentpulses.

· Occurs when pulse spreads interferes
 · Ifrectangular pulses are filtered improperly, pulse will spread into adjacent

time slots and cause

I

Causes for I:
-

·
Timing Inaccuracies
t
B.W1
· Insufficient bandwidth => ISI

·
Amplitude distortion overcome
-

by amp equalizers

· Phase distortion overcome

=>
by phase equalizers

Solutions for
- -
mating :
1. Use a line code thatis absolutely band limited. reg.
I Sinc pulse shape

2. Use a line code thatis zero

during adjacentsample instants

·
no overlaps atsample instants

· can use certain pulse shapes avoid overlapping

to

C Raisedthingoor)
3. Equalizers

Quture Phase shift keying motion (QPSK)

·
We can transmittwo bits simultaneously, i.e. h differentinfo. is possible
100 or 10 (1)

QPSK 10 => Ty 01-> sily

Binary PSK 0 =>
·
·
0
=

=>

1 180°
=> 00 => 3in 11 => T44

Formula:

cos[26,t+(2i-D E) I eat 3
two basic
-

as
S,CH
E
=

of QPSK

""
⑪
L I -izn

↓
Message points
(a) Ok

any
aeration:

I
-

itnerarticlener
I

-> QPSK signal

-

-
-

Y(t) Sinekt,t
-

(b) as
Reception

ofatener
7

Recieved I Y,(t)

-
Approvalin the

I
Signal
I
x2
->

Y(t)

Eye pattern:

To
study ISI; produced by synchronized superposition of distorted waveforms
appearing
·

atoutputof the filter.

recieving
ISI 20
10g
=

·
Recieved wave => vertical deflection plates

E 3
h degraded

I
vertical
opening
=

· Sawtooth wave I) horizontal deflection plates

H ideal vertical opening
=

he

-with
him
ofeyeopeningtells
internal over

Rate
=> ofclosure of
eye determines severity ofsystem.

Heightof
=>
eye opening defines mover
noise

↳
 wh
Serie ng Them:

Amountofinformation
· ( -

probabability
I

of occurence
-It(a)
I
·
Entropy -> measure of
arg. information per source
symbol

m(s) Ein109(a)
-

↑
·
Coding Efficiency (n) =

4 I Arg.code
=
word length
-
L-

-Pur
Elk:length of binary code

(i) Shannon -

Fano coding: assigned symbol

to

-
·
small no. of bits -> higher probable events

large ofbits->
no. smaller
probable events
7

1.

2.
Arrange probabilities

Splitinto groups and

in decreasing
assign bit'
order.

and bit",
E : Redundancy -
1-n

3. Repeatuntil be
can't splitanymore
groups

2. Calculate Entropy, Arg. code word length and

Coding Efficiency.

(ii) Huffman Coding:

·
provides manimum efficiency. Also called 'Optimum code'
1. Sortin
decreasing order

2.
Assign lowest2 probabilities' and

3. Take their sum and rearrange with other probabilities

2. Repeatuntil every probability has a codeword

* codeword is
taken, going from left.
rightto Follow the dotted lines.
(iii) Loding (Lempel-ziv):
·
prior knowledge of probabilities notknown.

·
produces good performance

(iv) S-Hartley Threm:

· Channel capacity Blogz (1+
= S/N) bits/sec
Note:
(*) power
=

white
spectral density
noise
of

↳ s signal
=

power

↳ N Noise
=
->
(N 6B)
=

↳ B Bandwidth
=

Econtrol
codes: -> Block codes

↳ convolutional codes

Unique feature:Presence/Absence of in the encoders

memory

Discrete the form

binary symbols
·
source info. in
generates of

channel encoded data

· encoder accepts message bits and adds
redundancy, hence producing ata

higher bit rate

· Channel decoder exploits the

redundancy decide
to which message bit was
actually transmitted.

* combined goal ofencoder a decoder is to minimize channel noise.

Barcodes:
·
To generate (n,n) block code, channel encoder accepts information as successive k-bit

blocks

· Each block is added with a redundancy of in-n' bits, overall forming a block code

ofi' bits (n(k)

· n-bit block is the codeword; n is the block length ofthe code.

Convolutional Coders:
-

·
Generates redundantbits using modulo -
2 conventions

When blocks,
bits serially rather in large convolutional
coding is
preferred
·
in
message come

Cyclic
-
Codes:

Advantage:easy to encode

1. Linearity property -> sum of

any 2 codewords is a codeword

2. Cyclic property cyclic shift of codeword is codeword

->

any a

Note: If
-
message
R

by x"
-

1. polynomial m(x) signal 1001,

Multiply message =

2. Divide by generator polynomial g2x);obtain remainder b(x) m(x) 1 0x

= + 0x2 1x
+ +

3. Add b(x) to
mix). x*-*, giving us code polynomial ((x) to
right!

5 (entra content)

yarept:
· Divides each geographical area into small regions called cells

· Within a cell all communications are performed using a bandwidth.

(A, Az), (B, Br)

velfrea.
Each frequency;
Spectre
·
pair of cells . . . use the same

A cluster is a
group ofcells within which no
frequency is reused.
 S
Spectrum
modulation:

·
means of transmission in which data occupies a bandwidth excessive of the min. B.W.

needed for transmission.

Spectrum spreading achieved before code. The used

transmission through
·
is a same code is

to the original signal.

in the reciever for de-spreading the recieved signal so recover

Aerations
↳ provides multi-path rejection

↳ multiple access communication;where multiple users are

required use
to a
single channel.

Precise
sequence (PN Sequence)
coded sequence of Is and Os with certain autocorrelation
·
properties

Usually periodic;Is and Os

sequence repeatafter given period
·
a

·
PN
sequence generated using a feedback shiftregister with mflip flops,and logic
circuit

* Ifperiod =
2m", itis called manimal length sequence/m -sequence

circuitwith
·
Ifwe replace logic a modulo-2 adder, we get ML sequence generator

Here, n 3,k
=
1
=
⑱m 3
=

... [3, 1] ML sequence

->
generator

Properties of ML sequence:

1. Balance Run 3. Correlation

property 2.
property property
 spread spectrum (DSSS)
Requence
·
spreads bandwidth of
info-bearing signal (data) where we use PN sequence as the

spreading sequence/signal.

data with the PN chopped into

we
multiply Sequence, where each info. bitis
·
our
up

small time increments, called chips.

·
We then convertour baseband signal to a more suitable form for transmission

modulation scheme.
using any

Transmitter Reciever
- -

Processing Gain:
gain in SNR

m
Tb bitduration
=>

Tc chip
=> duration

of
·
Jamming Margin:Arg. probability
error for

(S(p) a coherentPSK

, pa =

Processing gain

ency
Hop spread spectrum:

·
spread spectrum in which carrier hops from one free to
another.

8 Common modulation used

format is M-ary FSK

hopping
Frequency
Rs ->

integral multiple of Rh Transmitter

- -

transmitted in hop
multiple symbols
· one

#Frequency
hopping

Riegral
multiple Rs of

Reciever
· carrier will hop frequencies multiple times -

during transmission of one

symbol
 Synchronization
- -

--
·
systems (e.g. FSK) need bitsynchronizers
coherent to allow signal recovery atreciever

-
·
erentsystems, additionally, require phase and carrier
synchronization

Acquisition coarse
->
synchronization

Tracking fine
->
synchronization

ple
Access

·
Technique thatallows multiple users use
to the same communication channel atthe same time.

·
Permits the
sharing of resources of a channel with a large no. of users

im
Division Multiple Access (TDMA)

· Each user is allowed transmit

to
only within alloted specific time intervals

· TDMA
requires a centralized node to send outperiodic reference bursts

which creates frames

· These frames are divided into time slots, each of which can be

occupied by an user.
Frame

-
Reference -> IIII.) I 1 I
Ts
burst Time slot

· Due to traffic burstand delays between users, guard time needs to be

presentto

accountfor these problems and preventoverlapping

· Hence, each time slot is

longer than itneeds to be, avoiding overlap incase

of traffic bursts.

ey
Division Multiple Access (FDMA)

· Each user transmits with no limitations in time, but

only using a specific portion of

the available bandwidth

expensive and complicated band

delays
passquiteder
of in TDMA
A overcomes problems
-
 vision Multiple Access (CDMA)
A

which is used encode data

· user is
assigned a
unique code sequence to the
signal

·
Reciever, knowing the unique code, decodes itand retrieves the original information

B.W. ofcoded data data

·

-
signal (> B.w.
original
of
signal

CCDMAfollows spread spectrum modulation) -

GMA
2 FDMA

·
GSM uses both TDMA C FDMA techniques.

· divides
FDMA the assigned 25 MHZ B.W into 124 carrier fregs., each ofwhich are

further divided 8
into time slots
by TDMA.

N
channels
-

om2= 125 carrier free. (In practice,

we use
e
the

of
users/channel
may
N
no.

=
users
= 8
122 x
in a channel =users

asset.)
· For 890 to
als and

downlink freg. 2) 935 960

to MHZ

atems
for Mobile Communications
(
·
Digital cellular comm.
system

architecture.
1. Mobile station (MS)
· Mobile equipment (ME)
· Subscriber Identity module (SIM)

2. Base station subsystem (BSs)

(Freg.hopping). Base transiever station (BTS)

Assigns freq)
Base station controller (BSC)
2 time slots

3. Network
switching subsystem (rss)
(MSC) Authentication Center (Auc)
Mobile
switching
· ·
center
-

intruders in air interface

↳ protects against
(permanent Home location register (MLR)
register (EIR)
Equidentity
a

(Temporary) a Visitor location register (XLR) ↳ used to track handsets