Ch. 2 - Molecules and Solutions

Chapter 2- Molecules
and Solutions
Secondary IV Science and Technology
Kuper Academy
What is a molecule?
A molecule is a group of two or more chemically bonded atoms.
● Noble gases are stable and do not react with other atoms because the
outermost shell containing the valence electrons is “satisfied”.
What is a molecule?
The Octet Rule:
● Atoms bond with other atoms to acquire an electron configuration
similar to that of the nearest noble gas.
○ For the first orbit, that means 2 electrons (duet rule), for all the
others, 8 electrons (octet rule)
Ions
In general atoms are neutrally charged (same number of protons as
electrons). When an atom gives up or gains an electron it becomes electrically
charged and we call it an ion.
● Metals will lose one or more electron so that they have a similar
electron configuration to the nearest noble gas.
○ Example: sodium (Na)
Ions
● Non-metals will gain electrons so that they can have a similar electron
configuration as the nearest noble gas.
Ions
● When an ion is formed, the number of protons always remains the same
(characteristic property).
● Atoms that gain electrons have more electrons than protons, thus
become negative ions.
● Atoms that lose electrons have fewer electrons than protons, thus
become positive ions.
Ions
● Ions will have a + or - charge that corresponds to the number of electrons
that they lost/ gained.
● A positive ion and negative ion will attract each other to form a neutral
molecule.
● Example: sodium and fluorine
Ions
● Ions will have a + or - charge that corresponds to the number of electrons
that they lost/ gained. This does follow a general trend.
● For example, if Beryllium lost two electrons, it’s ion would be Be 2+.
● If Phosphorus gained 3 electrons, it’s ion would be P 3-.
Ions
Solutions
● A Mixture is at least two different substances combine without undergoing a
chemical reaction.
○ Ex. water and sand
● A Solution is a homogeneous mixture composed of a solute that is
dissolved in a solvent. The components cannot be distinguished, even with
the aid of a light microscope.
○ Ex. Tap water is a solution of water with dissolved salts.
○ Ex. Pure air is a solution of gases where nitrogen acts as a solvent for the
other component gases.
Solutions
● Solute: Substance being dissolved, the minor component.
● Solvent: Substance doing the dissolving, the major component.
● Aqueous Solution: Solution where the solvent is water.
Properties of Solutions
Solubility is maximum amount of solute that can be
dissolved in a certain volume of solvent.
● Solubility is influenced by temperature, the nature

of the solute and the nature of the solvent.
● A substance that does not dissolve is insoluble.
Concentration is the amount solute in a given amount of solution.
● The concentration of a solution can be increased by adding more solute or by

evaporating some of the solvent, usually water.
● By adding more solvent, it will dilute the solution and result in a lower
concentration.
Concentration can be measured in g/L, %m/V, %m/m, %V/V
● Concentration in g/L
○ The mass of the solute is measured in grams (g).
○ The volume of the solution is measured in liters (L).
○ To calculate concentration:
Concentration in g/L
Ex. What is the concentration of a solution containing 2 g of salt in 500 mL of
solution?
● Concentration in %m/v
○ This is the measure of the mass of
solute in 100 mL of solution
expressed as a percentage.
● Concentration in %V/V
○ Volume of solute in 100 mL of
solution, expressed as a
percentage.
● Concentration in %m/m
○ Mass of solute in 100g of solution,
expressed as a percentage.
● Concentration in ppm
○ This measurement is used when the amount of
solute in a solution is extremely small.
○ The concentration is expressed in parts per
million (ppm).
○ For solutions, 1 ppm represents 1 mg of solute
in 1000 g of solution.
○ In aqueous solutions, 1 ppm represents 1 mg of
solute in 1 litre of solution.
● Pure water does not conduct electricity, but
tap water does.
○ The dissolved salts found in tap water
allow an electric current to flow through
it.
● Electrolytes are substances that, when
dissolved in water, allow an electric current
to flow through the solution.
● The electrical conductivity of a solution is
a measure of its ability to allow an electric
current to flow through it.
Electrolytic Dissociation
● When an electrolyte is dissolved in water, it separates (dissociates) into

ions of opposite charge. The charged ions allow the flow of electricity.
● A non-electrolyte will not conduct when dissolved in water because it
does not dissociate into ions.
● Acids, bases and salts are three important types of electrolytes.
● For an acid, base or salt to exhibit their properties, they must be
dissolved in water.
Types of Electrolytes
● Acids
○ Can be found in citric fruit, soft drinks and
gastric juices in the stomach.
○ Have a characteristic sour taste (think
vinegar or lemon).
○ Make litmus paper turn red.
○ React with metals to produce hydrogen gas.
○ React with carbonates to produce carbon
dioxide gas.
Acids
○ Have formulas that begin with an H and end in a non-metal.
○ They release H+ ions when dissolved in water.
○ Exceptions:
■ Water is not an acid although its formula is H2O.
■ Acetic acid (vinegar) is commonly written as CH3COOH.
● Bases
○ Basic or alkaline solutions have a bitter taste and feel slippery to the
touch.
○ Can be found in cleaning products and heartburn medicine (a
carbonate that neutralizes excess acid in the stomach).
○ Make litmus paper turn blue.
● Bases
○ Have formulas that end in an OH and begin with a metal.
○ They release OH- ions when dissolved in water.
● Salts
○ Do not change the colour of litmus paper.
○ Most are soluble (can dissolve), but not all.
○ Substances produced by the chemical bonding of a metallic ion and
a nonmetallic ion (other than H+ and OH-).
○ AgNO3 is a salt that dissociates in water as follows:
Electrolytic Dissociation
Rules…
● Salts will dissociate (metal + nonmetal)

● Acids will dissociate (H + nonmetal)
● Bases will dissociate (OH + metal)
● Anything that is all nonmetals will not dissociate, with the exception of
acids.
● Anytime there is a subscript, it will become a coefficient of the products.
● Know that Acetic Acid is CH3COOH or HCH3COO.
pH Scale
● A property that distinguishes acids, bases and neutral solutions is their pH.
● The pH of a solution can be determined using an indicator, a substance that
changes colour according to the pH of the solution.
● pH paper (universal indicator paper) changes colour when dipped into the
solution and can be matched up with a colour code.
pH Scale
● Acids and bases cancel or neutralize each other.
○ An acid solution with a pH of 3 can be neutralized by a basic solution.
The amount of base used depends on its pH value.
○ A base with a pH of 8 can neutralize the acid with a pH of 3. However,
if a base with a pH of 10 is used, less will be needed because it is a
stronger base.
The Properties of Solutions
● The pH scale is logarithmic.
○ An acid solution with a pH=4
is 10 times more acidic than a
solution with a pH=5.
○ A basic solution with a pH=9
would be a 100 times weaker
than a base with a pH=11.

Ch. 2 - Molecules and Solutions

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Ch. 2 - Molecules and Solutions

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Chapter 2- Molecules

● Solubility is inﬂuenced by temperature, the nature

● The concentration of a solution can be increased by adding more solute or by

● When an electrolyte is dissolved in water, it separates (dissociates) into

● Salts will dissociate (metal + nonmetal)

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