EXPERIMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY FINAL EXAM REVIEWER (Tugon: Thank you, bosxzsxs Monica)

TRUE EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH Pretest-Posttest Control Group will limit

DESIGNS
PRETEST-POSTTEST CONTROL GROUP
● Also called the pretest-posttest
randomized experimental design,
● A type of experiment where
participants get randomly assigned
to either receive an intervention (the
treatment group) or not (the control
group).
● The outcome of interest is measured
2 times, once before the treatment
group gets the intervention— the
pretest — and once after it — the
posttest.
the effects of:
1. Selection Bias
2. Maturation
3. History
4. Testing
5. Regression to the mean
POSTTEST-ONLY CONTROL GROUP
● Involves at least two groups, one
of which does not receive treatment
or intervention.
● Data are then gathered on the
outcome measure following the
treatment or intervention

3 MAJOR CHARACTERISTICS OF
PRETEST-POSTTEST CONTROL GROUP
1. Random Assignment - The study
participants are randomly assigned
to either the treatment or the control
● The outcome of interest is only
group (this random assignment can
measured once after the intervention
occur either before or after the
has taken place in order to assess
pretest).
its impact. Participants are randomly
2. Pretest and Posttest - Both groups
randomized to either receive an
are exposed to the same conditions
intervention or not.
except for the intervention: the
● This design differs from the
treatment group receives the
pretest-posttest randomized
intervention, whereas the control
controlled trial by having no
group does not.
measurements taken before the
3. Control Group - The outcome is
intervention.
measured simultaneously for both
● It eliminates the threat to internal
groups at 2 points in time — the
validity of pre-testing by eliminating
pretest and the posttest.
the pre-test.
● May also decrease the problem of
experimental mortality by shortening
the length of the study (no pre-test)
EXPERIMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY FINAL EXAM REVIEWER (Tugon: Thank you, bosxzsxs Monica)

SOLOMON FOUR-GROUP DESIGN

(Truest Experimental Design)
● A research method developed by
Richard Solomon in 1949.
● A type of experiment where
participants get randomly assigned
to either 1 of 4 groups that differ in
whether the participants receive the
treatment or not, and whether the
outcome of interest is measured
once or twice in each group.
● Sometimes used in social science,
psychology and medicine.
● It can be used if there are concerns IMPORTANT NOTES REGARDING THE
that the treatment might be SOLOMON FOUR-GROUP DESIGN:
sensitized by the pre-test. ● Random Assignment
● The outcome of interest is
measured simultaneously across
groups.
● The design is asymmetric: Only
participants in groups 1 and 2
receive pretest measurements (1A
and 2A in the figure above),
however, all participants receive
posttest measurements (1B, 2B, 3B
and 4B).

ADVANTAGES OF THE SOLOMON

FOUR-GROUP DESIGN:
The first 2 groups of this design resemble
the pretest-posttest control group design.
And therefore, the first 2 groups are
enough to control threats to internal validity
such as the effects of:
1. Selection Bias
2. History
3. Maturation
4. Mortality
5. Regression to the mean
6. Instrumentation
EXPERIMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY FINAL EXAM REVIEWER (Tugon: Thank you, bosxzsxs Monica)

WHAT MAKES THE SOLOMON

FOUR-GROUP DESIGN BETTER THAN A
STANDARD TWO-GROUP DESIGN?
● Control threats to internal validity:
Such as bias and confounding.
Something that a standard
(two-group) experimental design can
control.
● Control threats to external TWO-FACTOR ( 2X3 )FACTORIAL
validity: Such as pretest DESIGN
sensitization. Something that a ● It represents two levels of the first
standard (two-group) experimental factor and three levels of the
design cannot control. second, with a total of six treatment
conditions.

FACTORIAL RESEARCH DESIGN

● A strong experimental design in
which two or more independent
variables, at least one of which is
manipulated, are simultaneously
studied to determine their
(The Structure of a Two-Factor Experiment
independent and interactive
Where Alcohol Consumption (the 1st factor
effects on the dependent variable.
or factor A) and Caffeine Consumption (the
● Independent variables are
2nd factor or factor B) are Manipulated in
commonly called "factors"
the Same Study)
THREE-FACTOR ( 2X3X2 ) FACTORIAL
Factorial Design Variations
DESIGN
● It represents two, three, and two
2X2 FACTORIAL DESIGN
levels of each of the factors,
● The simplest factorial design.
respectively, for a total of twelve
● It represents two levels of the first
conditions.
factor and two levels of the second,
with a total of four treatment
conditions.
EXPERIMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY FINAL EXAM REVIEWER (Tugon: Thank you, bosxzsxs Monica)

TYPES OF EFFECTS needed for a separate group of 30

participants in each condition
MAIN EFFECTS ADVANTAGE:
● It refers to the influence of a single 1. A between subjects design
independent variable on the completely avoids any problem from
dependent variable. order effects because each score is
● It ignores the effects of all other completely independent of every
independent variables other score. In general,
INTERACTION EFFECTS between-subjects designs are best
● The effect of one independent suited to situations in which a lot of
variable on the dependent variable participants are available, individual
depends on the level of another differences are relatively small.
independent variable
● Interaction means “a difference in WITHIN SUBJECT FACTORIAL DESIGN
differences” ● A single group of individuals
participates in all of the separate
3 TYPES OF FACTORIAL DESIGN treatment conditions.

BETWEEN SUBJECT FACTORIAL

DESIGN
● It is possible to conduct a factorial
study that uses only a
between-subjects design, meaning
that each of the treatment
conditions will have its own set of
participants.
DISADVANTAGE:
1. A between-subjects design may call
for a large number of participants
which is a specific disadvantage
for a factorial study. A 2x4 factorial
design, for instance, contains 8
different treatment conditions. A
total of 240 people (8x30) are
DISADVANTAGE:
1. A particular disadvantage for a
factorial study is the number of
different treatment conditions that
each participant must undergo. In
a 2x4 design, for example, each
participant must be measured in
eight different treatment
conditions. Because there are so
many different treatments, it can
take a long time to complete each
one, which raises the risk that
participants will give up and leave
the research early (participant
attrition)
EXPERIMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY FINAL EXAM REVIEWER (Tugon: Thank you, bosxzsxs Monica)
ADVANTAGE:
1. They require only one group of
participants and eliminate or greatly
reduce the problems associated with
individual differences.
MIXED FACTORIAL DESIGN
● The benefits or ease of a
between-subjects design frequently
apply to one element, but a second
component is better studied using a
within-subjects approach. If the
design is represented as a matrix,
with one element determining the
rows and the other defining the
columns, the mixed design has a
separate group for each row with
each group participating in each of
the different columns.
Advantages of Using Factorial
Research Design
● It allows researchers to observe the
influence of two or more variables
acting and interacting
simultaneously.
● It allows researchers to determine
whether a connection exists
between variables and at the same
time reduces the possibility of
experimental error and confounding
variable
● It simplifies the process and
makes the research cheaper.
Disadvantages of Using Factorial
Research Design
● The biggest drawback is how
challenging it is to explore with more
than two factors or numerous
levels. A factorial design must be
specifically formulated because a
mistake at one of the levels or in the
operational definition in general
could endanger a lot of work.
QUASI-EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
DESIGN
MULTIPLE GROUP DESIGN
● Is an experimental design that has 3
or more conditions/groups of the
same independent variable.
● Used when data is collected from
groups with similar characteristics
● Used when your independent
variable has three or more
levels/groups/conditions that need
to be compared
● Used when you have a control group
and two or more experimental
groups (a control group is not
necessary)
DIfferences from two-group design:
● a two-group design only has two
levels to the independent variable,
whereas a multiple-group design
exceeds that
● a two-group design whether or not
the independent variable had an
effect, whereas the multiple-group
design can show the effects of the
independent variable by showing
the results of different levels
EXPERIMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY FINAL EXAM REVIEWER (Tugon: Thank you, bosxzsxs Monica)
ADVANTAGES:
1. Increased statistical power -
allows more comparisons between
groups, which can help detect
smaller effects
2. Reduced error variance - helps to
control for individual differences
that might affect the outcome of the
study
3. Ability to test interactions - can
test interactions between
independent variables to other
factors like individual differences or
situational variables
4. Improved control over extraneous
variables - researchers can
manipulate the independent variable
across multiple groups while holding
other variables constant
5. Enhanced generalizability - allows
for comparisons across different
groups and populations
DISADVANTAGES:
1. Increased complexity - more
complex than two-group designs,
which makes it more challenging to
plan and execute studies
2. Increased cost and time - the
design requires more participants
and resources, which can increase
cost and time needed to conduct the
study
3. Higher risk of experimental error -
more groups and comparisons has
higher risk of encountering type I
errors (false positives) and type II
errors (false negatives)
4. Difficulty in selecting appropriate
groups - obtaining groups similar
enough in characteristics but also
different enough to test the research
hypothesis could prove a challenge
5. Difficulty in interpreting results -
design can make it more difficult to
interpret results, particularly if there
are multiple factors influencing the
study's outcome
THREATS
1. Selection-History Threat
2. Selection-Maturation Threat
3. Selection-Testing Threat
4. Selection-Instrumentation Threat
5. Selection-Mortality Threat
6. Selection-Regression Threat
TIME SERIES RESEARCH DESIGN
● Taking measures for an extended
period before and after an
intervention
● Has a series of observation for each
participant before the treatment and
a series of observations after the
treatment
● 01 02 03 04 T 05 06 07 08
● 0's represent observations before
and after intervention
● The No. of measures can vary and
it's not limited to 4.
● The No. of measures pre- and
post-intervention may not be the
same.
EXPERIMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY FINAL EXAM REVIEWER (Tugon: Thank you, bosxzsxs Monica)

REGRESSION
● A statistical method that allows
modeling relationships between a
dependent variable and one or more
independent variables.
REGRESSION ANALYSIS
● A regression analysis makes it
possible to infer or predict another
variable on the basis of one or more
variables.
ADVANTAGES OF TIME SERIES
RESEARCH DESIGN
● It allows the researcher to evaluate
trends, predictable patterns of
events that occur with the passing of
time.
● Though no control group here, it
checks for threats to internal
validity(maturation,
instrumentation, history )
THREATS TO QUASI-EXPERIMENTAL
DESIGN
● Due to non-equivalent groups, TWO GOALS
individual differences between 1. MEASUREMENT OF THE
groups create confounding variables INFLUENCE OF ONE OR MORE
( IQs, SES, motivational level, VARIABLES ON ANOTHER
attitude, age habits ... for alternative VARIABLE
explanation) ● Do the educational level of
● We identified the influences of the parents and the place of
outside events as history effects. residence affect the future
When history effects differ from one educational attainments of
group to another they are called children?
differential history effects. 2. PREDICTION OF A VARIABLE BY
ONE OR MORE OTHER
VARIABLES
● How long does a patient stay
in the hospital?
EXPERIMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY FINAL EXAM REVIEWER (Tugon: Thank you, bosxzsxs Monica)

TYPES OF REGRESSION ANALYSIS

1. SIMPLE LINEAR REGRESSION -
Uses only one independent
variable to predict the dependent
variable.

2. MULTIPLE LINEAR REGRESSION

- Several independent variables
are used to predict the dependent
variable.

3. LOGISTIC REGRESSION - Used

when having categorical dependent
variable.
NOTE: It is important to remember that
when dealing with nominal or ordinal
independent variables, the variables often
only have two characteristics, like gender
with male and female, and that if you have
more than two characteristics, you must
have generated with what are known as
dummy variables.
EXPERIMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY FINAL EXAM REVIEWER (Tugon: Thank you, bosxzsxs Monica)

SCATTER PLOTS & REGRESSION

● A Scatter Analysis is used when
you need to compare two data sets
against each other to see if there is
a relationship. Scatter plots are a
way of visualizing the relationship;
by plotting the data points, you get a
scattering of points on a graph.

● The regression line is a trend line we

use to model a linear trend that we
see in a scatterplot, but realize that
some data will show a relationship
that isn’t necessarily linear.

● Since the line in the upper left graph

is directed upward, there is a
positive linear relationship there,
whereas the line in the lower left
graph is directed downward, so
there is a negative linear
relationship there.
● Due to the weakly grouped data, the
upper right graph then displays a
moderate linear relationship. While
in the lower right graph, there is no ● Whether the data has a strong or
correlation because it has no weak relationship of any kind can
direction or pattern. also be affected by the existence of
outliers, or lack thereof. Remember
that an outlier is a data point that
lies far away from the trend line.
EXPERIMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY FINAL EXAM REVIEWER (Tugon: Thank you, bosxzsxs Monica)
ADVANTAGES
1. Regression models are easy to
understand as they are built upon
basic statistical principles, such as
correlation and least-square error.
2. The strength (or the goodness of fit)
of the regression model is measured
in terms of the correlation
coefficients, and other related
statistical parameters that are well
understood.
DISADVANTAGES
1. As the number of variables
increases, the reliability of the
regression models decreases. The
regression models work better if you
have a small number of variables.
2. Regression models cannot work
properly if the input data has errors
(that is poor quality data). If the data
preprocessing is not performed well
to remove missing values or
redundant data or outliers or
imbalanced data distribution, the
validity of the regression model
suffers.
5 PRIMARY THREATS TO INTERNAL
VALIDITY OF A MULTIPLE REGRESSION
STUDY ARE:
1. OMITTED VARIABLES - Occurs
when a statistical model leaves out
one or more relevant variables.
2. MISSPECIFICATION OF
FUNCTIONAL FORM - A regression
suffers from misspecification of the
functional form when the functional
form of the estimated regression
model differs from the functional
form of the population regression
function.
3. ERRORS IN VARIABLES - When
independent variables are measured
imprecisely, we speak of
errors-in-variables bias. This bias
does not disappear if the sample
size is large.
4. SAMPLE SELECTION - The
sampling process influences the
availability of data and when there is
a relation of this sampling process to
the dependent variable that goes
beyond the dependence on the
regressors.
5. SIMULTANEOUS CAUSALITY - So
far we have assumed that the
changes in the independent variable
X are responsible for changes in the
dependent variable Y. When the
reverse is also true, we say that
there is simultaneous causality
between X and Y.
REPEATED MEASURES DESIGN
● Repeated measures design is a
design that consists of the same
subjects that take part in all
circumstances of the independent
variable.
➔ This means that every
condition of the experiment
consists of an identical group
of participants. Repeated
measures design is also
referred to as within groups,
or within-subjects design
● In a repeated measures design, all
participants experience all levels of
the independent variables (IVs).
➔ In other words, participants
are one group and participate
in all study conditions.
Typically, researchers
EXPERIMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY FINAL EXAM REVIEWER (Tugon: Thank you, bosxzsxs Monica)

compare the average results target when it is repeated in the

of the conditions before and second test. There is a risk that
after exposure to the IV participants will change some aspect
of their behavior in response to
ADVANTAGES knowing the research hypothesis.
1. Greater statistical power:
Repeated measures analysis can REPEATED MEASURES DESIGN
have much more power because EXAMPLE
they control the differences between
subjects that cause variability.
2. Requires fewer subjects: Because
of greater statistical power, a
repeated measures design can use
a lesser number of subjects to
identify the desired outcome size.
Additional sample size reductions
are attainable because each subject
● Choosing five participants and
is incorporated with various
testing them for their response to
treatments.
three different cancer drugs. Each
3. Faster and cheaper: A fewer
participant in the study would try all
number of subjects are required to
three drugs and be evaluated after
take part, be trained, and be
each one.
compensated to finish a complete
experiment.
THREATS TO REPEATED MEASURES
4. Evaluate results over time:
DESIGN
Repeated measures designs can
1. Statistical Regression
follow results over time, for instance,
2. Maturation
learning or fatigue. With this
3. Testing Bias
circumstance, it's generally
4. History
recommended to test the same
subject various times instead of
CONCLUSION
testing different subjects at a certain
time for each.
DISADVANTAGES In repeated measures design, the same
1. ORDER EFFECTS - It means that subjects are used for multiple tests. Each
tasks completed in one condition person can be better understood to place
their individualized response to each
may affect task performance in
experimental condition into their distinct
another. conditions. Dependent samples are used
2. DEMAND CHARACTERISTICS - in repeated measures designs because a
The first test could induce demand single observation can provide
characteristics because it allows information about another observation.
participants to guess the survey's Repeated measures design has several
EXPERIMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY FINAL EXAM REVIEWER (Tugon: Thank you, bosxzsxs Monica)

3. There is no control group; all study

benefits such as greater statistical power,
requiring fewer subjects, being faster and
cheaper, and being able to evaluate
results over time. Various types of
repeated measures design need to be
taken into consideration when
experimenting. Repeated measures
ANOVA is one design to be considered if
data needs to be differentiated between
one study or various studies. As with any
design, there are benefits and challenges
to overcome.
SEPARATE-SAMPLE
PRETEST-POSTTEST DESIGN
● A type of quasi-experiment where
the outcome of interest is measured
once before and once after an
intervention, on separate groups of
participants who were randomly
chosen.
● The difference between the pretest
and posttest measurements will be
used to calculate the impact of the
intervention.
participants receive the intervention.
ADVANTAGES
1. Avoids testing bias - The pretest
cannot affect the posttest, since
different groups of participants are
measured each time.
2. Avoids regression to the mean -
This eliminates their inclusion in the
study based on their unusual pretest
scores and prevents the regression
problem because the posttest
participants are not the same as
those assessed on the pretest.
3. Avoids selection bias - The two
groups were made comparable
through randomization.
LIMITATIONS OF SEPARATE SAMPLE
PRETEST-POSTTEST DESIGN
1. History
2. Maturation
3. Mortality
4. Instrumentation

EQUIVALENT TIME SAMPLES

RESEARCH DESIGN
● A quasi-experimental method
where the intervention is
administered several times and the
intervention is taken away several
times.
CHARACTERISTICS OF THE ● Consists of a long series of
SEPARATE-SAMPLE PRETEST observations during which a
POSTTEST DESIGN treatment is alternately administered
1. Different groups provided the data and then withdrawn.
for the pretest and posttest. ● Involves the use of a measurement
2. To ensure that the results of the followed by intervention followed by
pretest and posttest are comparable, measurement etc
participants are randomly assigned ● The investigator alternates a
to each group. treatment with a posttest measure.
EXPERIMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY FINAL EXAM REVIEWER (Tugon: Thank you, bosxzsxs Monica)

● Select participants for groups

Measure or observation Measure or
observation Intervention Measure or
observation.
● The time period in between
administration of the treatment and
taking away the treatment is called a
"washout" period.
● Equivalent time sample designs are
powerful designs because each
participant serves as their own
control.
● Repeatedly introduce the treatment
condition, alternated with periods of
observations without the treatment.
T = Treatment, NT = No Treatment,
M1 = Measurement 1, M2 =
Measurement 2, M3 = Measurement
3, M4 = Measurement 4

THREATS TO VALIDITY
1. Maturation
2. Mortality
3. Multiple Time Interference
4. Selection of subject